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Edom

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"Edomite" redirects here. For the language, seeEdomite language.For the pottery, seeEdomite pottery.For other uses, seeEdom (disambiguation).
Kingdom of Edom
𐤀𐤃𐤌
c. 13th century BC–c. 553 BC[1]
A theoretical map of the region around 830 BC (Edom shown in yellow)
A theoretical map of the region around 830 BC (Edom shown in yellow)
StatusMonarchy
CapitalBozrah
Common languagesEdomite
Religion
Canaanite religion
History
• Established
c. 13th century BC
• Conquered by the Babylonian kingNabonidus
c. 553 BC[1]
Today part of
Part ofa serieson the
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Edom(/ˈiːdəm/;[2][3]Edomite:𐤀𐤃𐤌ʾDM;Hebrew:אֱדוֹםʾĔḏōm,lit.: "red";Akkadian:𒌑𒁺𒈪Údumi,𒌑𒁺𒈬Údumu;[4]Ancient Egyptian:jdwmꜥ)[5]was an ancient kingdom inTransjordan,located betweenMoabto the northeast, theArabahto the west, and theArabian Desertto the south and east.[6]Most of its former territory is now divided between present-day southernJordanandIsrael.Edom appears in written sources relating to the lateBronze Ageand to theIron Agein theLevant.

Τhe Edomites appear in several ancient sources, including the list of theEgyptianpharaohSeti Ifrom c. 1215 BC as well as in the chronicle of a campaign byRamesses III(r. 1186–1155 BC), and theTanakh.[6]Archaeological investigation has shown that the nation flourished between the 13th and the 8th centuries BC and was destroyed after a period of decline in the 6th century BC by the Babylonians.[6]After the fall of the kingdom of Edom, the Edomites were pushed westward towards southernJudahby nomadic tribes coming from the east; among them were theArabNabataeans,who first appeared in the historical annals of the 4th century BC and had already established their own kingdom in what used to be Edom by the first half of the 2nd century BC.[6]More recent excavations show that the process of Edomite settlement in the southern parts of theKingdom of Judahand parts of theNegevdown toTimnahad started already before the destruction of the kingdom byNebuchadnezzar IIin 587/86 BC, both by peaceful penetration and by military means and taking advantage of the already-weakened state of Judah.[7][8]

Once pushed out of their territory, the Edomites settled during thePersian periodin an area comprising the southern hills ofJudeadown to the area north ofBe'er Sheva.[9][10]The people appear under a Greek form of their old name, asIdumeansorIdumaeans,and their new territory was calledIdumeaorIdumaea(Greek:Ἰδουμαία,Idoumaía;Latin:Idūmaea), a term that was used in theHellenisticandRomanperiods, also mentioned in theNew Testament.[11][12]During the 2nd century BC, the Edomites were forcibly converted toJudaismby theHasmoneans,and were incorporated into theJewish population.[13]Other scholars believe that the assimilation was voluntary.[14]

EdomandIdumeaare two related but distinct terms; they relate to a historically-contiguous population but to two separate, if adjacent, territories which the Edomites/Idumeans occupied in different periods of their history. The Edomites first established a kingdom ( "Edom" ) in the southern area of modern-dayJordanand later migrated into the southern parts of theKingdom of Judah( "Idumea", modern-dayMount Hebron)[dubious–discuss]when Judah was first weakened and then destroyed by theBabyloniansin the 6th century BC.[15][16]

Name

[edit]

TheHebrewwordEdommeans "red", and the Hebrew Bible relates it to the name of its founder,Esau,the elder son of the Hebrew patriarchIsaac,because he was born "red all over".[17]As a young adult, he sold his birthright to his brotherJacobfor a portion of "red pottage".[18]TheTanakhdescribes the Edomites as descendants of Esau.[19]

History

[edit]
Further information:History of Israel,History of Jordan,andHistory of Palestine

Edom

[edit]
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W		G20qmAxAst
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Edom[5]
inhieroglyphs

Era:New Kingdom
(1550–1069 BC)

The Edomites may have been connected with theShasuandShutu,nomadic raiders mentioned inEgyptiansources. Indeed, a letter from an Egyptian scribe at a border fortress in theWadi Tumilatduring the reign ofMerneptahreports movement of nomadic "shasu-tribes of Edom" to watering holes in Egyptian territory.[20]The earliest Iron Age settlements—possibly copper mining camps—date to the 11th century BC.[21]Settlement intensified by the late 8th century BC and the main sites so far excavated have been dated between the 8th and 6th centuries BC. The last unambiguous reference to Edom is an Assyrian inscription of 667 BC. Edom ceased to exist as a state when it became conquered byNabonidusin the 6th century BC.[22]

Edom is mentioned inAssyriancuneiforminscriptions in the form𒌑𒁺𒈪Údumiand𒌑𒁺𒈬Údumu;[4]three of its kings are known from the same source:Kaus-malakaat the time ofTiglath-pileser III(c. 745 BC),Aya-ramuat the time ofSennacherib(c. 705 BC), andKaus-gabriat the time ofEsarhaddon(c. 680 BC). According to the Egyptian inscriptions, the "Aduma" at times extended their possessions to the borders of Egypt.[23]

The existence of the Kingdom of Edom was asserted by archaeologists led by Ezra Ben-Yosef and Tom Levy, by using a methodology called thepunctuated equilibrium modelin 2019. Archaeologists mainly took copper samples fromTimna ValleyandFaynanin Jordan’sArava valleydated to 1300-800 BC. According to the results of the analysis, the researchers thought that PharaohShoshenk IofEgypt(the Biblical "Shishak"), who attackedJerusalemin the 10th century BC, encouraged the trade and production of copper instead of destroying the region. Tel Aviv University professor Ben Yosef stated "Our new findings contradict the view of many archaeologists that the Arava was populated by a loose alliance of tribes, and they’re consistent with the biblical story that there was an Edomite kingdom here."[24][25][26]

Idumaea

[edit]

After the conquest of Judah by theBabylonians,Edomites settled in the region ofHebron.They prospered in this new country, called by the Greeks and Romans "Idumaea" or "Idumea", for more than four centuries.[27]Strabo,writing around the time ofJesus,held that the Idumaeans, whom he identified as ofNabataeanorigin, constituted the majority of the population of WesternJudea,where they commingled with the Judaeans and adopted their customs.[28]A view not necessarily shared by modern scholarly works.[29][30][31][32]

Hebrew Bible

[edit]
Map showing kingdom of Edom (in red) at its largest extent, c. 600 BC. Areas in dark red show the approximate boundary of classical-age Idumaea.

The Edomites' original country, according to the Hebrew Bible, stretched from theSinaipeninsula as far asKadesh Barnea.It reached as far south asEilat,which was the seaport of Edom.[33]On the north of Edom was the territory ofMoab.[34]The boundary between Moab and Edom was thebrook of Zered.[35]The ancient capital of Edom wasBozrah.[36]According to Genesis, Esau's descendants settled in the land after they had displaced theHorites.[37]It was also called the land of Seir;Mount Seirappears to have been strongly identified with them and may have been a cultic site. According to biblical narrative, at the time ofAmaziah(838 BC),Selahwas its principal stronghold,[38]Eilat andEzion-geberitsseaports.[39]

Busaira(Bozra) archaeological site in modern-dayJordan,what used to be the capital of Edom

Genesis36:31-43 lists thekings of Edom"before any Israelite king reigned":

These are the kings who ruled in the land of Edom before a king ruled the children of Israel. AndBela ben Beorruled in Edom, and the name of his city wasDinhabah.AndBeladied, andJobab ben ZerahfromBozrahruled in his place. AndJobabdied, andHushamof the land ofTemaniruled in his place. AndHushamdied, andHadad ben Bedad,who struckMidianin the field ofMoab,ruled in his place, and the name of his city wasAvith.And Hadad died, andSamlah of Masrekahruled in his place. AndSamlahdied, andSaul of Rehoboth on the riverruled in his place. AndSauldied, andBaal-hanan ben Achborruled in his place. And Baal-hanan ben Achbor died, andHadarruled in his place, and the name of his city wasPau,and his wife's name was Mehetabel bat Matred bat Mezahab. And these are the names of theclansofEsauby their families, by their places, by their names: clanTimnah,clanAlvah,clanJetheth,clanAholibamah,clanElah,clanPinon,clanKenaz,clanTeman,clanMibzar,clan Magdiel, clanIram.[40]

The Hebrew word translated as leader of a clan isaluf,used solely to describe the Dukes of Edom andMoab,in the first five books ofMoses.However beginning in the books of the later prophets the word is used to describe Judean generals, for example, in the prophecies of Zachariah twice (9:7, 12:5–6) it had evolved to describe Jewish captains, the word also is used multiple times as a general term for teacher or guide for example in Psalm 55:13.[41]Aluph as it is used to denote teach or guide from the Edomite word for Duke is used 69 times in the Tanakh.

If the account may be taken at face value, the kingship of Edom was, at least in early times, nothereditary,[42]perhapselective.[43]Thefirst book of Chroniclesmentions both a king andchieftains.[44]Moses and the Israelite people twice appealed to their common ancestry and asked the king of Edom for passage through his land, along the "King's Highway", on their way toCanaan,but the king refused permission.[45]Accordingly, they detoured around the country because of his show of force[46]or because God ordered them to do so rather than wage war (Deuteronomy 2:4–6). The King of Edom did not attack theIsraelites,though he prepared to resist aggression.

Nothing further is recorded of the Edomites in theTanakhuntil their defeat byKing Saulof Israel in the late 11th century BC (1 Samuel 14:47). Forty years laterKing Davidand his generalJoabdefeated the Edomites in the "Valley of Salt"(probably near theDead Sea;2 Samuel 8:13–14;1 Kings 9:15–16). An Edomite prince namedHadadescaped and fled toEgypt,and after David's death returned and tried to start a rebellion, but failed and went to Syria (Aramea).[47]From that time Edom remained avassalof Israel. David placed over the Edomites Israelite governors or prefects,[48]and this form of government seems to have continued underSolomon.When Israel divided into two kingdoms Edom became a dependency of theKingdom of Judah.In the time ofJehoshaphat(c. 870 – 849 BC) the Tanakh mentions aking of Edom,[49]who was probably an Israelite deputy appointed by theKing of Judah.It also states that the inhabitants of Mount Seir invaded Judea in conjunction with Ammon and Moab, and that the invaders turned against one another and were all destroyed (2 Chronicles 20:10–23). Edom revolted againstJehoramand elected a king of its own (2 Kings 8:20–22;2 Chronicles 21:8).Amaziahattacked and defeated the Edomites, seizing Selah, but the Israelites never subdued Edom completely (2 Kings 14:7;2 Chronicles 25:11–12).

In the time ofNebuchadnezzar IIthe Edomites may have helpedplunder Jerusalemand slaughter the Judaeans in 587 or 586 BCE (Psalms 137:7;Obadiah 1:11–14). Some believe that it is for this reason the prophets denounced Edom (Isaiah 34:5–8;Jeremiah 49:7–22;Obadiahpassim). Evidence also suggests that at that time Edom may have engaged in a treaty betrayal of Judah.[50]The people of Edom would be dealt with during the Messiah's rulership, according to the prophets.[51]Despite this, many Edomites peacefully migrated to southern Judea, which continued even during the reign ofNabonidus.[52]Regarding the territory of Edom, thebook of Jeremiahstates that "no one will live there, nor will anyone of mankind reside in it".[53]

Although the Idumaeans controlled the lands to the east and south of the Dead Sea, their peoples were held in contempt by the Israelites. Hence theBook of Psalmssays "Moab is my washpot: over Edom will I cast out my shoe".[54]According to theTorah,[55]the congregation could not receive descendants of a marriage between an Israelite and an Edomite until the fourth generation. This law was a subject of controversy betweenShimon ben Yohai,who said it applied only to male descendants, and otherTannaim,who said female descendants were also excluded[56]for four generations. From these, some early conversion laws inhalachawere derived.

Classical Idumaea

[edit]

Persian period

[edit]

Former Edom

[edit]

Compared to the neighboring Moabites and Ammonites, the name "Edom" completely disappeared from the area east ofArabah.TheQedaritescontrolled the territory, followed by the Nabateans, thus ensuring the end of Iron Age Edom.[52]

"Idumaea" in southern Judah

[edit]

According toostracafrom sites in Idumaea, i.e. southern Judah after the fall of the kingdom to the Babylonians, dating mainly to the 4th century BCE, a diverse population of Arabs, Edomites as well asJudahitesandPhoeniciansinhabited the area during the latePersian period.[57]

Cultural continuity

[edit]

Straboidentifies Idumeans with the Nabateans who were expelled to southern Judea after committing sedition. However, there is evidence for cultural continuity between the Iron Age Edom and Idumea, based on settlement patterns and religious practices[clarification needed].[52]

Hellenistic period

[edit]

During the Hellenistic period, both Jews and Idumeans spoke Aramaic and used it for literary and legal documents.[58]An Idumean marriage contract from Maresha, dating from 176 BCE, closely resembles theketubbotused by Jews.[59][58]However, despite these cultural similarities, some Jews maintained a distinct boundary between themselves and the Idumeans. This is evident inBen Sira50:25–26, which expresses disdain for three "nations," including "the inhabitants of Se'ir", referring to the Edomites/Idumeans.[58]

Maccabean revolt

[edit]

During the revolt of theMaccabeesagainst theSeleucidkingdom (early 2nd century BC),II Maccabeesrefers to a Seleucid general namedGorgiasas "Governor of Idumaea"; whether he was a Greek or aHellenizedIdumean is unknown. Some scholars maintain that the reference to Idumaea in that passage is an error altogether.[citation needed]Judas Maccabeusconquered their territory for a time around 163 BC.[60]

Conversion to Judaism

[edit]

Around 110 BCE,HasmoneanleaderJohn Hyrcanus Iconquered Idumaea. According to several ancient sources, includingJosephusand Ptolemy, he forcibly converted them toJudaism,[61]and incorporated them into theJewish nation:[62][43]

Hyrcanus also captured the Idumean cities ofAdoraandMarisaand after subduing all the Idumeans, permitted them to remain in their country as long as they had themselves circumcised and were willing to observe the laws of the Jews. And so, out of attachment to the land of their fathers, they submitted tocircumcisionand to make their manner of life conform in all other respects to that of the Jews. And from that time onward they have continued to be Jews.[63]

Some scholars dispute the claim of forced conversions and believe that the Idumeans voluntarily assimilated into Judean society. Forced conversions were rare in Near Eastern and Hellenistic societies, with some Idumeans retaining their native identity. Others contributed to religious innovations that were adopted inPharisaical Judaism.In addition, it explains why Idumean territory was absorbed in Judea over one generation, compared to other non-Judean territories (e.g. Samaritan territories), which remained detached. Reasons for the rapid assimilation include their cultural affinity with Judaism, opposition to Hellenism and aniconic tendencies.[52]

Herodian dynasty

[edit]

Antipater the Idumaean,the progenitor of theHerodian Dynastyalong with Judean progenitors, that ruledJudeaafter the Roman conquest, was of Idumean origin.[64]UnderHerod the Great,the Idumaea province was ruled for him by a series of governors, among whom were his brother Joseph ben Antipater, and his brother-in-lawCostobarus.

Overall, Herodian influence on Judea, Jerusalem and the Temple was significant. However, this was obsfucated by later variants of Second Temple Judaism and Rabbinic Judaism.[65]For example, a minority of contemporary Jews argued Herod cannot be Jewish because of his genealogical origins. These beliefs were promoted by works such asJubileesand4QMMT,which were ofEssene,HasideanorSadduceeorigin.[66][67]These Jews did not openly express their views because Herod violently suppressed critics.[68]

Evie Gassner believed the Sages disparaged Herod because he supported the Sadducees, who opposed the Pharisees.[69]

Borders

[edit]

Josephus,when referring to Upper Idumaea, speaks of towns and villages immediately to the south and south-west of Jerusalem,[70]such asHebron(Antiq.12.8.6,Wars4.9.7),Halhul,in Greek called Alurus (Wars4.9.6),Bethsura(Antiq.12.9.4),Begabris(Wars4.8.1.),[71]Dura(Adorayim) (Antiq.13.9.1,Wars1.2.5),Caphethra(Wars4.9.9),Bethletephon(Wars4.8.1),Tekoa(Wars4.9.5), andMarissa(Antiq.13.9.1,Wars1.2.5), the latter being a principal city of Idumaea after the influx of Idumaeans into theMount Hebronregion, shortly after the demise of thekingdom of Judahand theJudean exilein the 6th-century BC.[15]

Strabodescribes western Judea as being populated by Idumeans, who commingled with Judeans and adopted their customs.[72]

Archaeological records gleaned fromMaresha,though largely of Idumaean origin, attest to the region being under the influences ofGreek culture,as well as that of Nabatean/Arab,Phoenician,Palmyreneand Jewish culture.[73]

TheGospel of Markstates that the Idumeans joinedJudeans,Jerusalemites,Tyrians,Sidoniansand eastJordaniansin meetingJesusby theSea of Galilee.[74]TheMishnahrefers toRabbi Ishmael's dwelling place inKfar Azizas being "near to Edom."[75]

First Jewish–Roman War

[edit]

By 66 CE, during theFirst Jewish–Roman War,theZealotleaderSimon bar Gioraattacked the Jewish converts of Upper Idumaea, and brought near complete destruction to the surrounding villages and countryside in that region.[76]It was part of his wider plan to attack Jerusalem and seize authority for himself.[77]

According toJosephus,during thesiege of Jerusalemin 70 CE byTitus,20,000 Idumaeans, under the leadership of John, Simon, Phinehas, and Jacob, joined the Zealots as theybesieged the Temple.[78]Idumean zealotry arguably reflected their attempts to 'prove' their Jewishness.[68]

After theJewish–Roman wars,the Idumaean people disappear from written history, though the geographical region of "Idumea" is still referred to at the time ofJerome.[43]

Religion

[edit]
Further information:Canaanite religion
Edomite goddess figure in theIsrael Museum

The nature of Edomite religion is largely unknown before their conversion to Judaism by theHasmoneans.Epigraphical evidence suggests that the national god of Edom wasQaus(קוס) (also known as 'Qaush', 'Kaush', 'Kaus', 'Kos' or 'Qaws'), since Qaus is invoked in the blessing formula in letters and appear in personal names found in ancient Edom.[79]As close relatives of otherLevantine SemitesandArabs,they seem to have worshiped such gods asEl,Baaland'Uzza.[13][80]In some Jewish tradition stemming from the Talmud, the descendants ofEsauare the Romans (and to a larger extent, all Europeans).[81][82][83]

Juan Manuel Tebes argues that Quas is a similar god toYahweh.Quas seems to have descended from a cultural heritage common between Edomites and Jews, with the worship of both the Edomite Quas and the God of the Israelites being described by Egyptians. Quas's popularity during the Persian and Hellenistic periods appears, according to Tebes, to have forced the purportedly pro-Yahwist authors of theBook of Chroniclesto portray several Edomite persons as 'piousLevites'. Clues about their Edomite heritage appear to be hidden in their theophoric names.[84]

Josephusstates that Costobarus, appointed by Herod to be governor of Idumea and Gaza, was descended from the priests of "the Koze, whom the Idumeans had formerly served as a god".[85]

Victor Sasson describes an Edomite text that paralles theBook of Job,which provides insight on the language, literature, and religion of Edom.[86]

Economy

[edit]

Khirbat en-Nahasis a large-scale copper-mining site excavated by archaeologist Thomas Levy in what is now southern Jordan. The scale of tenth-century mining on the site is regarded as evidence of a strong, centralized 10th century BC Edomite kingdom.[87]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^Levin, Yigal (2015)."The Formation of Idumean Identity".Aram.27.London: 187–202.
  2. ^"Edom".Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
  3. ^churchofjesuschrist.org: "Book of Mormon Pronunciation Guide"(retrieved 2012-02-25),IPA-ified from «ē´dum»
  4. ^abParpola, Simo (1970).Neo-Assyrian Toponyms.Kevaeler: Butzon & Bercker. pp. 364–365.
  5. ^abGauthier, Henri (1925).Dictionnaire des Noms Géographiques Contenus dans les Textes Hiéroglyphiques.Vol. 1. p. 126.
  6. ^abcdNegev & Gibson (ed.), 2001,Edom; Edomites,pp. 149–150
  7. ^Prof. Itzhaq Beit-Arieh (December 1996)."Edomites Advance into Judah".Biblical Archaeology Review.Retrieved8 December2015.
  8. ^Jan Gunneweg; Th. Beier; U. Diehl; D. Lambrecht; H. Mommsen (August 1991)."'Edomite', 'Negbite'and 'Midianite' pottery from the Negev desert and Jordan: instrumental neutron activation analysis results ".Archaeometry.33(2). Oxford, UK: Oxford University: 239–253.doi:10.1111/j.1475-4754.1991.tb00701.x.Retrieved8 December2015.
  9. ^Negev & Gibson (ed.), 2001,Idumea,pp. 239–240
  10. ^Ben-Yosef (1979), p. 25
  11. ^Charles Léon Souvay, ed. (1910)."Idumea".Catholic Encyclopedia.New York: Robert Appleton Company.Retrieved8 December2015.
  12. ^"Edom".Encyclopædia Britannica.Retrieved8 December2015.
  13. ^abLevin, Yigal (2020-09-24)."The Religion of Idumea and Its Relationship to Early Judaism".Religions.11(10): 487.doi:10.3390/rel11100487.ISSN2077-1444.
  14. ^Levin, Yigal (2020-09-24)."The Religion of Idumea and Its Relationship to Early Judaism".Religions.11(10): 487.doi:10.3390/rel11100487.ISSN2077-1444.
  15. ^abLepinski, Nadav (n.d.). "Tell Maresha". In Ben-Yosef, Sefi (ed.).Israel Guide - Judaea (A useful encyclopedia for the knowledge of the country)(in Hebrew). Vol. 9. Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House, in affiliation with the Israel Ministry of Defence. p. 325.OCLC745203905.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: year (link)
  16. ^Eph'al, Israel (1998)."Changes in Palestine during the Persian Period in Light of Epigraphic Sources".Israel Exploration Journal.48(1/2): 115.JSTOR27926503.
  17. ^Genesis 25:25
  18. ^Genesis 25:29–34
  19. ^Genesis 36:9:This is the genealogy of Esau the father of the Edomites
  20. ^Redford,Egypt, Canaan and Israel in Ancient Times,Princeton Univ. Press, 1992. p.228, 318.
  21. ^Crowell 2021,p. 47.
  22. ^Tebes 2022,p. 651.
  23. ^Müller,Asien und Europa,p. 135.
  24. ^"Israeli researchers identify biblical kingdom of Edom - Israel News - Jerusalem Post".www.jpost.com.19 September 2019.Retrieved2019-09-23.
  25. ^Amanda Borschel-Dan."Bible-era nomadic Edomite tribesmen were actually hi-tech copper mavens".www.timesofisrael.com.Retrieved2019-09-23.
  26. ^Levy, Thomas E.; Najjar, Mohammad; Tirosh, Ofir; Yagel, Omri A.; Liss, Brady; Ben-Yosef, Erez (2019-09-18)."Ancient technology and punctuated change: Detecting the emergence of the Edomite Kingdom in the Southern Levant".PLOS ONE.14(9): e0221967.Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1421967B.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0221967.ISSN1932-6203.PMC6750566.PMID31532811.
  27. ^Ptolemy, "Geography," v. 16
  28. ^Strabo,GeographyBk.16.2.34
  29. ^"Herod | Biography & Facts".Encyclopedia Britannica.Retrieved2018-10-13.
  30. ^Retso, Jan (2013-07-04).The Arabs in Antiquity: Their History from the Assyrians to the Umayyads.Routledge.ISBN9781136872891.
  31. ^Chancey, Mark A. (2002-05-23).The Myth of a Gentile Galilee.Cambridge University Press.ISBN9781139434652.
  32. ^Shahid, Irfan; Shahîd, Irfan (1984).Rome and the Arabs: A Prolegomenon to the Study of Byzantium and the Arabs.Dumbarton Oaks.ISBN9780884021155.
  33. ^Deuteronomy 1:2;Deuteronomy 2:1–8
  34. ^Judges 11:17–18;2 Kings 3:8–9
  35. ^Deuteronomy 2:13–18
  36. ^Genesis 36:33;Isaiah 34:6,Isaiah 63:1,et al.
  37. ^Tobi, Yosef Yuval[in Hebrew](2019). "The Bible as History: Sa'adia Gaon, Yefet ben 'Eli, Samuel ben Ḥofni, and Maimonides on the Genealogy of Esau and the Kingdom of Edom (Genesis 36)". In Polliack, Meira; Brenner-Idan, Athalya (eds.).Jewish Biblical Exegesis from Islamic Lands(PDF).Society of Biblical Literature (SBL Press). pp. 101–120.doi:10.2307/j.ctvrs8z1w.S2CID243304416.
  38. ^2 Kings 14:7
  39. ^1 Kings 9:26
  40. ^Genesis 36:31–43
  41. ^אַלּוּף
  42. ^Gordon, Bruce R."Edom (Idumaea)".Regnal Chronologies.Archived fromthe originalon 2006-04-29.Retrieved2006-08-04.
  43. ^abcRichard Gottheil,Max Seligsohn(1901-06-19)."Edom, Idumaea".The Jewish Encyclopedia.Vol. 3. Funk and Wagnalls. pp. 40–41.LCCN16014703.Archived fromthe originalon 2007-09-21.Retrieved2005-07-25.
  44. ^1 Chronicles 1:43–54
  45. ^Numbers 20:14–20,King James Version 1611
  46. ^Numbers 20:21
  47. ^2 Samuel 9:14–22;Josephus,Jewish Antiquitiesviii. 7, S 6
  48. ^2 Samuel 8:14
  49. ^2 Kings 3:9–26
  50. ^Dykehouse, Jason (2013)."Biblical Evidence from Obadiah and Psalm 137 for an Edomite Treaty Betrayal of Judah in the Sixth Century B.C.E."Antiguo Oriente.11:75–122.
  51. ^"Bible Gateway passage: Numbers 24:14, Numbers 24:17-18, Isaiah 11:14, Amos 9:11-12 - New American Standard Bible".Bible Gateway.Retrieved2021-11-08.
  52. ^abcdLevin, Yigal (2020-09-24)."The Religion of Idumea and Its Relationship to Early Judaism".Religions.11(10): 487.doi:10.3390/rel11100487.ISSN2077-1444.
  53. ^"Bible Gateway passage: Jeremiah 49:17-18 - New American Standard Bible".Bible Gateway.Retrieved2021-06-29.
  54. ^Psalms 60:8andPsalms 108:9
  55. ^Deuteronomy 23:8–9
  56. ^Yevamot76b
  57. ^Kloner, Amos;Stern, Ian (2007). "Idumea in the Late Persian Period (Fourth Century B.C.E.)". InLipschits, Oded;Knoppers, Gary N.;Albertz, Rainer (eds.).Judah and the Judeans in the Fourth Century B.C.E.Penn State University Press. pp. 139–143.ISBN9781575065809.
  58. ^abcGoodblatt, David, ed. (2006),"Theoretical Considerations: Nationalism and Ethnicity in Antiquity",Elements of Ancient Jewish Nationalism,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 21–22,doi:10.1017/cbo9780511499067.002,ISBN978-0-521-86202-8,retrieved2024-06-14
  59. ^Eshel, Esther; Kloner, Amos (1996)."An Aramaic Ostracon of an Edomite Marriage Contract from Maresha, Dated 176 B.C.E."Israel Exploration Journal.46(1/2): 1–22.ISSN0021-2059.
  60. ^Josephus, "Ant." xii. 8, §§ 1, 6
  61. ^ib. xiii. 9, § 1; xiv. 4, § 4
  62. ^Weitzman, Steven (1999)."Forced Circumcision and the Shifting Role of Gentiles in Hasmonean Ideology".The Harvard Theological Review.92(1): 37–59.doi:10.1017/S0017816000017843.ISSN0017-8160.JSTOR1510155.S2CID162887617.
  63. ^Josephus,Antiquities of the Jews,13.257-58
  64. ^Marshak, Adam Kolman (2012-01-01)."Rise of the Idumeans: Ethnicity and Politics in Herod's Judea".Jewish Identity and Politics Between the Maccabees and Bar Kokhba:117–129.doi:10.1163/9789004218512_008.ISBN9789004218512.
  65. ^Levin, Yigal (2020)."The Religion of Idumea and Its Relationship to Early Judaism".Religions.11(10): 487.doi:10.3390/rel11100487.
  66. ^McGuire, J. Amanda (2011)."Sacred Times: The Book of Jubilees at Qumran".Papers.2– via Digital Commons @ Andrews University.
  67. ^Schiffman, Lawrence H.,Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls: their True Meaning for Judaism and Christianity,Anchor Bible Reference Library (Doubleday) 1995.
  68. ^abThiessen, Matthew (2011).Contesting Conversion: Genealogy, Circumcision, and Identity in Ancient Judaism and Christianity.Oxford University Press. pp. 87–110.ISBN9780199914456.
  69. ^Gassner, Evie (2019)."How Jewish Was Herod?".TheTorah.com.
  70. ^Marciak, Michael (2017). "Idumea and the Idumeans in Josephus' Story of Hellenistic-Early Roman Palestine (Ant. XII-XX)".Aevum.91(1). Vita e Pensiero: 171–193.JSTOR26477573.
  71. ^Robinson, E.;Smith, E.(1856).Biblical Researches in Palestine, and in the Adjacent Regions. Journal of Travels in the Year 1838.Vol. 2. London / Boston:Crocker & Brewster.p.67 (note 7).OCLC425957927.,citingRelandwho cites in turnTyrannius Rufinusin his Latin translation ofJosephus'The Jewish War(4.8.1.).
  72. ^Strabo,GeographyBk.16.2.34
  73. ^Ameling, Walter; Cotton, Hannah M.;Eck, Werner;Ecker, Avner;Isaac, Benjamin(2018).Corpus Inscriptionum Iudaeae / Palaestinae.Vol. 4 (Iudaea / Idumaea). Berlin/Munich: De Gruyter. p. 939.ISBN9783110544213.
  74. ^Mark 3:8
  75. ^Mishna Kilaim 6:4; Ketuvot 5:8
  76. ^Josephus,De Bello Judaico(The Jewish War) IV, 514 (Wars of the Jews4.9.3) andDe Bello Judaico(The Jewish War) IV, 529 (Wars of the Jews4.9.7)
  77. ^Josephus, Wars of the Jews,Book IV
  78. ^Josephus,The Jewish Wariv. 4, § 5
  79. ^Ahituv, Shmuel.Echoes from the Past: Hebrew and Cognate Inscriptions from the Biblical Period.Jerusalem, Israel: Carta, 2008, pp. 351, 354
  80. ^M. Leuenberger (2017)."YHWH's Provenance from the South".In J. van Oorschot; M. Witte (eds.).The Origins of Yahwism.Berlin/Boston: Walter de Gruyter.ISBN9783110447118.
  81. ^"Did the Edomite tribe Magdiel found Rome? | AskNoah.org".January 13, 2011.
  82. ^"Edomites".in rabbinical sources, the word "Edom" was a code name for Rome
  83. ^"Esau the Ancestor of Rome - TheTorah.com".www.thetorah.com.Retrieved2023-09-06.
  84. ^Tebes, Juan Manuel (2022)."Why the Bible Is Mute about Qos, the Edomite God".TheTorah.com.Archived fromthe originalon February 23, 2024.
  85. ^Antiquities of the Jews,Book 15, chapter 7, section 9
  86. ^Victor Sasson (2006). "An Edomite Joban Text, with a Biblical Joban Parallel".Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft.117(4).doi:10.1515/zatw.2006.117.4.601.S2CID170594788.
  87. ^Kings of ControversyRobert DraperNational Geographic,December 2010.

Bibliography

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