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Eastern Europe

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Digital rendering ofEurope,focused over the continent's eastern portion

Eastern Europeis a subregion of theEuropean continent.As a largely ambiguous term, it has a wide range of geopolitical, geographical, ethnic, cultural, and socio-economic connotations. Its eastern boundary is marked by theUral Mountains,whilst its western boundary is defined in various ways.[1]Most definitions include the countries ofBelarus,Russia,Ukraine,MoldovaandRomaniawhile less restrictive definitions may also include some or all of theBalkans,theBaltic states,theCaucasusand theVisegrád group.[2][3]

The region represents a significant part ofEuropean culture;the main socio-cultural characteristics of Eastern Europe have historically been defined by the traditions of theEast SlavsandGreeks,as well as by the influence ofEastern Christianityas it developed through theEastern Roman Empireand theOttoman Empire.[4][5]Another definition was created by theCold War,as Europe was ideologically divided by theIron Curtain,with "Eastern Europe" being synonymous withcommunist statesconstituting theEastern Blocunder the influence of theSoviet Union.[5][6][7][8][9][4][10][11]

The term is sometimes considered to be pejorative, through stereotypes about Eastern Europe being inferior (poorer, less developed) toWestern Europe;the termCentral and Eastern Europeis sometimes used for a more neutral grouping.[12][13][14][15][16]

Definitions

[edit]
Traditional cultural borders of Europe: usage recommendation by the Standing Committee on Geographical Names, Germany.[17]

Several definitions of Eastern Europe exist in the early 21st century, but they often lack precision and may be anachronistic. These definitions are debated across cultures and among experts, evenpolitical scientists,[18]as the term has a wide range ofgeopolitical,geographical, cultural, andsocioeconomicconnotations. It has also been described as a "fuzzy" term, as the idea itself of Eastern Europe is in constant redefinition.[19]The solidification of the idea of an "Eastern Europe" dates back chiefly to the (French)Enlightenment.[19]

There are "almost as many definitions of Eastern Europe as there are scholars of the region".[6]A relatedUnited Nationspaper adds that "every assessment of spatial identities is essentially a social andcultural construct".[20]

Geographical

[edit]
European regional grouping according toCIA World Factbook
Eastern Europe here is mainly equivalent to the European part of the formerSoviet Union
Northern Europe
Western Europe
Central Europe
Southwest Europe
Southern Europe
Southeast Europe

While the eastern geographical boundaries of Europe are well defined, the boundary between Eastern andWestern Europeis not geographical but historical, religious and cultural and is harder to designate.

TheUral Mountains,Ural River,and theCaucasus Mountainsare thegeographical land borderof the eastern edge of Europe. E.g.Kazakhstan,which is mainly located inCentral Asiawith the most western parts of it located west of theUral River,also shares a part of Eastern Europe.

In the west, however, the historical andculturalboundaries of "Eastern Europe" are subject to some overlap and, most importantly, have undergone historical fluctuations, which makes a precise definition of the western geographic boundaries of Eastern Europe and thegeographical midpoint of Europesomewhat difficult.

Religious and cultural influence

[edit]
Regions used for statistical processing purposes by theUnited Nations Statistics Division
Eastern Europe[4][11]
Northern Europe
Southern Europe
Western Europe

After theEast–West Schismin 1054, significant parts of Eastern Europe developed cultural unity and resistance to Catholic Western and Central Europe within the framework of theEastern Orthodox Church,Church Slavoniclanguage and theCyrillic alphabet.[21][22][23][24]

A large section ofEastern Europeis formed by countries with dominant Orthodox churches, likeBelarus,Bulgaria,Cyprus,Georgia,Greece,Moldova,Montenegro,North Macedonia,Romania,Russia,Serbia,andUkraine,for instance, as well asArmenia,which is predominantlyArmenian Apostolic.[25][26]TheEastern Orthodox Churchhas played a prominent role in the history and culture of Eastern andSoutheastern Europe.[27]To a lesser degree, forms ofEastern ProtestantismandEastern Catholicismhave also been influential in Eastern Europe. Countries where Eastern Protestantism or Eastern Catholicism hold historical significance include Belarus,Croatia,Greece,Hungary,Lithuania,Poland,Romania, Russia,Slovakia,Sloveniaand Ukraine.[28][29][30]

Map ofEastern Orthodoxy,the borderline of which is creating a border between cultural regions

The schism refers to the historical break of communion andtheologybetween the Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (Catholic) churches. Later developments meant that the divide was no longer solely between Catholic and Orthodox churches. From the 16th century, both Western and Eastern forms of Protestantism began to emerge in Europe.[31][32]Additionally, Eastern Catholic Churches began to spread in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries, following the establishment of theUkrainian Greek Catholic Churchin 1596.[32][33][34][35]However, the concept of Eastern Catholicism itself predates this.[35]

Expansion of Christianity[36][37]

Since the Great Schism of 1054, Europe has been divided betweenCatholic(and later additionallyProtestant) churches in the West, and theEastern Orthodox Christian(often incorrectly labelled "Greek Orthodox" ) churches in the east. Due to this religious cleavage, Eastern Orthodox countries are often associated with Eastern Europe. A cleavage of this sort is, however, often problematic; for example,Greeceis overwhelmingly Orthodox, but is very rarely included in "Eastern Europe", for a variety of reasons, the most prominent being that Greece's history, for the most part, was more influenced by Mediterranean cultures and dynamics.[38]

Cold War (1947–1991)

[edit]
Main articles:Warsaw PactandEastern Bloc

Thefall of the Iron Curtainbrought the end of the Cold War east–west division in Europe,[39]but this geopolitical concept is sometimes still used for quick reference by the media.[40]Another definition was used during the 40 years ofCold Warbetween 1947 and 1989, and was more or less synonymous with the termsEastern BlocandWarsaw Pact.A similar definition names the formerlycommunistEuropeanstatesoutside the Soviet Union as Eastern Europe.[5]

Historians and social scientists generally view such definitions as outdated or relegated.[7][6][8][9][10][4][11]Many former Communist states in this region, although their formal alliances were severed by the fall of the Berlin Wall, continued to feel a moral duty to support states that have not been "liberated from the tyranny of capitalism". This shared duty collapsed when most of the former Soviet satellites abandoned socialism and adopted capitalism.[41]

EuroVoc

[edit]
European sub-regions according toEuroVoc
Central and Eastern Europe
Western Europe
Southern Europe
Northern Europe

EuroVoc,a multilingualthesaurusmaintained by thePublications Office of the European Union,classifies Bulgaria, Croatia, Czechia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia, plus the candidate countries Albania, North Macedonia and Serbia asCentral and Eastern European.[42]

Contemporary developments

[edit]

Baltic states

[edit]
Main article:Baltic states

UNESCO,[43]EuroVoc,National Geographic Society,Committee for International Cooperation in National Research in Demography,and the STW Thesaurus for Economics place the Baltic states inNorthern Europe,whereas the CIA World Factbook places the region in Eastern Europe with a strong assimilation toNorthern Europe.They are members of theNordic-Baltic Eightregional cooperation forum whereas Central European countries formed their own alliance called theVisegrád Group.[44]TheNorthern Future Forum,theNordic Investment Bank,theNordic Battlegroup,theNordic-Baltic Eightand theNew Hanseatic Leagueare other examples ofNorthern Europeancooperation that includes the three countries collectively referred to as the Baltic states.

Caucasus states

[edit]
Main article:Caucasus

TheSouth Caucasusnations ofArmenia,Azerbaijan,andGeorgia[45]are included indefinitionsor histories of Eastern Europe. They are located in the transition zone of Eastern Europe and Western Asia. They participate in theEuropean Union'sEastern Partnershipprogram, theEuronest Parliamentary Assembly,and are members of theCouncil of Europe,which specifies that all three have political and cultural connections to Europe. In January 2002, theEuropean Parliamentnoted that Armenia and Georgia may enter the EU in the future.[46][47]However, Georgia is currently the only South Caucasus nation actively seeking NATO and EU membership.

There are two de factorepublics with limited recognitionin the South Caucasus region that exist under the presence of Russian military. Both states participate in theCommunity for Democracy and Rights of Nations:

Former republics with limited recognition:

Post-Soviet states

[edit]
Main article:Post-Soviet States

SomeEuropean republicsof the formerSoviet Unionare considered a part of Eastern Europe:

Unrecognized states:

Central Europe

[edit]
Main article:Central Europe

The term "Central Europe" is often used by historians to designate states formerly belonging to theHoly Roman Empire,theHabsburg Empire,and thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

In some media, "Central Europe" can thus partially overlap with "Eastern Europe" of the Cold War Era. The following countries are labelled Central European by some commentators, though others still consider them to be Eastern European.[50][51][52]

Southeastern Europe

[edit]
Main articles:Southeast EuropeandBalkans

Some countries in Southeast Europe can be considered part of Eastern Europe. Some of them can sometimes, albeit rarely, be characterized as belonging toSouthern Europe,[4]and some may also be included inCentral Europe.

In some media, "Southeast Europe" can thus partially overlap with "Eastern Europe" of the Cold War Era. The following countries are labelled Southeast European by some commentators, though others still consider them to be Eastern European.[60]

Partially recognized states:

Kazakhstan

[edit]

Despite being frequently classified as aCentral Asiancountry, about 4% ofKazakhstan's territory, situated west of theUral River,geographically lies in Eastern Europe, thus technically making it atranscontinental country.[64][65]

History

[edit]

Classical antiquity and medieval origins

[edit]

Ancient kingdoms of the region includedOrontid Armenia,Caucasian Albania,ColchisandIberia(not to be confused with theIberian PeninsulainWestern Europe), of which the former two were the predecessor states ofArmeniaandAzerbaijanrespectively, while the latter two were the predecessor states of modern-dayGeorgia.These peripheral kingdoms were, either from the start or later on, incorporated into various Iranian empires, including theAchaemenid Persian,Parthian,andSassanid PersianEmpires.[66]Parts of theBalkansand some more northern areas were ruled by theAchaemenid Persiansas well, includingThrace,Paeonia,Macedon,and most of theBlack Seacoastal regions ofRomania,Ukraine,andRussia.[67][68]Owing to the rivalry between theParthian EmpireandRome,and later betweenByzantiumand theSassanid Persians,the Parthians would invade the region several times, although it was never able to hold the area, unlike the Sassanids who controlled most of theCaucasusduring their entire rule.[69]

TheEasternandWestern Roman Empireat the death of Theodosius I in 395. The Western Roman Empire fell in 476 while the Eastern lasted until 1453.

The earliest known distinctions between east and west in Europe originate in the history of theRoman Republic.As the Roman domain expanded, a cultural and linguistic division appeared. The mainlyGreek-speakingeastern provinces had formed the highly urbanizedHellenistic civilization.In contrast, the western territories largely adopted theLatin language.This cultural and linguistic division was eventually reinforced by the later political east–west division of theRoman Empire.The division between these two spheres deepened duringLate Antiquityand theMiddle Agesdue to a number of events. TheWestern Roman Empirecollapsed in the 5th century, marking the start of theEarly Middle Ages.By contrast, the Eastern Roman Empire—theByzantine Empire—had a survival strategy that kept it alive for another 1,000 years.[70]

The rise of theFrankish Empirein the west, and in particular theGreat Schismthat formally dividedEasternandWestern Christianityin 1054, heightened the cultural and religious distinctiveness between Eastern and Western Europe. Much of Eastern Europewas invaded and occupied by the Mongols.[71]

During theOstsiedlung,towns founded underMagdeburg rightsbecame centers of economic development andscattered German settlementswere founded in parts of Eastern Europe.[72]Introduction of German town law is often seen as a second great step after introduction of Christianity at the turn of the first and second millennia. The ensuing modernization of society and economy allowed the increased role played by the rulers ofBohemiaandPoland.[73]

1453 to 1918

[edit]

The conquest of theByzantine Empire,center of theEastern Orthodox Church,by theOttoman Empirein the 15th century, and the gradual fragmentation of theHoly Roman Empire(which had replaced the Frankish empire) led to a change of the importance ofCatholic/Protestantvs.Eastern Orthodoxconcept in Europe. Armour points out thatCyrillic-alphabet use is not a strict determinant for Eastern Europe, where from Croatia to Poland and everywhere in between, the Latin alphabet is used.[74]Greece's status as the cradle of Western civilization and an integral part of the Western world in the political, cultural and economic spheres has led to it being nearly always classified as belonging not to Eastern, but Southern or Western Europe.[75]During the late-sixteenth and early-seventeenth centuries, Eastern Europe enjoyed a relatively highstandard of living.This period is also called the east-central European golden age of around 1600.[76]At the beginning of the 17th century,numeracylevels in eastern Europe were relatively low, although regional differences existed. During the 18th century, the regions began to catch up with western Europe, but did not develop as rapidly. Areas with stronger female autonomy developed more quickly in terms of numeracy.[77]

Serfdom

[edit]

Serfdomwas a prevalent status of agricultural workers until the 19th century. It resembled slavery in terms of lack of freedom, with the distinction that the landowners could not buy and sell serfs separately from the specific plots of land that they were permanently attached to. The system emerged in the 14th and 15th century, the same time it was declining in Western Europe.[78]The climax came in the 17th and 18th century. The early 19th century saw its decline, marked especially by the abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861. Emancipation meant that the ex-serfs paid for their freedom with annual cash payments to their former masters for decades. The system varied widely country by country, and was not as standardized as in Western Europe. Historians, until the 20th century, focused on master-serf economic and labor relations, portraying the serfs as slave-like, passive, and isolated. 20th century scholars downplayed the evils and emphasize the complexities.[79][80]

Interwar period (1919–1939)

[edit]
Further information:International relations (1919–1939)andInterwar era

A major result of the First World War was the breakup of the Russian, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman empires, as well as partial losses to the German Empire. A surge of ethnic nationalism created a series of new states in Eastern Europe, validated by theVersailles Treaty of 1919.Poland was reconstitutedafter thepartitions of the 1790shad divided it between Germany, Austria, and Russia. New countries included Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine (which wassoon absorbedby the Soviet Union), Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. Austria and Hungary had much-reduced boundaries. The new states included sizeable ethnic minorities, which were to be protected according to theLeague of Nationsminority protection regime.[81]Throughout Eastern Europe, ethnic Germans constituted by far the largest single ethnic minority.[82]In some areas, as in theSudetenland,regions ofPoland,and in parts ofSlovenia,German speakers constituted the local majority, creating upheaval regarding demands of self-determination.

Romania, Bulgaria, and Albania likewise were independent. Many of the countries were still largely rural, with little industry and only a few urban centres. Nationalism was the dominant force but most of the countries had ethnic or religious minorities who felt threatened by majority elements. Nearly all became democratic in the 1920s, but all of them (except Czechoslovakia and Finland) gave up democracy during the depression years of the 1930s, in favor of autocratic, strong-man or single-party states. The new states were unable to form stable military alliances, and one by one were too weak to stand up against Nazi Germany or the Soviet Union, which took them over between 1938 and 1945.

World War II and onset of the Cold War

[edit]

Russia ended its participation in the First World War in March 1918 and lost territory, as the Baltic countries and Poland became independent. The region was the main battlefield in the Second World War (1939–45), with German and Soviet armies sweeping back and forth, with millions of Jews and others killed by the Nazis in theGeneralplan Ost,and millions of others killed by disease, starvation, and military action, or executed after being deemed as politically dangerous.[83]During the final stages of World War II the future of Eastern Europe was decided by the overwhelming power of the Soviet Red Army, as it swept the Germans aside. It did not reach Yugoslavia and Albania, however. Finland was free but forced to be neutral in the upcoming Cold War.

Throughout Eastern Europe,German-speaking populationswere expelledto thereduced borders of Germanyin one of the largest ethnic cleansing operations in history.[84]Regions where Germans had formed the local population majority were re-settled with Polish- or Czech-speakers.

The region fell to Soviet control and Communist governments were imposed. Yugoslavia, Albania (and later Romania) had their own Communist regimes independent of Moscow. TheEastern Blocat the onset of the Cold War in 1947 was far behind the Western European countries in economic rebuilding and economic progress. Winston Churchill, in his well-known "Sinews of Peace" address of 5 March 1946, atWestminster CollegeinFulton, Missouri,stressed the geopolitical impact of the "iron curtain":

FromStettinin theBaltictoTriestein theAdriaticaniron curtainhas descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states ofCentraland Eastern Europe:Warsaw,Berlin,Prague,Vienna,Budapest,Belgrade,Bucharest,andSofia.

Pre-1989 division between the "West" (grey) and "Eastern Bloc" (orange) superimposed on current borders:
Russia (the formerRSFSR)
Other countries formerly part of theUSSR
Members of theWarsaw Pact
Other former Communist states not aligned with Moscow

Eastern Bloc

[edit]
Further information:Eastern Bloc

Eastern Europe after 1945 usually meant all the European countries liberated from Nazi Germany and then occupied by the Soviet army. It included theGerman Democratic Republic(also known as East Germany), formed by theSoviet occupation zoneof Germany. All the countries in Eastern Europe adopted communist modes of control by 1948. These countries were officially independent of the Soviet Union, but the practical extent of this independence was quite limited. Yugoslavia and Albania had Communist control that was independent of the Kremlin.

The communists had a natural reservoir of popularity in that they had destroyed the Nazi invaders.[85]Their goal was to guarantee long-term working-class solidarity. The Soviet secret police, theNKVD,working in collaboration with local communists, created secret police forces using leadership trained in Moscow. This new secret police arrived to arrest political enemies according to prepared lists.[86]The national Communists then took power in a gradualist manner, backed by the Soviets in many, but not all, cases. For a while, cooperative non-Communist parties were tolerated.[87]The Communist governments nationalized private businesses, placing them under state ownership, and monitored the media and churches.[87]When dividing up government offices with coalition partners, the Communists took control of the interior ministries, which controlled the local police.[88]They also took control of the mass media, especially radio,[89]as well as the education system.[90]They confiscated and redistributed farmland,[91]and seized control of or replaced the organizations of civil society, such as church groups, sports, youth groups, trade unions, farmers' organizations, and civic organizations. In some countries, they engaged in large-scale ethnic cleansing, moving ethnic groups such as Germans, Poles, Ukrainians and Hungarians far away from where they previously lived, often with high loss of life, to relocate them within the new post-war borders of their respective countries.[92]

Under Stalin's direct instructions, these nations rejected grants from the AmericanMarshall Plan.Instead, they joined theMolotov Plan,which later evolved into theComecon (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance).WhenNATOwas created in 1949, most countries of Eastern Europe became members of the opposingWarsaw Pact,forming a geopolitical concept that became known as theEastern Bloc.This consisted of:

Since 1989

[edit]
2004–2013 EU enlargements
existing members
new members in 2004

Cyprus
Czech Republic
Estonia
Hungary
Latvia
Lithuania
Malta
Poland
Slovakia
Slovenia
existing members
new members in 2007

Bulgaria
Romania
existing members
new members in 2013

Croatia

With thefallof theIron Curtainin 1989, the political landscape of theEastern Bloc,and indeed the world, changed. In theGerman reunification,the Federal Republic of Germany peacefully absorbed the German Democratic Republic in 1990. In 1991,COMECON,theWarsaw Pact,and the Soviet Union were dissolved. Many European nations that had been part of the Soviet Union declared or regained their independence (Belarus,Moldova,Ukraine,as well as theBaltic StatesofLatvia,Lithuania,andEstonia).Czechoslovakiapeacefully separatedinto theCzech RepublicandSlovakiain 1993. Many countries of this region joined theEuropean Union,namelyBulgaria,theCzech Republic,Croatia,Estonia,Hungary,Latvia, Lithuania,Poland,Romania,SlovakiaandSlovenia.The term "EU11 countries" refer to theCentraland Eastern European member states, including theBaltic states,that accessed in 2004 and after: in 2004 the Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Poland, Slovenia, and the Slovak Republic; in 2007 Bulgaria, Romania; and in 2013 Croatia.

The economic changes were in harmony with the constitutional reforms: constitutional provisions on public finances can be identified and, in some countries, a separate chapter deals with public finances. Generally, they soon encountered the following problems: high inflation, high unemployment, low economic growth, and high government debt. By 2000 these economies were stabilized, and between 2004 and 2013 all of them joined the European Union. Most of the constitutions define directly or indirectly the economic system of the countries parallel to the democratic transition of the 1990s: free-market economy (sometimes complemented with the socially [and ecologically] oriented sector), economic development, or only economic rights are included as a ground for the economy.[95]

In the case of fiscal policy, the legislative, the executive and other state organs (Budget Council, Economic and Social Council) define and manage the budgeting. The average government debt in the countries is nearly 44%, but the deviation is great because the lowest figure is close to 10% but the highest is 97%. The trend shows that the sovereign debt ratio to GDP in most countries has been rising. Only three countries are affected by high government debt: Croatia, Hungary and Slovenia (over 70% of the GDP), while Slovakia and Poland fulfill the Maastricht requirement but only 10% below the threshold. The contribution to cover the finances for common needs is declared, the principle of just tax burden-sharing is supplemented sometimes with special aspects. Tax revenues expose typically 15–19 % of the GDP, and rates above 20% only rarely can be found.[95]

The state audit of the government budget and expenditures is an essential control element in public finances and an important part of the concept of checks and balances. The central banks are independent state institutions, which possess a monopoly on managing and implementing a state's or federation's monetary policy. Besides monetary policy, some of them even perform the supervision of the financial intermediary system. In the case of a price stability function, the inflation rate, in the examined area, relatively quickly dropped to below 5% by 2000. In monetary policy the differences are based on the euro-zone: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovakia, Slovenia use the common currency. The economies of this decade – similar to the previous one – show a moderate inflation. As a new phenomenon, a slight negative inflation (deflation) appeared in this decade in several countries (Croatia, Estonia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia), which demonstrates sensitivity regarding international developments. The majority of the constitutions determine the national currency, legal tender or monetary unit. The local currency exchange rate to the U.S. dollar shows that drastic interventions were not necessary. National wealth or assets are the property of the state or local governments and, as an exclusive property, the management and protection of them aim at serving the public interest.[95]

Demographics

[edit]
Population pyramid of Eastern Europe in 2023 (UN geoscheme classification)

See also

[edit]
European subregions

References

[edit]
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