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This article is about the whole family of instruments. For the flute commonly used in orchestras and bands, seeWestern concert flute.For other uses, seeFlute (disambiguation).

Picture of a collection of flutes. Contains Shinobue and other flutes spread out on a violet velveteen cloth.
Shinobueand other flutes
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Thefluteis a member of a family of musical instruments in thewoodwindgroup. Like all woodwinds, flutes areaerophones,producing sound with a vibrating column of air. Flutes produce sound when the player's air flows across an opening. In theHornbostel–Sachsclassification system, flutes areedge-blown aerophones.[1]A musician who plays the flute is called aflautistorflutist.

Paleolithic fluteswith hand-bored holes are the earliest known identifiable musical instruments. A number of flutes dating to about 53,000 to 45,000 years ago have been found in theSwabian Juraregion of present-dayGermany,indicating a developed musical tradition from the earliest period of modern human presence inEurope.[2][3]While the oldest flutes currently known were found in Europe, Asia also has a long history with the instrument. A playable bone flute discovered in China is dated to about 9,000 years ago.[4]The Americas also had an ancient flute culture, with instruments found inCaral,Peru,dating back 5,000 years[5]and inLabradordating back about 7,500 years.[6]

Thebamboo flutehas a long history, especially in China and India. Flutes have been discovered in historical records and artworks starting in theZhou dynasty(c.1046–256 BC). The oldest written sources reveal the Chinese were using thekuan(a reed instrument) andhsio(or xiao, anend-blown flute,often of bamboo) in the 12th–11th centuries BC, followed by the chi (or ch'ih) in the 9th century BC and the yüeh in the 8th century BC.[7]Of these, the bamboo chi is the oldest documentedtransverse flute.[7][8]

MusicologistCurt Sachscalled the cross flute (Sanskrit: vāṃśī) "the outstanding wind instrument of ancient India", and said that religious artwork depicting "celestial music" instruments was linked to music with an "aristocratic character".[9]The Indian bamboo cross flute,Bansuri,was sacred toKrishna,who is depicted with the instrument inHinduart.[9]In India, thecross fluteappeared in reliefs from the 1st century AD atSanchiandAmaravatifrom the 2nd–4th centuries AD.[9][10]

According to historian Alexander Buchner, there were flutes in Europe in prehistoric times, but they disappeared from the continent until flutes arrived from Asia by way of "North Africa, Hungary, and Bohemia".[11]The end-blown flute began to be seen in illustration in the 11th century.[11]Transverse flutes entered Europe throughByzantiumand were depicted in Greek art about 800 AD.[12]The transverse flute had spread into Europe by way of Germany, and was known as the German flute.[12]

Etymology and terminology

[edit]

The wordflutefirst appeared in the English language during theMiddle Englishperiod, asfloute,[13]flowte,orflo(y)te,[14]possibly fromOld FrenchflauteandOld Provençalflaüt,[13]or possibly from Old Frenchfleüte,flaüte,flahuteviaMiddle High GermanfloiteorDutchfluit.The English verbflouthas the same linguistic root, and the modern Dutch verbfluitenstill shares the two meanings.[15]Attempts to trace the word back to the Latinflare(to blow, inflate) have been called "phonologically impossible" or "inadmissable".[14]The first known use of the wordflutewas in the 14th century.[16]According to theOxford English Dictionary,this was inGeoffrey Chaucer'sThe Hous of Fame,c. 1380.[14]

A musician who plays any instrument in the flute family can be called a flutist,[17]flautist,[18]or flute player.Flutistdates back to at least 1603, the earliest quotation cited by theOxford English Dictionary.Flautistwas used in 1860 byNathaniel HawthorneinThe Marble Faun,after being adopted during the 18th century from Italy (flautista,itself fromflauto), like many musical terms in England since theItalian Renaissance.Other English terms, now virtually obsolete, arefluter(15th–19th centuries)[19][20][21]andflutenist(17th and 18th centuries).[15][22]

History

[edit]
Further information:Paleolithic flutesandPrehistoric music
Statue of Krishna playing a flute
Statue ofKrishnaplaying a flute
12th-century art, Chinese women playing flutes
Chinese women playing flutes, from the 12th-centurySong dynastyremake of theNight Revels of Han Xizai,originally byGu Hongzhong(10th century)

A fragment of a juvenilecave bear'sfemur,with two to four holes, was found atDivje BabeinSloveniaand dated to about 43,000 years ago. It may be the oldest flute discovered, but this has been disputed.[23][24]In 2008, a flute dated to at least 35,000 years ago was discovered inHohle Felscave nearUlm,Germany.[25]It is a five-holed flute with a V-shaped mouthpiece and was made from avulturewing bone. The discovery was published in the journalNature,in August 2009.[26]This was the oldest confirmed musical instrument ever found,[27]until a redating of flutes found inGeißenklösterlecave revealed them to be older, at 42,000 to 43,000 years.[3]

The Hohle Fels flute is one of several found in theHohle Fels cavernnext to theVenus of Hohle Felsand a short distance from the oldest known human carving.[28]On announcing the discovery, scientists suggested that the "finds demonstrate the presence of a well-established musical tradition at the time when modern humans colonized Europe".[29]Scientists have also suggested that this flute's discovery may help to explain "the probable behavioural and cognitive gulf between"Neanderthalsandearly modern human.[27]

Bone flute made of a goat's tibia, 11th–13th century AD.

An 18.7 cm flute with three holes, made from amammothtusk and dated to 30,000–37,000 years ago, was found in 2004 in theGeißenklösterlecave near Ulm, in the southern GermanSwabian Alb.[30]Two flutes made fromswanbones were excavated a decade earlier from the same cave and dated to about 36,000 years ago.

A playable 9,000-year-old ChineseGudi(literally, "bone flute" ) was excavated from a tomb inJiahualong with 29 similar specimens.[31]They were made from the wing bones of red-crowned cranes and each has five to eight holes.[32] The earliest extant Chinese transverse flute is achi(Trì) flute discovered in theTomb of Marquis Yi of Zengat theSuizhousite,Hubeiprovince,China,dating from 433 BC, during the laterZhou dynasty.[33]It is fashioned oflacqueredbamboo with closed ends and has five stops on the flute's side instead of the top.Shi Jing,traditionally said to have been compiled and edited byConfucius,mentions chi flutes.

The earliest written reference to a flute is from aSumerian-languagecuneiform tabletdated to c. 2600–2700 BC.[34] Flutes are mentioned in a recently translated tablet of theEpic of Gilgamesh,an epic poem whose development spanned the period from about 2100–600 BC.[35]A set of cuneiform tablets knows as the "musical texts"provide precise tuning instructions for seven scales of a stringed instrument (assumed to be a Babylonianlyre). One of those scales is named "embūbum",which is anAkkadianword for "flute".[35]

The Bible,inGenesis4:21, citesJubalas being the "father of all those who play theugaband thekinnor".The former Hebrew term is believed by some to refer to a wind instrument, or wind instruments in general, the latter to a stringed instrument, or stringed instruments in general. As such, Jubal is regarded in the Judeo-Christian tradition as the inventor of the flute (a word used in some translations of this biblical passage).[36]In other sections of the Bible (1Samuel10:5, 1Kings1:40,Isaiah5:12 and 30:29, andJeremiah48:36) the flute is referred to as "chalil",from the root word for" hollow ".[37]Archeological digs in the Holy Land have discovered flutes from the Bronze Age (c.4000–1200 BC) and the Iron Age (1200–586 BC), the latter era "witness[ing] the creation of the Israelite kingdom and its separation into the two kingdoms of Israel and Judea."[36]

Some early flutes were made out oftibias(shin bones). The flute has also always been an essential part ofIndian culture,[38]and the cross flute believed by several accounts to originate inIndia[39][40]as Indian literature from 1500 BC has made vague references to the cross flute.[41]

Acoustics

[edit]

A flute produces sound when a stream of air directed across a hole in the instrument creates a vibration of air at the hole.[42][43]The airstream creates aBernoullior siphon. This excites the air contained in theresonant cavity(usually cylindrical) within the flute. The flutist changes thepitchof the sound produced by opening and closing holes in the body of the instrument, thus changing the effective length of theresonatorand its correspondingresonant frequency.By varying the air pressure, a flutist can also change the pitch by causing the air in the flute to resonate at aharmonicrather than thefundamental frequencywithout opening or closing any of the holes.[44]

Head joint geometry appears particularly critical to acoustic performance and tone,[45]but there is no clear consensus among manufacturers on a particular shape. Acoustic impedance of the embouchure hole appears the most critical parameter.[46]Critical variables affecting this acoustic impedance include: the length of the chimney (the hole between the lip-plate and the head tube), chimney diameter, and radii or curvature of the ends of the chimney and any designed restriction in the "throat" of the instrument, such as that in the JapaneseNohkanFlute.

A study in which professional flutists were blindfolded could find no significant differences between flutes made from a variety of metals.[47]In two different sets of blind listening, no flute was correctly identified in a first listening, and in a second, only the silver flute was identified. The study concluded that there was "no evidence that the wall material has any appreciable effect on the sound color or dynamic range".

Materials

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Historically, flutes were most commonly made ofreed,bamboo, wood, or other organic materials. They were also made of glass, bone, andnephrite.Most modern flutes are made of metal, primarilysilverandnickel.Silver is less common than silver alloys.[48]Other materials used for flutes include gold, platinum,grenadillaand copper.[49]

Types

[edit]
Playing thezampoña,aPre-Incainstrument and type ofpan flute.

In its most basic form, a flute is an open tube which is blown into. After focused study and training, players use controlled air-direction to create an airstream in which the air is aimed downward into the tone hole of the flute's headjoint. There are several broad classes of flutes. With most flutes, the musician blows directly across the edge of the mouthpiece, with 1/4 of their bottom lip covering the embouchure hole. However, some flutes, such as thewhistle,gemshorn,flageolet,recorder,tin whistle,tonette,fujara,andocarinahave a duct that directs the air onto the edge (an arrangement that is termed a "fipple"). These are known asfipple flutes.The fipple gives the instrument a distinct timbre which is different from non-fipple flutes and makes the instrument easier to play, but takes a degree of control away from the musician.

Another division is between side-blown (ortransverse) flutes, such as the Western concert flute,piccolo,fife,diziandbansuri;andend-blown flutes,such as theney,xiao,kaval,danso,shakuhachi,Anasazi fluteandquena.The player of a side-blown flute uses a hole on the side of the tube to produce a tone, instead of blowing on an end of the tube. End-blown flutes should not be confused with fipple flutes such as therecorder,which are also playedverticallybut have an internal duct to direct the air flow across the edge of the tone hole.

Flutes may be open at one or both ends. Theocarina,xun,pan pipes,police whistle,andbosun's whistleare closed-ended. Open-ended flutes such as the concert flute and the recorder have more harmonics, and thus more flexibility for the player, and brighter timbres. An organ pipe may be either open or closed, depending on the sound desired.

Flutes may have any number of pipes or tubes, though one is the most common number. Flutes with multipleresonatorsmay be played one resonator at a time (as is typical with pan pipes) or more than one at a time (as is typical with double flutes).

Flutes can be played with several different air sources. Conventional flutes are blown with the mouth, although some cultures usenose flutes.Theflue pipesoforgans,which are acoustically similar to duct flutes, are blown by bellows or fans.

Western transverse

[edit]
Main article:Western concert flute
Western concert flute

Wooden one-keyed

[edit]

Usually in D, wooden transverse flutes were played in European classical music mainly in the period from the early 18th century to the early 19th century. As such, the instrument is often indicated asbaroque flute.Gradually marginalized by the Western concert flute in the 19th century, baroque flutes were again played from the late 20th century as part of thehistorically informed performancepractice.

Concert

[edit]
An illustration of aWestern concert flute

TheWestern concert flute,a descendant of the medieval German flute, is a transverse treble flute that is closed at the top. Anembouchureholeis positioned near the top, and the flutist blows across it. The flute has circular tone holes larger than the finger holes of its baroque predecessors. The size and placement of tone holes, key mechanism, and fingering system used to produce the notes in the flute'srangewere evolved from 1832 to 1847 byTheobald Boehm,who helped greatly improve the instrument's dynamic range and intonation over its predecessors.[50]With some refinements (and the rare exception of the Kingma system and other custom adapted fingering systems), Western concert flutes typically conform to Boehm's design, known as theBoehm system.Beginner's flutes are made of nickel, silver, or brass that is silver-plated, while professionals use solid silver, gold, and sometimes even platinum flutes. There are also modern wooden-bodied flutes usually with silver or gold keywork. The wood is usuallyAfrican Blackwood.

The standard concert flute is pitched in C and has a range of threeoctavesstarting frommiddle Cor one half step lower when a B foot is attached. This means that the concert flute is one of the highest-pitched commonorchestraandconcert bandinstruments.

Grenadilla wood piccolo with a modified wave headjoint

Concert variants

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Center: Piccolo. Right: larger flute

Thepiccoloplays an octave higher than the regular treble flute. Lower members of the flute family include theG altoandC bassflutes that are used occasionally, and are pitched a perfect fourth and an octave below the concert flute, respectively. Thecontra-alto,contrabass,subcontrabass,double contrabass,andhyperbassflutes are other rare forms of the flute pitched up to four octaves below middle C.

Other sizes of flutes and piccolos are used from time to time. A rarer instrument of the modern pitching system is the Gtreble flute.Instruments made according to an older pitch standard, used principally in wind-band music, include D♭piccolo, E♭soprano flute(Keyed a minor 3rd above the standard C flute), F alto flute, and B♭bass flute.

Indian

[edit]
Further information:BansuriandVenu
ACarnaticeight-holed bamboo flute
An eight-holed classical Indian bamboo flute.

Thebamboo fluteis an important instrument inIndian classical music,and developed independently of the Western flute. TheHinduGod LordKrishnais traditionally considered a master of the bamboo flute. The Indian flutes are very simple compared to the Western counterparts; they are made ofbambooand are keyless.[51]

Two main varieties of Indian flutes are currently used. The first, theBansuri(बांसुरी), has six finger holes and one embouchure hole, and is used predominantly in theHindustani musicof Northern India. The second, theVenuor Pullanguzhal, has eight finger holes, and is played predominantly in theCarnatic musicof Southern India. Presently, the eight-holed flute with cross-fingering technique is common among many Carnatic flutists. Prior to this, the South Indian flute had only seven finger holes, with the fingering standard developed by Sharaba Shastri, of the Palladam school, at the beginning of the 20th century.[52]

Cipriano Garcia playing a flute of theTohono O'odhamculture. Photograph byFrances Densmoretaken in 1919.

The quality of the flute's sound depends somewhat on the specificbambooused to make it, and it is generally agreed that the best bamboo grows in theNagercoilarea of South India.[53]

In 1998Bharata Natya ShastraSarana Chatushtai,Avinash Balkrishna Patwardhandeveloped a methodology to produce perfectly tuned flutes for the ten 'thatas' currently present in Indian Classical Music.[54]

In a regional dialect of Gujarati, a flute is also called Pavo.[55]Some people can also play pair of flutes (Jodiyo Pavo) simultaneously.

Chinese

[edit]
Main article:Chinese flutes

In China there are many varieties ofdizi( địch tử ), or Chinese flute, with different sizes, structures (with or without a resonance membrane) and number of holes (from 6 to 11) and intonations (different keys). Most are made of bamboo, but can come in wood, jade, bone, and iron. One peculiar feature of the Chinese flute is the use of a resonance membrane mounted on one of the holes that vibrates with the air column inside the tube. This membrane is called adi mo,which is usually a thin tissue paper. It gives the flute a bright sound.

Commonly seen flutes in the modern Chinese orchestra are thebangdi( bang địch ),qudi( khúc địch ),xindi( tân địch ), anddadi( đại địch ). The bamboo flute played vertically is called thexiao( tiêu ), which is a different category of wind instrument in China.

Korean

[edit]
Main article:Daegeum

The Korean flute, called thedaegeum,대금, is a large bamboo transverse flute used in traditional Korean music. It has a buzzing membrane that gives it a unique timbre.[clarification needed]

Japanese

[edit]
Main article:Fue (flute)

The Japanese flute, called thefue,Địch(hiragana:ふえ),encompasses a large number of musical flutes from Japan, include the end-blownshakuhachiandhotchiku,as well as the transversegakubue,komabue,ryūteki,nōkan,shinobue,kagurabueandminteki.

Sodina and suling

[edit]
Asodinaplayer in Madagascar

Thesodinais an end-blown flute found throughout the island state ofMadagascar,located in the Indian Ocean off southeastern Africa. One of the oldest instruments on the island, it bears close resemblance to end-blown flutes found in Southeast Asia and particularly Indonesia, where it is known as thesuling,suggesting the predecessor to the sodina was carried to Madagascar in outrigger canoes by the island's original settlers emigrating from Borneo.[56]An image of the most celebrated contemporary sodina flutist,Rakoto Frah(d. 2001), was featured on thelocal currency.[57]

Sring

[edit]

Thesring(also calledblul) is a relatively small, end-blown flute with a nasal tone quality[58]found in the Caucasus region of Eastern Armenia. It is made of wood or cane, usually with seven finger holes and one thumb hole,[58]producing a diatonic scale. One Armenian musicologist believes the sring to be the most characteristic of national Armenian instruments.[59]

Ọjà

[edit]
ọjà

TheỌjà//ⓘis a traditional musical instrument utilized by theIgbo people,who are indigenous toNigeria.The ọjà (flute) is used during cultural activities or events whereIgbo musicis played. It is skillfully carved from wood/bamboo or metal and is played by blowing air into one end while covering and uncovering holes along the body to create different notes.[60]

Breathing techniques

[edit]

There are several means by which flautists breathe to blow air through the instrument and produce sound. They includediaphragmatic breathingandcircular breathing.Diaphragmatic breathing optimizes inhalation, minimizing the number of breaths. Circular breathing brings air in through the nose and out through the mouth, enabling a continuous sound.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
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  55. ^Archived atGhostarchiveand theWayback Machine:"Jodiyo Pavo by Mubarak Ali Husain 2016".YouTube.24 March 2016.
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  58. ^abPahlevanian, Alina. (2001). "Armenia §I: Folk Music, 3: Epics", inThe New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians,second edition, edited byStanley SadieandJohn Tyrrell.London: Macmillan Publishers.
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Bibliography

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  • Buchanan, Donna A. 2001. "Bulgaria §II: Traditional Music, 2: Characteristics of Pre-Socialist Musical Culture, 1800–1944, (iii): Instruments".The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians,second edition, edited byStanley SadieandJohn Tyrrell.London: Macmillan Publishers.
  • Crane, Frederick. 1972.Extant Medieval Musical Instruments: A Provisional Catalogue by Types.Iowa City: University of Iowa Press.ISBN0-87745-022-6
  • Galway, James. 1982.Flute.Yehudi Menuhin Music Guides. London: Macdonald.ISBN0-356-04711-3(cloth);ISBN0-356-04712-1(pbk.) New York: Schirmer Books.ISBN0-02-871380-XReprinted 1990, London: Kahn & Averill London: Khan & AverillISBN1-871082-13-7
  • Loewy, Andrea Kapell. 1990. "Frederick the Great: Flutist and composer".College Music Symposium30 (1): 117–125. JSTOR 40374049. Thefamous Prussian king(1712–1786) was a composer and patron of music.
  • Phelan, James, 2004.The complete guide to the flute and piccolo: From acoustics and construction to repair and maintenance,second edition. [S.l.]: Burkart-Phelan, Inc., 2004.ISBN0-9703753-0-1
  • Putnik, Edwin. 1970.The Art of Flute Playing.Evanston, Illinois: Summy-Birchard Inc. Revised edition 1973, Princeton, New Jersey and Evanston, Illinois.ISBN0-87487-077-1
  • Toff, Nancy. 1985.The Flute Book: A Complete Guide for Students and Performers.New York: Charles's Scribners Sons.ISBN0-684-18241-6Newton Abbot: David & Charles.ISBN0-7153-8771-5Second Edition 1996, New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN0-19-510502-8
  • Wye, Trevor. 1988.Proper Flute Playing: A Companion to the Practice Books.London: Novello.ISBN0-7119-8465-4
  • Maclagan, Susan J. "A Dictionary for the Modern Flutist", 2009, Lanham, Maryland, USA: Scarecrow Press.ISBN978-0-8108-6711-6
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