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Cornu aspersum

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Cornu aspersum
Garden snail (Cornu aspersum) onLimonium
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: Gastropoda
Order: Stylommatophora
Family: Helicidae
Subfamily: Helicinae
Tribe: Thebini
Genus: Cornu
Species:
C. aspersum
Binomial name
Cornu aspersum
Synonyms[3]
    • Cantareus aspersus(O.F. Müller, 1774)
    • Cochlea vulgarisda Costa, 1778
    • Cornu copiaeBorn, 1778
    • Cryptomphalus aspersus(O.F. Müller, 1774)
    • Helix(Cryptomphalus)betaeTrechmann, 1938
    • Helix(Pomatia)mazzulopsisPilsbry, 1893
    • Helix aggerivagaMabille, 1880
    • Helix aspersaO. F. Müller, 1774
    • †Helix deperetiLocard, 1890
    • Helix rufescensO. G. Costa, 1839
    • Helix secundaO. G. Costa, 1839
    • Helix spumosaLowe, 1861
    • Helix variegataGmelin, 1791
    • Pomatia aspersaO. F. Müller, 1774
    • Serpula cornucopiaeGmelin, 1791

Cornu aspersum(syn.Helix aspersa,Cryptomphalus aspersus), known by thecommon namegarden snail,is a species ofland snailin the familyHelicidae,which includes some of the most familiar land snails. Of allterrestrial molluscs,this species may well be the most widely known. It was classified under the nameHelix aspersafor over two centuries, but the prevailing classification now places it in the genusCornu.

The snail is relished as a food item in some areas, but it is also widely regarded as a pest in gardens and in agriculture, especially in regions where it has been introduced accidentally, and where snails are not usually considered to be a menu item.

Description

[edit]
Cornu aspersumin warm regions commonly emerges in moist weather in winter.
Sinistral form (exceptional) and dextral form (common)

The adult bears a hard, thincalcareousshell25–40 millimetres (1–1+5⁄8in) in diameter and25–35 millimetres (1–1+3⁄8in) high, with four or fivewhorls.The shell is variable in coloring and shade of color, but generally it has a reticulated pattern of dark brown, brownish-golden, or chestnut with yellow stripes, flecks, or streaks (characteristically interrupted brown colour bands). The aperture is large and characteristically oblique, its margin in adults is whitish and reflected.

The body is soft and slimy, brownish-grey, and able to be retracted entirely into the shell, which the animal does when inactive or threatened. When injured or badly irritated the snail produces a defensive froth of mucus that might repel some enemies or overwhelm aggressive small ants and the like. It has nooperculum;during dry or cold weather it seals the aperture of the shell with a thin membrane of dried mucus; the term for such a membrane isepiphragm.The epiphragm helps the snail retain moisture and protects it from small predators such as some ants.

The snail'squiescentperiods during heat and drought are known asaestivation;its quiescence during winter is known asoverwintering.When overwintering,Cornu aspersumavoids the formation of ice in its tissues by altering theosmoticcomponents of its blood (orhaemolymph); this permits it to survive temperatures as low as −5 °C (23 °F).[4]During aestivation, themantlecollar has the ability to change its permeability to water.[5]The snail also has anosmoregulatorymechanism that prevents excessive absorption of water during hibernation. These mechanisms allowCornu aspersumto avoid either fatal desiccation or hydration during months of either kind of quiescence.

During times of activity the snail's head and "foot" emerge. The head bears fourtentacles;the upper two are larger and bear eye-like light sensors, and the lower two are tactile and olfactory sense organs. The snail extends the tentacles by internal pressure of body fluids, and retracts all four tentacles into the head byinvaginationwhen threatened or otherwise retreating into its shell. The mouth is located beneath the tentacles, and contains achitinousradulawith which the snail scrapes and manipulates food particles.

The shell ofCornu aspersumis almost always right-coiled, but exceptional left-coiled specimens are also known; seeJeremy (snail)for an example.

Taxonomy

[edit]

The accepted name of the species was long considered to beHelix aspersa,a member of the genusHelix,like the Roman snailHelix pomatia.However, in a number of publications since 1990,[6]it has instead been placed in various genera previously considered assubgeneraofHelix.One such genus isCornu,which is appropriate if the species is considered as congeneric with the species previously known asHelix aperta.[7][8]Then the name would beCornu aspersum.[9][10][11]Previously there was debate whetherCornuwas a valid generic name (because it was first applied toteratologicalspecimens), but a 2015 ruling has confirmed that it is so.[12]Until this was established, Italian research teams and others used the generic nameCantareusinstead.[13][14][15][16]Other workers, including Ukrainian and Russian research teams, who regardH. aspersaandH. apertaas being in different genera, call the formerCryptomphalus aspersus.[17][18][19][20]

Analyses based on DNA sequences have now established thatC. aspersumandC. apertashare a clade with snails in the generaOtalaandEobania,distinct from the clade containingHelix,so it is no longer tenable to consider them as species ofHelix.[21]

Many subspecific varieties have been described on the basis of shell characters (e.g.[22]). The most prominent example nowadays is the subspeciesCornu aspersum maximum(Taylor, 1883),[23]originally described as a large shelled form from Algeria (but perhaps including similar forms from elsewhere). In the recent scientific literature the name has been applied both to large Algerian snails[24]and to a large form found in snail farms.[25]Some Algerian forms are indeed genetically quite distant from the usual, most widespread form, but the large form in snail farms is different again.[26][25]It is also problematic that there was a prior use of the nameHelix aspersa maximaunassociated with Algeria.[27]The subspeciesmaximumis formally considered by some authorities as a junior synonym ofCornu aspersum.[28][29]

Life cycle

[edit]
MatingCornu aspersum
Eggs ofCornu aspersum

Like otherPulmonata,individuals arehermaphrodites,producing both male and femalegametes.Reproduction is predominantly, and probably exclusively, by outcrossing.[30][31]During a mating session of several hours, two snails exchangespermreciprocally.H. aspersasnails stab a calcite spine, known as alove dart,into their partner. The mucus coating the love dart contains a chemical that diverts sperm away from being digested. This is important forsperm competitionbecause individuals mate repeatedly and the donated sperm can remain viable for 4 years.[31][32]About 10 days after fertilisation, the snail lays a batch of on average 50 spherical, pearly-white eggs into crevices in the topsoil, or sheltered under stones.[30]In a year it may lay approximately six batches of eggs.[33]The size of the egg is 3 mm.[30]

After snails hatch from the egg, they mature in one or more years. Maturity takes two years in SouthernCalifornia,while it takes only 10 months inSouth Africa.[citation needed]In captivity snails can become sexually mature within 3.5 months of hatching, before they stop growing.[30]The lifespan of snails in the wild is typically 2–3 years.[citation needed]

Distribution

[edit]
Ahibernaculumon adoocotinEglinton,Scotland

Cornu aspersumis native to theMediterranean regionand its present range stretches from northwestAfricaandIberia,eastwards toAsia MinorandEgypt,[34]and northwards to Britain.[35]

Cornu on awhite mulberryleaf inJohannesburg,South Africa

Cornu aspersumis a typicallyanthropochorousspecies; it has been spread to many geographical regions by humans, either deliberately or accidentally. Nowadays, it is cosmopolitan in temperate zones, and has becomenaturalisedin regions with climates that differ from the mediterranean climate in which it evolved.[36][37]Its passive anthropochory is the likeliest explanation for genetic resemblances betweenallopatricpopulations. Its anthropochorous spread may have started as early as during theNeolithic Revolutionsome 8500 BP. Such anthropochory continues, sometimes resulting in locally catastrophic destruction of habitat or crops.[38]

Its increasing non-native distribution includes parts of Europe, such as Bohemia in theCzech Republicsince 2008.[39]It is present inAustralia,New Zealand,North America,Costa Rica[40]and southernSouth America.[41]It was introduced toSouthern Africaas a food animal byHuguenotsin the 18th century, and intoCaliforniaas a food animal in the 1850s; it is now a notorious agricultural pest in both regions, especially incitrusgroves and vineyards. Many jurisdictions have quarantines for preventing the importation of the snail in plant matter.[42]

A number of North African endemic forms and subspecies have been described on the basis of shell characters.Cornu aspersum aspersum,in French commonly called the "petit gris", is native to the Mediterranean area and Western Europe, but has been spread widely elsewhere. The nameCornu aspersum maximumhas been applied to a large form kept inheliciculture(in French commonly called the "gros gris" ), but this is genetically distinct from large Algerian forms earlier given this name.[26]

Ecology

[edit]
Hundreds ofCornu aspersumon a wall
Female glowworm beetle,Lampyris noctiluca,family Lampyridae, feeding on a specimen ofCornu aspersumthat it has killed with its venomous bite
C. aspersumshell cemetery. Individuals failing to overwinter in Scotland.

Cornu aspersumis a primarily aherbivore.It feeds on numerous types offruit trees,vegetablecrops,rosebushes, gardenflowers,andcereals.It also is anomnivorousscavenger that will feed on rotting plant material and on occasion scavenge animal matter, such as crushed snails and worms.Cornu aspersumcan obtain the calcium required to build its shell by consuming soil.[43]In turn it is a food source for many other animals, including small mammals, some bird species, lizards, frogs, centipedes, predatory insects such asglowwormsin the familyLampyridae,and predatory terrestrial snails.[44]The species may be of use as an indicator of environmental pollution, because it deposits heavy metals, such aslead,in its shell.[45]

Parasites

[edit]

Parasites ofCornu aspersuminclude a number ofnematodes.[46][47][48]Metacercariaeof various species of thedigeneangenusBrachylaimahave also been reported, and those have potential for being harmful to people because the adults can infect humans.[48]However, the snails are capable of trappingcercariae(trematodelarvae) in their shell, thus possibly reducing the intensity of infestation by parasites.[49]

Behavior

[edit]
Cornu aspersumleaving mucus-conserving trail over dry brick. The belly visibly leaves the ground in two places in a wave motion without dragging. That wave motion is independent of the wave of muscular contraction that drives the locomotion.
Snail climbing grass SMC 07
Cornu aspersumleaving mucus-conserving trail, as seen from above

The snail secretesthixotropicadhesivemucusthat permits locomotion by rhythmic waves of contraction passing forward within its muscular foot. Starting from the rear, the contraction of the longitudinal muscle fibres above a small area of the film of mucus causesshearthat liquefies the mucus, permitting the tip of the tail to move forward. The contracted muscle relaxes while its immediatelyanteriadtransverse band of longitudinal fibres contract in their turn, repeating the process, which continues forward until it reaches the head. At that point the whole animal has moved forward by the length of the contraction of one of the bands of contraction. However, depending on the length of the animal, several bands of contraction can be in progress simultaneously, so that the resultant speed amounts to the speed imparted by a single wave, multiplied by the number of individual waves passing along simultaneously.[50]

A separate type of wave motion that may be visible from the side enables the snail to conserve mucus when moving over a dry surface. It lifts its belly skin clear of the ground in arches, contacting only one to two thirds of the area it passes over. With suitable lighting the lifting may be seen from the side as illustrated, and the percentage of saving of mucus may be estimated from the area of wet mucus trail dabs that it leaves behind. This type of wave passes backwards at the speed of the snail's forward motion, therefore having a zero velocity with respect to the ground.

An estimate from 1974 for a top speed of 0.03mph(1.3 cm/s)[51]has become popular.[52][53]However, this estimate has been questioned since in competitions between snails only speeds of 2.4 mm/s have been achieved.[54]

Cornu aspersumhas a stronghominginstinct, readily returning to a regularhibernationsite.[55]

Human relevance

[edit]
Spanish dish, Caracoles-Cascorro, ready to serve
A garden snail climbing a window inIsraelduring a winter night[56]
A baby snail moving from one leaf to another.

The species is known as an agricultural and garden pest, an edible delicacy, and occasionally a householdpet.InFrench cuisine,it is known aspetit gris,and is served for instance inEscargota laBordelaise.Also inLleida,a city ofCatalonia(Spain), there is a gastronomic festival calledL'Aplec del Caragoldedicated to this type of snail, known asbover,and attracts over 200,000 guests every year. From Crete are known a dish called "chochloi mpoumpouristoi" (snails turned upside down), the snails cooked alive in a hot pan, on a thick layer of sea salt. Other dishes with snails are snails with rosemary, etc. The practice of rearing snails for food is known asheliciculture.For purposes of cultivation, the snails are kept in a dark place in a wired cage with dry straw or dry wood. Coppiced wine-grape vines are often used for this purpose. During the rainy period the snails come out of hibernation and release most of their mucus onto the dry wood/straw. The snails are then prepared for cooking. Their texture when cooked is slightly chewy.

Approaches to snail pest control

[edit]

There are a variety of snail-control measures that gardeners and farmers use in an attempt to reduce damage to valuable plants. Traditional pesticides are still used, as are many less toxic control options such as concentratedgarlicorwormwoodsolutions.Coppermetal is also a snail repellent, and thus a copper band around the trunk of a tree will prevent snails from climbing up and reaching the foliage and fruit.Caffeinehas proven surprisingly toxic to snails, to the extent that spent coffee grounds (not decaffeinated) make a safe and immediately effective snail-repellant and evenmolluscicidalmulch for pot-plants, or for wherever else the supply is adequate.[citation needed]

Thedecollate snail(Rumina decollata) will capture and eat garden snails, and because of this it has sometimes been introduced as abiological pest controlagent.[57]However, this is not without problems, as the decollate snail is just as likely to attack and devour other species of gastropods that may represent a valuable part of the native fauna of the region.

Pharmacological studies

[edit]

Cornu aspersumhas gained some popularity as the chief ingredient in skin creams and gels (crema/gel de caracol) sold in the US. These creams are promoted as being suitable for use on wrinkles, scars, dry skin, and acne to reduce pigmentation, scarring, and wrinkles.[58]

Secretions ofCornu aspersumproduced under stress have skin-regenerative properties because of antioxidantsuperoxide dismutaseandglutathione S-transferase(GSTs) activities. The secretions can stimulatefibroblastproliferation and rearrange the actincytoskeletonstimulate extracellular matrix assembly and regulation ofmetalloproteinaseactivities for regeneration of wounded tissue.[59]

The mucus ofCornu aspersumcontains a rich source of substances that can be used to treat biotic human diseases. Nine fractions of compounds with varying molecular weight were purified from the mucus and was tested against gram-positive and gram-negative bacterial strains. Results found three fractions exhibited predominant antibacterial activity against the gram-positive strain.[60]

While further confirmatory research is still needed, potential benefits of the snail extracts or secretion filtrates have been also demonstrated in other disease models in mice, including protective effects against ethanol-induced gastric ulcer[61]and against the progression of Alzheimer's type dementia.[62]

References

[edit]

This article incorporates CC-BY-2.0 text from reference.[38]

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