Eastern Wu
Wu Ngô | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 222–280[1] | |||||||||
 The territories of Wu (in light greenish grey), as of 262 A.D. | |||||||||
| Capital | Wuchang (222–229, 265–266) Jianye (229–265, 266–280) | ||||||||
| Common languages | Eastern Han Chinese,Old Wu Chinese | ||||||||
| Religion | Taoism,Confucianism,Chinese folk religion | ||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||
| King(222–229) Emperor(229–280) | |||||||||
• Nov 222 – May 252 | Sun Quan | ||||||||
• May 252 – Nov 258 | Sun Liang | ||||||||
• Nov 258 – Sep 264 | Sun Xiu | ||||||||
• Sep 264 – May 280 | Sun Hao | ||||||||
| Historical era | Three Kingdoms | ||||||||
• Independence from Cao Wei | 222 | ||||||||
• Sun Quan declaring himself Emperor | 229 | ||||||||
| 31 May 280[1] | |||||||||
| Population | |||||||||
• 238[2] | 2,567,000 (disputed) | ||||||||
• 280[2] | 2,535,000 (disputed) | ||||||||
| Currency | Chinese coin,Chinese cash | ||||||||
| |||||||||
| Today part of |  China Vietnam | ||||||||
| Eastern Wu | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Traditional Chinese | Đông ngô | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Simplified Chinese | Đông ngô | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Hanyu Pinyin | Dōng Wú | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Sun Wu | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Traditional Chinese | Tôn ngô | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Simplified Chinese | Tôn ngô | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Hanyu Pinyin | Sūn Wú | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Wu(Chinese:Ngô;pinyin:Wú;Middle Chinese*ŋuo<Eastern Han Chinese:*ŋuɑ[5]), known in historiography asEastern WuorSun Wu,was adynastic state of Chinaand one of the three major states that competed for supremacy over China in theThree Kingdomsperiod. It previously existed from 220 to 222 as avassalkingdom nominally underCao Wei,its rival state, but declared complete independence from Cao Wei in November 222. It was elevated to an empire in May 229 after its founding ruler,Sun Quan(Emperor Da), declared himselfemperor.
The name "Wu" was derived from the place it was based in—theJiangnan(Yangtze River Delta) region, which was also historically known as "Wu".It was referred to as" Dong Wu "(" Eastern Wu ") or" Sun Wu "by historians to distinguish it from other Chinese historical states with similar names which were also located in that region, such as theWu statein theSpring and Autumn periodand theWuyuekingdom in theFive Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.It was called "Eastern Wu" because it occupied most of eastern China in the Three Kingdoms period, and "Sun Wu" because the family name of its rulers was "Sun".
During its existence, Wu's capital was atJianye(present-dayNanjing,Jiangsu), but at times it was also at Wuchang (Võ xương;present-dayEzhou,Hubei).[6]
History
[edit]
Beginnings and founding
[edit]
Towards theend of the Han dynasty,Sun Ce,the eldest son of the warlordSun Jian,and his followers borrowed troops from the warlordYuan Shuand embarked ona series of military conquestsin theJiangdongandWuregions between 194 and 199, seizing several territories previously occupied by warlords such asLiu Yao,Yan BaihuandWang Lang.Sun Cebroke off relations with Yuan Shu around 196–197after the latter declared himself emperor—an act deemed as treason againstEmperor Xian,the figurehead ruler of the Han dynasty. The warlordCao Cao,who was thede factohead of government in the Han imperial court, asked Emperor Xian to grant Sun Ce the title of "Marquis of Wu" (Ngô hầu).
Sun Ce was assassinated in the summer of 200 and was succeeded by his younger brother,Sun Quan.Sun Quan, like his elder brother, also paid nominal allegiance to Emperor Xian while maintaining autonomous rule over the Wu territories. In 208, Sun Quan allied with the warlordLiu Beiand they combined forces to defeat Cao Cao at theBattle of Red Cliffs.Sun Quan and Liu Bei maintained their alliance against Cao Cao after the battle for the next ten years or so, despite having some territorial disputes overJing Province.In 219, Sun Quan severed ties with Liu Bei when he sent his generalLü Mengtoinvade Liu's territories in Jing Province.Guan Yu,who was defending Liu Bei's assets in Jing Province, was captured and executed by Sun Quan's forces. After that, the boundaries of Sun Quan's domain extended from beyond the Jiangdong region to include the southern part of Jing Province, which covered roughly present-dayHunanand parts ofHubei.
In 220, Cao Cao's son and successor,Cao Pi,ended the Han dynasty by forcing Emperor Xian to abdicate in his favour and established the state ofCao Wei.Sun Quan agreed to submit to Wei and was granted the title of a vassal king, "King of Wu" (Ngô vương), by Cao Pi. A year later, Liu Bei declared himself emperor and founded the state ofShu Han.In 222, Liu Bei launched a military campaign against Sun Quan to take back Jing Province and avenge Guan Yu, leading to theBattle of Xiaoting.However, Liu Bei suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Sun Quan's generalLu Xunand was forced to retreat toBaidicheng,where he died a year later.
Liu Bei's successor,Liu Shan,and his regent,Zhuge Liang,made peace with Sun Quan later and reaffirmed their previous alliance. Sun Quan declared independence from Wei in 222, but continued to rule as "King of Wu" until 229, when he declared himself "Emperor of Wu". His legitimacy was recognised by Shu.
To distinguish the state from other historical Chinese states of the same name, historians have added a relevant character to the state's original name: the state that called itself "Wu" ( ngô ) is also known as "Eastern Wu" ( đông ngô; Dōng Wú) or "Sun Wu" ( tôn ngô ).
Sun Quan's reign
[edit]Sun Quan ruled for over 30 years and his long reign resulted in stability in southern China. During his reign, Wu engaged Wei in numerous wars, including the battles ofRuxu(222–223),Shiting(228), andHefei(234). However, Wu never managed to gain any territory north of the Yangtze River while Wei also never succeeded in conquering the lands south of the Yangtze.
A succession struggle broke out between Sun Quan's sons in the later part of his reign—Sun Quan installedSun Heas thecrown princein 242 after his former heir apparent,Sun Deng,died in 241, but Sun He soon became involved in a rivalry with his younger brother,Sun Ba.The conflict resulted in the emergence of two rivalling factions, each supporting either Sun He or Sun Ba, in Sun Quan's imperial court. Sun Quan eventually deposed Sun He and forced Sun Ba to commit suicide, whileLu Xunand many other ministers who took either Sun He's or Sun Ba's side in the struggle met with unhappy ends. Sun Quan appointed his youngest son,Sun Liang,as the crown prince after the incident.
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Reigns of Sun Liang and Sun Xiu
[edit]Sun Quan died in 252 and was succeeded by Sun Liang, withZhuge KeandSun Junserving as regents. In 253, Zhuge Ke was assassinated in a coup launched by Sun Jun, and the state power of Wu fell into Sun Jun's hands and was passed on to his cousin,Sun Chen,after his death. During Sun Liang's reign,two rebellionsbroke out in the Wei garrison at Shouchun (around present-dayShou County,Anhui) in 255 and 257–258. Sun Jun and Sun Chen led Wu forces to support the rebels in the first and second rebellions respectively in the hope of making some territorial gains in Wei, but both revolts were suppressed and the Wu forces retreated after suffering many losses.
Sun Liang was deposed in 258 by Sun Chen, who installedSun Xiu,another son of Sun Quan, on the throne. Sun Xiu killed Sun Chen later in a coup with the help ofZhang BuandDing Feng.
Fall of Wu
[edit]Sun Xiu died of illness in 264, a year afterShu was conquered by Wei.At the time, Wu was experiencing internal turmoil because rebellions had broken out inJiaozhi(Giao chỉ) in the south. The ministersPuyang Xing,Wan YuandZhang Budecided to install Sun He's son,Sun Hao,on the throne.
In the beginning of Sun Hao's reign, the emperor reduced taxes, gave relief to the poor, and granted freedom to a large number of palace maids. However, Sun Hao gradually became more cruel and superstitious and started indulging in wine and women instead of finding ways to revive his declining state. Sun Hao's tyranny caused widespread anger and hatred towards him in Wu, but it was due to the efforts of officials such asLu KaiandLu Kangthat Wu was able to remain relatively stable and peaceful.
In February 266,Sima Yanended the state of Cao Wei by forcing its last ruler,Cao Huan,to abdicate in his favour, and then established theJin dynasty.In 279, Jin forces led byDu Yu,Wang Junand others attacked Wu from six directions. Sun Hao attempted to put up resistance by sending his armies to fight the Jin invaders, but the Wu forces suffered several consecutive defeats and even the Wu chancellor,Zhang Ti,was killed in action. Seeing that Wu was doomed to fall, Sun Hao surrendered to the Jin dynasty on 31 May 280,[1]marking the end of Wu and the end of theThree Kingdomsperiod.
Government and military
[edit]Despite Sun Quan proclaiming himself emperor in 229, its politics reflected its warlord origins. When Wu was initially founded its military was dominated by famed generals who had gained their positions through prowess and pluck. These generals were celebrated for theirindividualism.[7]
Politics within the court were often influenced by conflicts between powerful families and individuals. Positions within the court were inherited from one generation to the next unlike the Han dynasty'sbureaucracy.However, over time, the influence ultimately would move away from thecentral government.[8]Outside of the court, families displayed their own independent authority. Wu, at times, was to a certain extent run for the protection of particular families.[9]
The Eastern Wu era was a formative period inVietnamese history.The ruler ofJiaozhou(modernVietnamandGuangzhou),Shi Xie,is primarily remembered today inVietnamasSĩ Nhiếp.According toStephen O'Harrow,Shi Xie was essentially "the first Vietnamese."[10]Originally satisfied with Eastern Wu's rule, theVietnameseopposedShi Hui's rebellion against Eastern Wu and attacked him for it. However, when the Wu generalLü Daibetrayed Shi Hui and executed the entire Shi family, the Vietnamese became greatly upset. In 248, the people ofJiaozhiandJiuzhencommanderies rebelled. Eastern Wu sentLu Yinto deal with the rebels. He managed to pacify the rebels with a combination of threats and persuasion. However the rebels regrouped under the leadership ofLady Triệuin Jiuzhen and renewed the rebellion with a march on Jiaozhi. According to theĐại Việt sử ký toàn thư(Complete Annals of Đại Việt), Lady Triệu had long breasts that reached her shoulders and rode into battle on an elephant. After several months of warfare she was defeated and committed suicide.[11]
Language, culture and economy
[edit]
The culture of Wu was most solidified under the reign of Sun Quan from 229 to 252. Migrations from the north and the needed settlement from theShanyuebarbarians made it possible for the increase in manpower, agriculture, and settling the lower most parts of Wu. Along with that, river transportation became a huge factor and flourished as theJiangnanand Zhedong canals were finished with construction. After theBattle of Xiaotingand during theinvasions of WubyWeiin the 220s, Shu was able to reestablish their trade and relationships with Wu. Shu's cotton was a great influx for Wu, and the development of shipbuilding, salt,[12]and metal industries was greatly increased.
The fact of inflation and economic problems still were in existence since the Han dynasty.[13]Sun Quan tried to start a currency of large coins manufactured by copper. He also tried to prohibit private minting. This policy was terminated in 246 due to ineffectiveness.[13][a]
Eastern Wu was able to make close overseas trade with countries such as Vietnam and Cambodia.[14]Wu also traded with India and the Middle East.[15]
The language of Eastern Wu was identified withOld Jiangdong( cổ giang đông phương ngôn ), the speech of the Jiangdong area (Jiangxi,Zhejiang,Fujian,SouthernAnhui,Jiangsu); this dialect, which was already different from northern speech, is described inShishuo XinyuThế thuyết tân ngữ byLiu Yiqing( lưu nghĩa khánh, 403-444), which narrates thatWang Daolearned the idiom after fleeing in Jiankang, today'sNanjing.
In the end,proto-Wuemerged as the unified proto-language from which every contemporaryWu languageis spoken. Wu dialects have striking similarities toEarly Middle Chineseas described in theQieyunphonological system. A reconstruction of proto-Wu was attempted by William Harvey Ballard in 1969.[16]
Civil matters
[edit]Personages with clerical or scholarly abilities had roles to play within the state, but the policies were more determined by those of military command.[17]Nevertheless, every Wu army was in need of administrative support and, according toRafe de Crespigny,certain scholars were "recognised as practical counsellors, regardless of their fighting prowess or their ability to command troops in the field."[17]
Under the reign ofSun Quan,he needed a strong role of advisors and secretaries in order to keep his link of power in a maintained level. Sun Quan's prestige in dealing with hostiles and friendly relations called for the establishment of a controlled form of an imperial government for the empire of Wu. Sun Quan also created the opportunity for people residing within Wu to gain prestige and influence throughout the empire and the surrounding establishments with the duty of being an envoy.[17]
Following the death ofCao Piin 226, Sun Quan strongly promoted his kingdom to focus on agriculture because the threat from Wei was lifted.[18]However,Lu Xunsuggested to Sun Quan that military commanders should become involved in the colonization of land. Sun Quan quickly accepted and he, along with his sons would execute the memorial presented by Lu Xun.[19]However, in 240, Sun Quan restrained Lu Xun's idea and refocused on agricultural works, because Wu came to suffer a severe famine.[20]In 234, whenZhuge Kewas in control of affairs in the south, he strongly ignored the colonisation order and viciously ordered the agriculture factor, often starving enemies into submission.[21]
Legacy
[edit]
Under the rule of Wu, theYangtze River Deltaregion, regarded in early history as a barbaric "jungle", developed into one of the commercial, cultural, and political centres of China. The achievements of Wu in the south marked the coming of Chinese civilization to the farthest southern reaches of the empire.[22]
In 230, the island of Yizhou was reached by the Chinese during the Three Kingdoms period under the reign of Sun Quan.[23]Contact with the native population and the dispatch of officials to an island named "Yizhou" (Di châu) by the Wu navy might have been toTaiwan,but the location of Yizhou is open to dispute; some historians believe it was Taiwan, while others believe it was theRyukyu Islands.Wu merchants also may have reachedSouthern VietnamandCambodia.Failed protection ofGongsun Yuanalso was in existence when the latterrebelled against Wei.This was because of the waterway's difficulties. Such things cost Wu, and the achievements supposedly gained within Taiwan did not cover this problem and Sun Quan lost his vassal.[24]
Later on in the existence of Wu, the once great military was turned to an unimpressive one. It was most likely an easy task to takeHefeifrom Wei, but Wu could not do so. Since the 230s, this task was made harder due to the "New City", a heavily fortified castle built at Hefei by Wei.[24]One of the greatest failures to accomplish something later on in Wu's reign was during 255 and during the last few years of the 250s. WhenGuanqiu JianandWen Qinrebelledagainst Wei, Wu promised to help the two in Shouchun (around present-dayShou County,Anhui). However, the Wu forces never made it in time before the rebellion was quashed bySima Shiand the Wei forces. WhenZhuge Danlaunched amassive full-scale rebellion,the Wu forces suffered a great defeat as they lent a great quantity of manpower to Zhuge Dan's cause. Shouchun was quickly regained by Wei underSima Zhao's command.[24]
During theconquest of Shu by Weiin 263, Wu could not fully lend support to their allies due to a revolt in Vietnam.[25]
The decline of Wu was long in existence since the death ofLu Xunin 245 and the death of Sun Quan in 252. Sun Quan's successors could do little for the empire.Zhuge Kewas assassinated bySun Junin 253 after afailed invasion of Hefeifollowing the Wu victory over an invading Wei force atDongxing.[26]Ding Fengalso ended up killingSun Chenunder orders fromSun Xiu.Corruption plagued Wu, which led to an easyconquest of Wuby theJin dynastyin 280.
List of territories
[edit]| Province | Provincial capital | Commandery | Commandery capital | No. of counties |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Yang Dương |
Jianye Kiến nghiệp (nowNanjing) |
Danyang Đan dương |
Jianye Kiến nghiệp |
16 |
| Wu Ngô |
Wu County Ngô huyện |
10 | ||
| Qichun Kỳ xuân |
Qichun Kỳ xuân |
2 | ||
| Kuaiji Hội kê |
Shanyin County Sơn âm huyện |
10 | ||
| Yuzhang Dự chương |
Nanchang Nam xương |
16 | ||
| Lujiang Lư giang |
Wan County Hoàn huyện |
2 | ||
| Luling Lư lăng |
Gaochang County Cao xương huyện |
10 | ||
| Poyang Bà dương |
Poyang County Bà dương huyện |
9 | ||
| Xindu Tân đô |
Shixin County Thủy tân huyện |
6 | ||
| Linchuan Lâm xuyên |
Nancheng County Nam thành huyện |
10 | ||
| Linhai Lâm hải |
Zhang'an County Chương an huyện |
7 | ||
| Jian'an Kiến an |
Jian'an County Kiến an huyện |
9 | ||
| Wuxing Ngô hưng |
Wucheng County Ô trình huyện |
9 | ||
| Dongyang Đông dương |
Changshan County Trường sơn huyện |
9 | ||
| Piling Bì lăng điển nông giáo úy |
Piling County Bì lăng huyện |
3 | ||
| South Luling Lư lăng nam bộ đô úy |
Yudu County Vu đô huyện |
6 | ||
| Jing Kinh |
Jiangling Giang lăng (nowJingzhou) |
Nan Nam |
Jiangling Giang lăng |
9 |
| Wuling Võ lăng |
Linyuan County Lâm nguyên huyện |
11 | ||
| Lingling Linh lăng |
Quanling County Tuyền lăng huyện |
10 | ||
| Guiyang Quế dương |
Chen County Sâm huyện |
6 | ||
| Changsha Trường sa |
Linxiang County Lâm tương huyện |
10 | ||
| Wuchang[b] Võ xương |
Wuchang County Võ xương huyện |
6 | ||
| Ancheng An thành |
Ancheng County An thành huyện |
6 | ||
| Pengze Bành trạch |
Pengze County Bành trạch huyện |
4 | ||
| Yidu Nghi đô |
Yidao County Di đạo huyện |
3 | ||
| Linhe Lâm hạ |
Linhe County Lâm hạ huyện |
6 | ||
| Hengyang Hành dương |
Xiangnan County Tương nam huyện |
10 | ||
| Xiangdong Tương đông |
Ling County Linh huyện |
6 | ||
| Jianping Kiến bình |
Wu County Vu huyện |
6 | ||
| Tianmen Thiên môn |
Lüzhong County Lâu trung huyện |
3 | ||
| Zhaoling Chiêu lăng |
Zhaoling County Chiêu lăng huyện |
5 | ||
| Shi'an Thủy an |
Shi'an County Thủy an huyện |
7 | ||
| Shixing Thủy hưng |
Qujiang County Khúc giang huyện |
7 | ||
| Guang Quảng |
Panyu Phiên ngu (nowGuangzhou) |
Nanhai Nam hải |
Panyu County Phiên ngu huyện |
6 |
| Cangwu Thương ngô |
Guangxin County Quảng tín huyện |
11 | ||
| Yulin Úc lâm |
Bushan County Bố sơn huyện |
9 | ||
| Gaoliang Cao lương |
Siping County Tư bình huyện |
3 | ||
| Gaoxing Cao hưng |
Guanghua County Quảng hóa huyện |
5 | ||
| Guilin Quế lâm |
Wu'an County Võ an huyện |
6 | ||
| North Hepu Hợp phổ bắc bộ úy |
Anguang County An quảng huyện |
3 | ||
| Jiao Giao |
Longbian Long biên |
Jiaozhi Giao chỉ |
Longbian Long biên |
14 |
| Rinan Nhật nam |
Zhuwu Chu ngô |
5 | ||
| Jiuzhen Cửu chân |
Xupu Tư phổ |
6 | ||
| Hepu Hợp phổ |
Hepu County Hợp phổ huyện |
5 | ||
| Wuping Võ bình |
Wuning Võ ninh |
7 | ||
| Jiude Cửu đức |
Jiude Cửu đức |
6 | ||
| Xinchang Tân xương |
Jianing Gia ninh |
4 | ||
| Zhuya Chu nhai |
Xuwen County Từ văn huyện |
2 |
List of sovereigns
[edit]| Temple name | Posthumous name | Family name(in bold) andpersonal name | Reign | Era namesand their year ranges | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Shizu Thủy tổ |
Emperor Wulie Võ liệt hoàng đế |
Sun Jian Tôn kiên |
(N/A) | (N/A) | Sun Jian's temple and posthumous names were granted posthumously bySun Quan. |
| (N/A) | Prince Huan of Changsha Trường sa hoàn vương |
Sun Ce Tôn sách |
(N/A) | (N/A) | Sun Ce's posthumous name was granted posthumously bySun Quan. |
| Taizu Thái tổ |
Emperor Da Đại hoàng đế |
Sun Quan Tôn quyền |
Nov 222– May 252 |
|
Sun Quan adopted the era name "Huangwu" in 222 after declaring independence from Wei. However, he continued ruling under the title "King of Wu" and did not proclaim himself emperor until 229. |
| (N/A) | (N/A) | Sun Liang |
252–258 |
|
Sun Liang became "Prince of Kuaiji" (Hội kê vương) after he was dethroned bySun Chenin 258. In 260, his successorSun Xiufurther demoted him to "Marquis of Houguan" (Hầu quan hầu). |
| (N/A) | Emperor Jing Cảnh hoàng đế |
Sun Xiu Tôn hưu |
258–264 |
|
|
| (N/A) | Emperor Wen Văn hoàng đế |
Sun He Tôn hòa |
(N/A) | (N/A) | Sun He's posthumous name was granted posthumously bySun Hao. |
| (N/A) | Emperor Mo Mạt đế |
Sun Hao Tôn hạo |
264–280 |
|
Sun Hao held the title of "Marquis of Wucheng" (Ô trình hầu) before he became emperor in 264. In 280, after surrendering to theJin dynasty,he was granted the title of "Marquis of Guiming" (Quy mệnh hầu) bySima Yan.He is also sometimes referred to as "Emperor Mo of Wu" (Ngô mạt đế), which literally means "last emperor of Wu". |
Emperors' family tree
[edit]| Eastern Wu | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Gallery
[edit]
![Statues of Sun Quan (left) and Sun Ce.[where?]](/translate/en.wikipedia.org?u=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASun_Quan_and_his_brother_Sun_Ce.jpg&t=hv)
See also
[edit]Notes
[edit]- ^The coinage policies of this period are described in CS 26, 794–795; Yang, "Economic history," 191–192. See also the article of Ho Tzu-ch'üan, "Manorial economy," summarised in Sun and DeFrancis, Chinese social history, at 140. On the large coins of Wu, and the attempt to enforce a monopoly of minting, see SGZ 47/Wu 2, 1140, 1142 and 1146 PC quoting Jiangbiao zhuan.
- ^Divided from the originalJiangxia Commandery.When Eastern Wu took control of the commandery, it was unknown whether it still existed. The commandery capital was unknown.
References
[edit]- ^abDardess, John W (2010). "The Three Kingdoms, 221–264".Governing China, 150–1850.Indianapolis: Hackett Pub. Co. p. 7.ISBN978-1603844475.
Weakened by internal strife, horrific palace murders, and major defections to the enemy, the last Wu emperor surrendered on 31 May 280, and his realm was annexed to the Jin.
- ^abZou Jiwan (Chinese:Trâu kỷ vạn),Zhongguo Tongshi – Weijin Nanbeichao ShiTrung quốc thông sử · ngụy tấn nam bắc triều sử,(1992).
- ^Tanner, Harold M. (2009). "Chapter 5: The Age of Warriors and Buddhists".China: A History.Hackett Publishing. p. 142.
When it was established, Wu had only one-sixth of the population of the Eastern Han Empire (Cao Wei held over two-thirds of the Han population).
- ^Bertrand Russell(1922).Problem of China.London:George Allen & Unwin.
- ^Schuessler, Axel. (2009)Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese.Honolulu: University of Hawai'i. p. 52
- ^de Crespigny 2004,3.
- ^Rafe de Crespigny(1990). "Chapter 8: Empire in the South".Generals of the south: the foundation and early history of the Three Kingdoms state of Wu(PDF).Cambera: Australian National University, Faculty of Asian Studies.ISBN0731509013.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 31 December 2013.Retrieved2 January2015.
Though Sun Quan had claimed the imperial title in 229, and made some pretence of establishing the forms of an imperial court, the government of Wu continued to reflect the structure of a warlord state. In human terms, the time of the foundation of Wu was dominated by military commanders who held authority through their personal courage and energy, and were celebrated for their individualism, and it was no small achievement that Sun Quan was able to keep such a group under control.
- ^Rafe de Crespigny(1990). "Chapter 8: Empire in the South".Generals of the south: the foundation and early history of the Three Kingdoms state of Wu(PDF).Cambera: Australian National University, Faculty of Asian Studies.ISBN0731509013.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 31 December 2013.Retrieved2 January2015.
Politics at court were largely dominated by the intrigues and conflicts of powerful individuals and families. In particular, unlike the bureaucracy of Han, substantial official positions, and particularly those involving the command of troops, were regularly transferred by inheritance from one generation to the next. In the course of time, however, there was a shift of influence in the central government from the first generation of men who had risen to power in the early years of the state, many of them from the north and all chosen for their personal ability and loyalty, to men from south of the Yangzi, whose families had prospered under the Sun regime.
- ^Rafe de Crespigny(1990). "Chapter 8: Empire in the South".Generals of the south: the foundation and early history of the Three Kingdoms state of Wu(PDF).Cambera: Australian National University, Faculty of Asian Studies.ISBN0731509013.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 31 December 2013.Retrieved2 January2015.
Outside the court and the capital, moreover, great independent authority was held by these local families, which consolidated their power through the acquisition of tenants and other dependents who sought protection from the uncertainty of the times and the demands of government. This development, already begun in the time of Han, meant that the power of the central government was limited, and its capacity to exploit the resources of the state was heavily restricted. To a degree, the state of Wu was run for the protection and the benefit of the great families who were its nominal subjects.
- ^de Crespigny 2007,p. 739.
- ^Taylor 1983,p. 70.
- ^"Travel China Guide".Retrieved29 November2014.
Due to the convenient river transportation in the east of Yangtze River, the shipbuilding industry and salt industry of Wu were prosperous. During that period, the ships were improved to hold about 1,000 people.
- ^abde Crespigny 2004,24.
- ^"Travel China Guide".Retrieved29 November2014.
Depending on the advantage of navigation, Kingdom of Wu established close trade routes with some overseas countries such as Vietnam and Cambodia.
- ^Eberhard, Wolfram (1987).A History of China(4th ed., corr. in the 3rd print. ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press.ISBN0520032683.
- ^Ballard, William Lewis (1969).Phonological History of Wu(PDF).University of Berkeley.
- ^abcde Crespigny 2004,4.
- ^de Crespigny 2004,6.
- ^de Crespigny 2004,6–7.
- ^de Crespigny 2004,7.
- ^de Crespigny 2004,8.
- ^de Crespigny 2004,1.
- ^de Crespigny 2004,9–10.
- ^abcde Crespigny 2004,10.
- ^de Crespigny 2004,10–11
- ^de Crespigny 2004,11.
Bibliography
[edit]- de Crespigny, Rafe (2007).A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms.Brill.
- de Crespigny, Rafe (2004) [1990]. "Empire in the South".Generals of the South: The Foundation and Early History of the Three Kingdoms State of Wu.Internet. Canberra, ACT: Faculty of Asian Studies, The Australian National University.ISBN0731509013.Archived fromthe originalon 10 May 2015.Retrieved22 September2016.
- Taylor, Jay (1983).The Birth of the Vietnamese.University of California Press.