English-only movement
TheEnglish-only movement,also known as theOfficial English movement,is apolitical movementthat advocates for the exclusive use of theEnglish languagein officialUnited States governmentcommunication through the establishment of English as the onlyofficial languagein theUnited States.The United States has never had an official national language. However, at some times and places, there have been various moves to promote or require the use of English, such as inNative American boarding schools.[1]
Support for the English-only movement began in 1907, underUS PresidentTheodore Roosevelt,and continues today as studies prove high percentage in approval ratings. Republican candidates have supported this movement during elections.
The English-only movement has received criticism and rejection within societies and educational systems. TheAmerican Civil Liberties Union(ACLU) has stated that English-only laws are inconsistent with both theFirst Amendmentright to communicate with or petition the government, as well asfree speechand the right to equality, because they bar government employees from providing non-English language assistance and services.
Early efforts
[edit]Disputes between citizens and immigrants over English have been waged since the 1750s, when street signs were changed in Pennsylvania to include both English and German languages to accommodate the many German immigrants.[2]The German-English debate continued untilWorld War Iwhen international hostility resulted in the rejection of all things German, including the prohibition of the German language and German-language materials, particularly books.[3]
In 1803, as a result of theLouisiana Purchase,the United States acquiredFrench-speaking populations inLouisiana.As a condition toadmittance to the Union,Louisiana included in its constitution a provision, which was later repealed, that required all official documents be published in the language "in which theConstitution of the United Statesis written ". Today, Louisiana has no law stating that English is the official language of the State.[4]
After theMexican–American War(1846–1848), the United States acquired about 75,000Spanishspeakers in addition to severalindigenous language-speaking populations.
An 1847 law authorized Anglo-French instruction in public schools in Louisiana. In 1849, theCalifornia constitutionrecognized Spanish language rights. French language rights were abolished after theAmerican Civil War.[5]In 1868, theIndian Peace Commissionrecommended English-only schooling for theNative Americans.In 1878–79, the California constitution was rewritten to state that "[a]ll laws of the State ofCalifornia,and all official writings, and the executive, legislative, and judicial proceedings shall be conducted, preserved, and published in no other than the English language. "[5]
In the late 1880s,WisconsinandIllinoispassed English-only instruction laws for both public and parochial schools.
In 1896, under theRepublic of Hawaiigovernment, English became the primary medium of public schooling forHawaiianchildren. After theSpanish–American War,English was declared "the official language of the school room" inPuerto Rico.[6]In the same way, English was declared the official language in thePhilippines,after thePhilippine–American War.
In 1907,US PresidentTheodore Rooseveltwrote, "We have room for but one language in this country, and that is the English language, for we intend to see that the crucible turns our people out as Americans, of Americannationality,and not as dwellers in a polyglot boarding house. "[7]
DuringWorld War I,there was a widespread campaign against the use of theGerman languagein the US; this included removing books in the German language from libraries.[3](A related action took place inSouth Australiaas well with the Nomenclature Act of 1917. The legislation renamed 69 towns, suburbs, or areas that had German names.)[8]
In 1923, a bill drafted by CongressmanWashington J. McCormickbecame the first proposed legislation regarding the United States' national language that would have made "American" the national language in order to differentiate the United States's language from that of England.[2]This bill did not pass in Congress despite significant support—especially from Irish immigrants who were resentful of British influence.[9]
Support
[edit]U.S. Englishis an organization that advocates for Official English, founded in the 1980s by former United States SenatorS. I. HayakawaandJohn Tanton.[10][11]ProEnglishis another group founded by Tanton that advocates Official English.[12]
In 2018, a Rasmussen poll found that 81% of American adults thought that English should be the official language of the United States, while 12% did not.[13]
In 2021, a Rasmussen poll found that 73% of Americans thought that English should be the official language, only 18% disagreed.[14]
Modern
[edit]In 1980,Miami-Dade County, Floridavoters approved an "anti-bilingual ordinance".[15]However, this was repealed by the county commission in 1993, after "racially orientated redistricting"[16]led to a change in government.[17]
In 1981, English was declared the official language in thecommonwealthofVirginia.[18]
In 1983,John TantonandU.S. SenatorS. I. Hayakawafounded a political lobbying organization,U.S. English.(Tanton was a former head of theSierra Club's population committee and ofZero Population Growth,and founder of theFederation for American Immigration Reform(FAIR), animmigration reductionistgroup.) In 1986, Tanton wrote a memo containing remarks aboutHispanicsclaimed by critics to be derogatory, which appeared in theArizona Republicnewspaper, leading to the resignations from U.S. English board memberWalter Cronkiteand executive directorLinda Chavez;Tanton would also sever his ties to the organization as a result. That same year, 1986,Larry Prattfounded English First, while Lou Zaeske, an engineer fromBryan,Texas,established the American Ethnic Coalition.Mauro Mujica,a Chilean immigrant, was later named Chairman and CEO in 1993.
In 1994, John Tanton and other former U.S. English associates founded ProEnglish specifically to defendArizona's English-only law. ProEnglish rejects the term "English-only movement" and asks its supporters to refer to the movement instead as "Official English".[19]
The U.S. Senate voted on two separate changes to an immigration bill in May 2006.[20][21]The amended bill recognized English as a "common and unifying language" and gave contradictory instructions to government agencies on their obligations for non-English publications.[22]
In what was essentially a replay of the 2006 actions, on June 6, 2007 the US Senate again voted on two separate amendments to a subsequent immigration reform bill that closely resembled the amendments to the 2006 Senate bill.[23][24]Ultimately, neither the 2006 nor 2007 immigration reform bill has become law.
On January 22, 2009, voters inNashville,Tennesseerejecteda proposalunder a referendum election to make "Nashville the largest city in the United States to prohibit the government from using languages other than English, with exceptions allowed for issues of health and safety." The initiative failed by a vote of 57% to 43%.[25]
In March 2012, Republican presidential candidateRick Santorumwascriticizedby someRepublican delegates from Puerto Ricowhen he publicly took the position that Puerto Rico, a Spanish-speaking territory, should be required to make English its primary language as a condition of statehood.[26]
In 2015 during a debate, then Republican presidential candidateDonald Trumpsaid, "This is a country where we speak English, not Spanish."[27]
On February 6, 2019, the116th Congressintroduced a bill in House establishing English as the official language of the United States. TheHouse of Representativesnamed it the English Language Unity Act of 2019. Within this bill, there is a framework for implementation. They strive to enforce English as the only language by testing it during thenaturalizationprocess.[28]This bill has yet to be passed.
Criticism
[edit]The modern English-only movement has met with rejection from theLinguistic Society of America,which passed a resolution in 1986–87 opposing "'English only' measures on the grounds that they are based on misconceptions about the role of a common language in establishing political unity, and that they are inconsistent with basic American traditions of linguistic tolerance."[29]
LinguistGeoffrey Pullum,in an essay entitled "Here come the linguistic fascists", chargesEnglish Firstwith "hatred and suspicion of aliens and immigrants" and points out that English is far from under threat in the United States, saying "making English the official language of the United States of America is about as urgently called for as makinghotdogsthe official food atbaseballgames. "[30]Rachele Lawton, applyingcritical discourse analysis,argues that English-only's rhetoric suggests that the "real motivation is discrimination and disenfranchisement."[31]
TheAmerican Civil Liberties Union(ACLU) has stated that English-only laws are inconsistent with both theFirst Amendmentright to communicate with or petition the government, as well asfree speechand the right to equality, because they bar government employees from providing non-English language assistance and services.[32]On August 11, 2000, PresidentBill ClintonsignedExecutive Order 13166,"Improving Access to Services for Persons with Limited English Proficiency." The Executive Order requires Federal agencies to examine the services they provide, identify any need for services to those withlimited English proficiency(LEP), and develop and implement a system to provide those services so LEP persons can have meaningful access to them.[33]
While the judicial system has noted that state English-only laws are largely symbolic and non-prohibitive, supervisors and managers often interpret them to mean English is the mandatory language of daily life.[34]In one instance, an elementary school bus driver prohibited students from speaking Spanish on their way to school afterColoradopassed its legislation.[34]In 2004 inScottsdale,a teacher claimed to be enforcing English immersion policies when she allegedly slapped students for speaking Spanish in class.[35]In 2005 inKansas City,a student was suspended for speaking Spanish in the school hallways. The written discipline referral explaining the decision of the school to suspend the student for one and a half days, noted: "This is not the first time we have [asked the student] and others to not speak Spanish at school."[36]
One study both of laws requiring English as the language of instruction and compulsory schooling laws during the Americanization period (1910–1930) found that the policies moderately increased the literacy of some foreign-born children but had no impact on immigrants' eventual labor market outcomes or measures of social integration. The authors concluded that the "very moderate impacts" of the laws were probably because foreign languages were declining naturally, without the help of English-only laws.[37]
Current law
[edit]
| Place | Englishofficial | Other official language(s) | Note |
|---|---|---|---|
| Alabama | Yes | None | since 1990[38] |
| Alaska | Yes | Inupiaq, Siberian Yupik, Central Alaskan Yup'ik, Alutiiq, Unangax, Dena'ina, Deg Xinag, Holikachuk, Koyukon, Upper Kuskokwim, Gwich'in, Tanana, Upper Tanana, Tanacross, Hän, Ahtna, Eyak, Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian[39] |
since 2015[39] |
| Arizona | Yes | None | since 2006, 1988 law ruled unconstitutional[40] |
| Arkansas | Yes | None | since 1987[38] |
| California | Yes | None | since 1986 withProposition 63.[38]Proposition 63 is unenforceable due to the lack of appropriate legislation,[41]and the Bilingual Services Act provides for the use of other languages in public outreach.[42] |
| Colorado | Yes | None | since 1988;[38]from 1876–1990 theColorado Constitutionrequired laws to be published in English, Spanish, and German[43] |
| Connecticut | No | None[38] | |
| Delaware | No | None[38] | |
| Florida | Yes | None | since 1988[38] |
| Georgia | Yes | None | since 1996[38] |
| Hawaii | Yes | Hawaiian | since 1978[38] |
| Idaho | Yes | None | since 2007[38] |
| Illinois | Yes | None | since 1969; "American" was the official language 1923–1969.[38] |
| Indiana | Yes | None | since 1984[38] |
| Iowa | Yes | None | since 2002[38] |
| Kansas | Yes | None | since 2007[38] |
| Kentucky | Yes | None | since 1984[38] |
| Louisiana | No | None | Frenchhas had special status since 1968 founding ofCODOFIL.[38][44] |
| Maine | No | None[38] | |
| Maryland | No | None[38] | |
| Massachusetts | Yes | None[38] | since 2002; 1975 law ruled unconstitutional |
| Michigan | No | None[38] | |
| Minnesota | No | None[38] | |
| Mississippi | Yes | None | since 1987[38] |
| Missouri | Yes | None[38] | since 1998; state constitution amended accordingly in 2008[45] |
| Montana | Yes | None | since 1995[38] |
| Nebraska | Yes | None | since 1920[46] |
| Nevada | No | None[38] | |
| New Hampshire | Yes | None | since 1995[38] |
| New Jersey | No | None[38] | |
| New Mexico | No | None | Spanishhas had special recognition since 1912 passage of state constitution. Seearticle.English Plussince 1989[38] |
| New York | No | None[38] | |
| North Carolina | Yes | None | since 1987[38] |
| North Dakota | Yes | None | since 1987[38] |
| Ohio | No | None[38] | |
| Oklahoma | Yes | None | since 2010. TheChoctaw languageis official within theChoctaw Nation;theCherokee languagehas been official among theCherokeeand theUKBsince 1991.[47][48][49][50] |
| Oregon | No | None | English Plussince 1989[38] |
| Pennsylvania | No | None[38] | |
| Rhode Island | No | None | English Plussince 1992[38] |
| South Carolina | Yes | None | since 1987[38] |
| South Dakota | Yes | Sioux | since 1995,[38]since 2019[51] |
| Tennessee | Yes | None | since 1984[38] |
| Texas | No | None[38] | |
| Utah | Yes | None | English only from 2000–2021;[38]since 2021, the Utah code has been amended to be English official but not English only.[52] |
| Vermont | No | None[38] | |
| Virginia | Yes | None | since 1996[38] |
| Washington | No | None | English Plussince 1989[38] |
| West Virginia | Yes | None[38] | since 2016[53] |
| Wisconsin | No | None[38] | |
| Wyoming | Yes | None | since 1996[38] |
| District of Columbia | No | None[54][55] | The Language Access Act of 2004 guarantees equal access and participation in public services, programs, and activities for residents of the District of Columbia who cannot (or have limited capacity to) speak, read, or write English. Speakers ofAmharic,French,Chinese,Spanish,VietnameseandKoreanreceive additional accommodations.[56][57] |
| American Samoa | Yes | Samoan[58] | |
| Guam | Yes | Chamorro[59] | |
| Northern Mariana Islands | Yes | Chamorro,Carolinian[60] | |
| Puerto Rico | Yes | Spanish[61] | |
| U.S. Virgin Islands | Yes | None[62] |
The United States federal government does not specify an official language; however, all official documents in the U.S. are written in English, though some are also published in other languages.[63]
See also
[edit]
- Bilingual education
- Conservatism in the United States
- Council for the Development of French in Louisiana
- English language learning and teaching
- Languages in the United States
- List of countries where English is an official language
- Spanish in the United States
- English-medium education
- English Plus
References
[edit]- ^abRich, Alex; Vance, Noelle (March 1, 2016). "English As A National Language: An Overview".Points of View: English As National Language.
- ^abMartin, James J(1988),An American Adventure in Bookburning in the Style of 1918,Ralph Myles Publisher
- ^"Current Document for Louisiana, Constitution-1812".Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey.RetrievedJune 30,2024.
- ^ab"Codes: Codes Tree - * California Constitution - CONS".leginfo.legislature.ca.gov.RetrievedMarch 21,2022.
- ^Crawford, James (2000).At War With Diversity: U.S. Language Policy in an Age of Anxiety.Multilingual Matters. p.17.ISBN978-1-85359-505-9.
- ^Roosevelt, Theodore,Works(Memorial ed., 1926), vol. XXIV, p. 554 (New York: Charles Scribner's 11 Sons).
- ^Leadbeater, Maureen M."German Place Names in South Australia".RetrievedDecember 29,2007.[permanent dead link]
- ^"Milestones: 1866–1898 - Office of the Historian".history.state.gov.RetrievedMarch 21,2022.
- ^Schudel, Matt (July 21, 2019)."John Tanton, architect of anti-immigration and English-only efforts, dies at 85".The Washington Post.RetrievedFebruary 3,2023.
- ^Portes, Alejandro (Spring 2002)."English-only triumphs, but the costs are high".Contexts:10–15.RetrievedFebruary 3,2023.
- ^Piggott, Stephen (January 26, 2018)."Anti-immigrant hate group ProEnglish visits White House".Southern Poverty Law Center.RetrievedFebruary 3,2023.
- ^"Americans Strongly Favor English as Official Language".
- ^"Americans Still Support English as Official Language".
- ^"The Language Battle: Speaking the Truth"(PDF),Inter-American Law Review,University of Miami Law School, p. 2, February 9, 2007, archived fromthe original(PDF)on September 27, 2011,retrievedFebruary 17,2008
- ^"'English only' law may be repealed in Florida county ". Observer-Reporter. May 3, 1993. p. A8.
The racially orientated redistricting of the Dade County commission may accomplish what a long campaign by Hispanics has failed to do – repeal the local "English only" law.
- ^"The power of language".St. Petersburg Times.May 23, 1993. p. 1D.
- ^Official English Laws: Code of Virginia, Chapter 829,languagepolicy.net, accessed February 22, 2015/
- ^Official English Is Not "English Only",proenglish.org, archived fromthe originalon January 21, 2008,retrievedFebruary 17,2008
- ^Roll call vote on the Amendment (Inhofe Amdt. No. 4064),US Senate, May 18, 2006,retrievedApril 9,2009
- ^Roll call vote on the Amendment (Salazar Amdt. No. 4073 As Modified),US Senate, May 18, 2006,retrievedApril 9,2009
- ^"Snopes on the English-only amendments".RetrievedAugust 25,2008.
- ^Roll call vote on the Amendment (Inhofe Amdt. No. 1151),US Senate, June 6, 2007,retrievedApril 9,2009
- ^Roll call vote on the Amendment (Salazar Amdt. No. 1384),US Senate, June 6, 2007,retrievedApril 9,2009
- ^"English-only fails; lopsided vote ends heated campaign"[permanent dead link],The Tennessean,January 23, 2009. Retrieved on January 23, 2009.
- ^Seelye, Katherine Q.; Parker, Jr., Ashley (March 15, 2012)."For Santorum, Trying to Tamp Down a Firestorm Over Puerto Rico Remarks".New York Times.RetrievedOctober 10,2012.
- ^Goldmacher, Shane (September 23, 2016)."Trump's English-only campaign".Politico.RetrievedJanuary 27,2020.
- ^King, Steve (March 22, 2019)."Text - H.R.997 - 116th Congress (2019-2020): English Language Unity Act of 2019".www.congress.gov.RetrievedApril 13,2022.
- ^Nunberg, Geoff (December 28, 1986),Resolution: English Only,Linguistic Society of America, archived fromthe originalon April 21, 2008,retrievedFebruary 17,2008
- ^Pullum, Geoffrey K.(1987), "Here come the linguistic fascists.",Natural Language and Linguistic Theory,5(4): 603–9,doi:10.1007/BF00138990,S2CID171070339.Reprinted inGeoffrey K. Pullum. (1991),The Great Eskimo Vocabulary Hoax and Other Irreverent Essays on the Study of Language,Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 111–19,ISBN0-226-68534-9
- ^Lawton, Rachele (2013),"Speak English or Go Home: The Anti-Immigrant Discourse of the American 'English Only' Movement",Critical Approaches to Discourse Analysis Across Disciplines,7(1): 100–122
- ^The Rights of Immigrants -ACLU Position Paper (9/8/2000). Retrieved on 2008-12-11
- ^Executive Order 13166. Retrieved on 2008-12-11ArchivedJanuary 5, 2009, at theWayback Machine
- ^abGibson, Kari. English only court cases involving the U.S workplace. University of Hawai'i. Retrieved on 2008-12-11
- ^Anne Ryman and Ofelia Madrid,Hispanics upset by teacher's discipline,The Arizona Republic, January 17, 2004.
- ^T.R. Reid,Spanish At School Translates to Suspension,The Washington Post, December 9, 2005.
- ^Lleras-Muney, Adriana;Shertzer, Allison (2015)."Did the Americanization Movement Succeed? An Evaluation of the Effect of English-Only and Compulsory Schooling Laws on Immigrants †".American Economic Journal: Economic Policy.7(3): 258–290.doi:10.1257/pol.20120219.
- ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacadaeafagahaiajakalamanaoapaqarasatCrawford, James (June 24, 2008)."Language Legislation in the U.S.A."languagepolicy.net.RetrievedApril 27,2011.
- ^ab"Alaska State Legislature".www.akleg.gov.
- ^"Arizona makes English official".Washington Times. November 8, 2006.RetrievedApril 28,2011.
- ^Dillow, Gordon (May 21, 2006)."English-only law likely would go unenforced".The Orange County Register.RetrievedSeptember 24,2023.
- ^"Language Access Laws and Legal Issues: A Local Official's Guide"(PDF).Institute for Local Government.Institute for Local Government.RetrievedSeptember 23,2023.
- ^Constitution of the State of Colorado(PDF).p. 132.RetrievedFebruary 2,2024.
- ^Crawford, James."Language Policy -- Louisiana".Language Legislation in the U.S.A.RetrievedOctober 10,2016.
- ^IT, Missouri Secretary of State - (March 3, 2020)."2008 Ballot Measures".Missouri Secretary of State.RetrievedMarch 10,2022.
- ^"Section I-27, English language to be official".Justia Law.January 24, 2022.RetrievedMarch 10,2022.
- ^"Keetoowah Cherokee is the Official Language of the UKB"(PDF).keetoowahcherokee.org/.Keetoowah Cherokee News: Official Publication of the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians in Oklahoma. April 2009.RetrievedJune 1,2014.
- ^"UKB Constitution and By-Laws in the Keetoowah Cherokee Language (PDF)"(PDF).www.keetoowahcherokee.org/.United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians.RetrievedJune 2,2014.
- ^"The Cherokee Nation & its Language"(PDF).University of Minnesota: Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition.2008.RetrievedMay 22,2014.
- ^Slipke, Darla (November 3, 2010)."Oklahoma elections: Republican-backed measures win approval".NewsOK.The Oklahoman.RetrievedApril 28,2011.
- ^"Amendment For Printed Bill".South Dakota Legislature.
- ^Official Language Amendments(Bill). Utah Legislature. March 22, 2021.
- ^"U.S. English Efforts Lead West Virginia to Become 32nd State to Recognize English as Official Language".U.S. English. March 5, 2016.RetrievedMarch 22,2016.
- ^"(Un)Constitutionality of English as the Official Language of the US".Daily Kos.
- ^Zavodny, Madeline (July 2000)."The Effects of Official English Laws on Limited‐English‐Proficient Workers".Journal of Labor Economics.18(3). The University of Chicago Press: 427–452.doi:10.1086/209965.
- ^"Know Your Rights: Language Access | ohr".ohr.dc.gov.
- ^""I Speak" Cards for Language Assistance | ohr ".ohr.dc.gov.
- ^"Samoa now an official language of instruction in American Samoa".Radio New Zealand International. October 3, 2008.RetrievedApril 28,2011.
- ^Guamat theEncyclopædia Britannica
- ^Northern Mariana Islandsat theEncyclopædia Britannica
- ^Crawford, James."Puerto Rico and Official English".languagepolicy.net.RetrievedApril 27,2011.
- ^"Frequently Asked Questions".visitusvi.com.United States Virgin Islands.RetrievedApril 27,2011.
- ^"Spanish language website for the FDA".US Food and Drug Administration.RetrievedJuly 5,2008.
Further reading
[edit]- Lynch, William. "A Nation Established by Immigrants Sanctions Employers for Requiring English to be Spoken at Work: English-Only Work Rules and National Origin Discrimination," 16Temple Political and Civil Rights Law Review65 (2006).
- Olson, Wendy. "The Shame of Spanish: Cultural Bias in English First Legislation,"Chicano-Latino Law Review11 (1991).
External links
[edit]- U.S. English (advocates for Official English)
- Anatomy of the English-Only Movement,byJames Crawford
- Institute for Language and Education Policy
- Lingo Jingo: English Only and the New Nativism,byGeoffrey Nunberg
- English-Only Movement: Its Consequences on the Education of Language Minority ChildrenArchivedNovember 27, 2020, at theWayback Machine
- Language Legislation in the U.S.A.
- Statements and legal actions against English-only lawby theAmerican Civil Liberties Union
- English as the Official Language of the United States: Legal background and Analysis of Legislation in the 110th Congress
- Linguistic Society of American Statement on Language Rights