Epithet

Not to be confused withEpitaph.For the taxonomic usage, seeEpithet (disambiguation).

Anepithet(fromAncient Greekἐπίθετον(epítheton)'adjective', fromἐπίθετος(epíthetos)'additional'),also abyname,is a descriptive term (word or phrase) commonly accompanying or occurring in place of the name of a real or fictitious person, place, or thing. It is usually literally descriptive, as inAlfred the Great,Suleiman the Magnificent,Richard the Lionheart,andLadislaus the Short,orallusive,as inEdward the Confessor,William the Conqueror,Æthelred the Unready,John Lackland,Mehmed the ConquerorandBloody Mary.

The wordepithetalso may refer to an abusive, defamatory, or derogatory word or phrase.This use is criticized by Martin Manser and other proponents oflinguistic prescription.H. W. Fowlernoted in 1926 that "epithetis suffering a vulgarization that is giving it an abusive imputation. "

Linguistics

Epithets are sometimes attached to a person's name or appear in place of their name, as what might be described as a glorified nickname orsobriquet,and for this reason some linguists have argued that they should be considered aspronouns.It has also been argued that epithets are a phenomenon with thesyntax–semantics interface,because they have components of both, and also apragmaticdimension.

An epithet is linked to its noun by long-established usage. Not every adjective is an epithet. An epithet is especially recognizable when its function is largely decorative, such as if "cloud-gathering Zeus" is employed other than in reference to conjuring up a storm. "The epithets are decorative insofar as they are neither essential to the immediate context nor modeled especially for it. Among other things, they are extremely helpful to fill out a half-verse",Walter Burkerthas noted.

Some epithets are known by the Latin termepitheton necessarium,as they are required to distinguish the bearers, as an alternative to numbers after a prince's name—such as Richard the Lionheart (Richard I of England), orCharles the FatalongsideCharles the Bald.The same epithet can be used repeatedly joined to different names, such asAlexander the Greatas well asConstantine the Great.

Other epithets can easily be omitted without serious risk of confusion and are therefore known asepitheton ornans.Thus, the classical Roman author Virgil systematically called his main heropius Aeneas,the epithet beingpius,meaning religiously observant, humble and wholesome, as well as calling the armsbearer of Aeneasfidus Achates,the epithet beingfidus,which means faithful or loyal.

Literature

Epithets are characteristic of the style of ancientepic poetry,notably in that ofHomeror the northern European sagas (see above, as well asepithets in Homer). WhenJames Joyceuses the phrase "the snot-green sea" he is playing Homer's familiar epithet "the wine-dark sea". The phrase "Discreet Telemachus" is also considered an epithet.

The Greek termantonomasia,in rhetoric, means substituting any epithet or phrase for a proper name, as "Pelides", signifying the "son of Peleus", to identify Achilles. An opposite substitution of a proper name for some generic term is also sometimes calledantonomasia,as a Cicero for an orator. The use of a father's name or ancestor's name, such as "Pelides" in the case of Achilles, or "Saturnia" in the case of the goddess Juno in Virgil'sAeneid,is specifically called a patronymic device and is in its own class of epithet.

InWilliam Shakespeare's playRomeo and Juliet,epithets are used in the prologue, such as "star-cross'd lovers" and "death-mark'd love."

Epithets were in layman's terms glorified nicknames that could be used to represent one's style, artistic nature, or even geographical reference. They originated to simply serve the purpose of dealing with names that were hard to pronounce or just unpleasant.It from there went to something that could be very significant assigned by elders or counterparts to represent one's position in the community, or it could be a representation of whomever one wanted to be or thought he was.The elegance of this movement was used throughout history and even modern day, with many examples ranging from "Aphrodite the Heavenly & Zeus the Protector of Guests" all the way to "Johnny Football & King James".

American comic bookstend to give epithets tosuperheroes,such asThe Phantombeing "The Ghost Who Walks",Supermancalled "The Man of Steel", and "The Dynamic Duo"BatmanandRobin,who are individually known as "The Dark Knight" and "The Boy Wonder".

Additionally,epíteto,the Spanish version of epithet, is commonly used throughout poems in Castilian literature.

Religion

Main article:Names of God

In manypolytheisticreligions, such as those of ancient Indiaand Iran(the most ancient of which go back to a common Indo-Iranian period),Greece and Rome, a deity's epithets generally reflected a particular aspect of that god's essence and role, for which their influence may be obtained for a specific occasion: ApolloMusagetesis "Apollo,[as] leader of theMuses"and therefore patron of the arts and sciences, whilePhoibosApollo is the same deity, but as shining sun-god. "Athenaprotects the city aspolias,oversees handicrafts asergane,joins battle aspromachosand grants victory asnike."

Alternatively, the epithet may identify a particular and localized aspect of the god, such as a reference to the mythological place of birth ornuminous presenceat a specific sanctuary: sacrifice might be offered on one and the same occasion to Pythian Apollo (Apollo Pythios) and Delphic Apollo (Apollo Delphinios). A localizing epithet refers simply to a particular center of veneration and the cultic tradition there, as the god manifested at a particular festival, for example: Zeus Olympios, Zeus as present at Olympia, or Apollo Karneios, Apollo at the SpartanCarneian festival.

Often the epithet is the result of fusion of the Olympian divinity with an older one.Poseidon ErechtheusandArtemis Orthiareflect intercultural equations of a divinity with an older one that is generally considered its pendan. Thus, most Roman gods and goddesses, especially theTwelve Olympians,had traditional counterparts in Greek, Etruscan, and most other Mediterranean pantheons, such asJupiteras head of the Olympian Gods withZeus.But in specific cults there may be a different equation, based on one specific aspect of the divinity. Thus, the Greek wordTrismegistos( "thrice grand" ) was first used as a Greek name for the Egyptian god of science and invention,Thoth,later as anepithetonfor the GreekHermesand, finally, the fully equated Roman MercuriusMercury(both were messenger of the gods). Among the Greeks, T.H. Price notesthat the nurturing power ofKourotrophosmight be invoked in sacrifices and recorded in inscription, without specifically identifyingHeraorDemeter.

Some epithets were applied to several deities of the same pantheon rather accidentally if they had a common characteristic, or deliberately, emphasizing their blood or other ties. Thus, in pagan Rome, several divinities gods and heroes were given theepithetonComesas companion of another (usually major) divinity. An epithet can even be meant for collective use, e.g., in Latinpilleati,"the felt hat-wearers" for the brothersCastor and Pollux.Some epithets resist explanation.

Catholics,Eastern OrthodoxChristians, and Christians of other churches practice the use of epithets in the veneration ofJesus(e.g., "Christ"; "Prince of Peace";"The Good Shepherd"), ofMary, Mother of Jesus(e.g., "Mother of God";"Panagia"), and of the saints (e.g.,"Pope Saint John Paul the Great,Saint Theophan the Recluse")."Our Lady of Lourdes"is essentiallyperiphrasis,except where some aspect of the Virgin is invoked.

Rhetoric

An epithet is an adjective or adjectival phrase that characterizes a place, a thing, or a person that helps make the characteristics of this thing more prominent. These descriptive phrases can be used in a positive or negative way that benefits the orator. "It will generally happen, that the Epithets employed by a skillful orator, will be found to be, in fact, so many abridged arguments, the force of which is sufficiently conveyed by a mere hint; e.g., if any one says, 'We ought to take warning from the bloody revolution of France,' the Epithet suggests one of the reasons for our being warned; and that, not less clearly, and more forcibly, than if the argument had been stated at length."With persuasion being a key component of rhetoric, it is rational to use epithets. The use of persuasive wording gives leverage to one's arguments. Knowledge along with descriptive words or phrases can be a powerful tool. This is supported in Bryan Short's article when he states, "The New Rhetoric derives its empiricist flavor from a pervasive respect for clarity and directness of language."Rhetoricians use epithets to direct their audience to see their point of view, using verbal forms of imagery as a persuasive tactic.

Orators have a variety of epithets that they can employ that have different meanings. The most common are fixed epithets and transferred epithets. A fixed epithet is the repetitive use of the same word or phrase for the same person or object. A transferred epithet qualifies a noun other than the person or thing it is describing. This is also known as a hypallage. This can often involve shifting a modifier from the animate to the inanimate; for example, "cheerful money" and "suicidal sky".

Orators take special care when using epithets so as to not use them as smear words. Orators could be accused of racial or abusive epithets if used incorrectly. American journalistWilliam Safirediscussed the use of the word in a 2008 column inThe New York Times:"'I am working on a piece about nationalism with a focus on epithet as a smear word,' writes David Binder, my longtime Times colleague, 'which was still a synonym for 'delineation' or 'characterization' in my big 1942 Webster's but now seems to be almost exclusively a synonym for 'derogation' or 'smear word.'... In the past century, [epithet] blossomed as 'a word of abuse,' today gleefully seized upon to describe political smears."

Usage prior to surnames

Descriptive bynames were given to a person to distinguish them from other people of the same name.In England bynames were used during the period when the use ofsurnameshad not been extensively adopted. As an example theDomesday Bookof 1086 identifies 40 individuals with the given name of "Richard". Most (40%), such as "Richard of Coursey" are identified with a locational byname, indicating where they came from, or in some cases where they lived. Others (25%), such as "Richard the butler" and "Richard the bald" are identified with an occupational or a personally descriptive byname. Some of the individuals, such asRichard Basset,made use of what would now be recognized as a surname.

The distinction between a byname and a surname is that the byname is not usually heritable, and may change for any given person as his circumstances change. Richard the Bald, for example, was presumably not always bald, and Richard of Brampton may not have always lived at Brampton.

The use of bynames did not end with the adoption of surnames. In some cases, before the adoption of middle names, government records, such as taxes lists, included people with both the same given name and the same surname. This led to the use of bynames to further distinguish the person. For example, one "John Smith" might be described as "John Smith of the mill", while another might be described as "John Smith the short".

See also

• Animal epithet
• Bahuvrihi,aProto-Indo-Europeanformation often used for epithets
• Cognomen
• Honorific
• List of monarchs by nickname
• Lists of people by epithet
• Makurakotoba
• Nickname
• Plant epithet
• Sobriquet
• Synecdoche
• Toponymic surname,a surname derived from a place name

External links

• Media related toEpithetsat Wikimedia Commons
• Homer's Epitheta ornantiaBibliotheca Augustana