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Gas chamber

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For other uses, seeGas chamber (disambiguation).

Gas chamber atMajdanek concentration camp

Agas chamberis an apparatus for killing humans or other animals with gas, consisting of a sealed chamber into which apoisonousorasphyxiant gasis introduced. Poisonous agents used includehydrogen cyanideandcarbon monoxide.

History

General Rochambeaudeveloped a rudimentary method in 1803, during theHaitian Revolution,filling ships' cargo holds withsulfur dioxideto suffocate prisoners of war.[1][2]The scale of these operations was brought to larger public attention in the bookNapoleon's Crimes(2005), although the allegations of scale and sources were heavily questioned.

In America, the utilization of a gas chamber was first proposed byAllan McLane Hamiltonto the state of Nevada.[3][4][5][6]Since then, gas chambers have been used as a method of execution of condemned prisoners in the United States and continue to be a legal execution method in three states, seeinglegislated reintroduction with inert N2,although redundant in practice since the early 1990s.[7]

Lithuaniaused gas chambers for civilian, penal use in the 1930s, with the last known execution carried out in 1940. TheSoviet Unionallegedly used the method to perform executions during theGreat Purge,including by use ofgas vans.[8]Prisoners were gassed on the way to theButovo firing range,where theNKVDnormally executed its prisoners by shooting them.[9][10][11][12]None of these saw mass use, however, and were strictly for "criminal" purposes.

Most notably, duringthe Holocaustlarge-scale gas chambers designed for mass killing were used byNazi Germanyfrom the late 1930s, as part of theAktion T4,and later for itsgenocideprogram.

More recently, escapees fromNorth Koreahave alleged executions to have been performed by gas chamber in prison camps, often combined withmedical experimentation.[13]

Nazi Germany

See also:Extermination camp § Gassings,The Holocaust § Extermination camps,andEvidence and documentation for the Holocaust § Use of gas chambers
Interior of Majdanek gas chamber, showingPrussian blueresidue

Nazi Germanymade extensive use of various types of gas chambers for mass-murder duringthe Holocaust.

Beginning in 1939, gas chambers were used as part ofAktion T4,an "involuntary euthanasia"program under which the Nazis murdered people with physical and intellectual disabilities, whom the Nazis considered"unworthy of life".Experiments in the gassing of patients were conducted in October 1939 in occupiedPoznańin Poland. Hundreds of prisoners were murdered bycarbon monoxide poisoningin an improvised gas chamber.[14]In 1940 gas chambers using bottled pure carbon monoxide were established at six killing centres in Germany.[15]In addition to persons with disabilities, these centres were also used duringAction 14f13to murder prisoners transferred from concentration camps in Germany, Austria, and Poland. Concentration camp inmates continued to be murdered even after the euthanasia program was officially shut down in 1941.[16]

During theinvasion of the Soviet Union,mass executions byexhaust gaswere performed byEinsatzgruppenusinggas vans,trucks modified to divert engine exhaust into a sealed interior gas chamber.[15]

Starting in 1941, gas chambers were used atextermination campsin Poland for the mass-murder ofJews,Roma,and other victims ofthe Holocaust.Gas vans were used at theChełmno extermination camp.TheOperation Reinhardextermination camps atBełżec,Sobibór,andTreblinkaused exhaust fumes from stationarydiesel engines.[15]In search of more efficient killing methods, the Nazis experimented with using thehydrogen cyanide-basedfumigantZyklon Bat theAuschwitz concentration camp.This method was adopted for mass-murder at the Auschwitz andMajdanekcamps. Up to 6,000 victims were gassed with Zyklon B each day at Auschwitz.[15]

Most extermination camp gas chambers were dismantled or destroyed in the last months ofWorld War IIasSoviettroops approached, except for those atDachau,Sachsenhausenand Majdanek. One destroyed gas chamber at Auschwitz was reconstructed after the war to stand as a memorial.

North Korea

Kwon Hyok, a former head of security atCamp 22,described laboratories equipped with gas chambers forsuffocation gasexperiments, in which three or four people, normally a family, are the experimental subjects.[17][18]After the chambers are sealed and poison is injected through a tube, while scientists observe from above through glass. In a report reminiscent of an earlier account of a family of seven, Kwon claims to have watched one family of two parents, a son and a daughter die from suffocating gas, with the parents trying to save the children usingmouth-to-mouth resuscitationfor as long as they had the strength. Kwon's testimony was supported by documents from Camp 22 describing the transfer of prisoners designated for the experiments. The documents were identified as genuine by Kim Sang Hun, a London-based expert on Korea and human rights activist.[19]

Lithuania

In 1937–1940,Lithuaniaoperated a gas chamber inAleksotaswithin the First Fort of theKaunas Fortress.[20]Previous executions were carried out by hanging or by shooting. However, these methods were viewed as brutal and in January 1937, the criminal code was amended to provide execution by gas which at the time was viewed as more civilized and humane. Lithuania considered and rejected execution by poison. Unlike the American or German model the Lithuanian gas chamber, built out of bricks, worked by inputting compressed lethal gas from an external storage cylinder (Černevičiūtė 2014). The first execution was carried on July 27, 1937: Bronius Pogužinskas, age 37, convicted of murder of five people from a Jewish family.[20]Historian Sigita Černevičiūtė counted at least nine executions in the gas chamber, though records are incomplete and fragmentary. Of the nine, eight were convicted of murder. One of these, Aleksandras Maurušaitis, was also convicted of anti-government actions during the1935 Suvalkija strike.The last known execution took place on May 19, 1940, for robbery. The fate of the gas chamber after theoccupation by the Soviet Unionin June 1940 is unclear.[20]

Soviet Union

Main article:Gas van

The invention of mobile gas chambers, based on adapted vans with the storage compartment sealed and exhaust redirected inside, was attributed to SovietNKVDofficerIsai D. Berg.[21][22]Starting in 1937, he supervised execution of prisoners by gassing them in trucks.[23][24]Providing testimony of this when he was himself arrested by the NKVD in August 1938,[25]Berg stated that he and a team of secret police officers suffocated batches of prisoners with engine fumes in camouflaged cars while transporting them from theTagankaorButyrkaprisons in Moscow[26]to themass gravesat theButovo firing range,where the prisoners were subsequently buried.[24]Examining documents related to Berg,Kommersantreported that Berg had led of the administrative and economic department of theMoscow OblastNKVD; Berg stated that he acted on orders from the higher NKVD administration.[27][28][26]

Gas vans were also reportedly used in other parts of the Soviet Union.[29]According to high-ranking NKVD officerMikhail Schreder,they were used in the city ofIvanovosimilar to that in Moscow: "When a closed truck arrived at the place of execution, all convicts were dragged out of cars in an unconscious state. On the way, they were almost killed by exhaust fumes redirected through a special tube into the closed cargo compartment of the truck."[30][31]Soviet dissidentPetro Grigorenkodescribed in his memoirs a story told by his close friend and former prisoner of Gulag Vasil Teslia. He described killings of "kulaks"in a prison inOmsk.According to him, more than 27 people were loaded to a truck, which moved away from the prison, but soon returned back. "When the doors were opened, black smoke poured out and corpses of people rained down." The corpses were then placed into the basement. Teslia watched such executions during whole week.[32]

United States

Gas chamber usage in the United States.
Secondarymethod only
Previouslyused, butnot presently
Neverused
Post-Furmanuses by state and numbers

Gas chambers have been used forcapital punishment in the United Statesto executedeath row inmates.The first person to be executed in the United States by lethal gas wasGee Jon,on February 8, 1924. An unsuccessful attempt to pump poison gas directly into his cell atNevada State Prisonled to the development of the first makeshift gas chamber to carry out Jon's death sentence.[33]

On December 3, 1948,Miran ThompsonandSam Shockleywere executed in the gas chamber atSan Quentin State Prisonfor their role in theBattle of Alcatraz.

In 1957,Burton Abbottwas executed as the governor of California,Goodwin J. Knight,was on the telephone to stay the execution.[34]

Since the restoration of the death penalty in the United States in 1976, 11 executions by gas chamber have been conducted. Four were conducted inMississippi,2 inArizona,2 inCalifornia,2 inNorth Carolina,and 1 inNevada.The first execution via gas chamber since the restoration of the death penalty was in Nevada in 1979, whenJesse Bishopwas executed for murder. The most recent execution via gas chamber was in 1999.[35]By the 1980s, reports of suffering during gas chamber executions had led to controversy over the use of this method.[36]

At the September 2, 1983, execution ofJimmy Lee GrayinMississippi,officials cleared the viewing room after 8 minutes while Gray was still alive and gasping for air. The decision to clear the room while he was still alive was criticized by hisattorney.In 2007,David Bruck,an attorney specializing in death penalty cases, said, "Jimmy Lee Gray died banging his head against a steel pole in the gas chamber while reporters counted his moans."[37]

During the April 6, 1992, execution ofDonald Eugene HardinginArizona,it took 11 minutes for death to occur. The prison warden stated that he would quit if required to conduct another gas chamber execution.[38]Following Harding's execution, Arizona voted that all persons condemned to death after November 1992 would be executed bylethal injection.[36]

Following the execution ofRobert Alton Harrisin 1992, a federal court declared that "execution by lethal gas under the California protocol is unconstitutionallycruel and unusual."[39]However, this decision was vacated after California amended its statute to allow death row inmates to choose between lethal injection and the gas chamber.[40]By the late 20th century, most states had switched to methods considered to be more humane, such as lethal injection. California's gas chamber at San Quentin State Prison was converted to an execution chamber for lethal injection.

As of 2020, the last person to be executed in the gas chamber was German nationalWalter LaGrand,sentenced to death before 1992, who was executed inArizonaon March 3, 1999. TheU.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuithad ruled that he could not be executed by gas chamber, but the decision was overturned by theUnited States Supreme Court.[36]The gas chamber was formerly used inColorado,Maryland,Nevada,New Mexico,North CarolinaandOregon.Seven states (Alabama, Arizona, California, Mississippi,Missouri,Oklahoma, andWyoming) authorize lethal gas if lethal injection cannot be administered, the condemned committed their crime before a certain date, or the condemned chooses to die in the gas chamber.[41]Alabama, Mississippi, and Oklahoma specify the nitrogen hypoxia method, Arizona specifies the hydrogen cyanide method, and the other states do not specify the type of gas.[42]In October 2010,Governor of New YorkDavid Patersonsigned a bill rendering gas chambers illegal for use byhumane societiesand other animal shelters.[43]

Method of use

Using hydrogen cyanide

The former gas chamber atNew Mexico State Penitentiary,used only once in 1960 and later replaced bylethal injection.
Executions in California were carried out in the gas chamber atSan Quentin State Prison.It was modified for the use oflethal injection,but has been returned to its original designated purpose,[further explanation needed]with the creation of a new chamber specifically for lethal injection.

The hydrogen cyanide gas chamber is considered to be the most dangerous, most complicated, most time-consuming and most expensive method of administering the death penalty.[44][45][46]It is also notoriously impossible to halt once initiated, which has occurred in the case of stays, such as in the case ofBurton Abbott.[47][48][49]The same event supposedly occurred in the final, completed execution ofCaryl Chessmanin 1960.[50]The condemned person is strapped into a chair within an airtight chamber, which is then sealed. The executioner activates a mechanism which dropspotassium cyanide(orsodium cyanide)[51][52]pellets into a bath ofsulfuric acidbeneath the chair; the ensuing chemical reaction generates lethalhydrogen cyanidegas.

or

The gas is visible to the condemned,[citation needed]who is advised to take several deep breaths to speed unconsciousness. Nonetheless, the condemned person often convulses and drools and may also urinate, defecate, and vomit.[53][54]

Following the execution the chamber is purged with air, and any remnant gas is neutralized withanhydrous ammonia,after which the body can be removed (with great caution, as pockets of gas can be trapped in the victim's clothing).[55]

Excluding all oxygen

Main article:Inert gas asphyxiation

Nitrogen gas or oxygen-depleted air has been considered for human execution, as it can inducenitrogen asphyxiation.The victim detects little abnormal sensation as the oxygen level falls. This leads toasphyxiation(death from lack of oxygen) without the painful and traumatic feeling of suffocation, or the side effects of poisoning.[56]

In April 2015,Oklahoma GovernorMary Fallinapproved a bill allowing nitrogen asphyxiation as an execution method.[57]On March 14, 2018, Oklahoma Attorney GeneralMike Hunterand Corrections DirectorJoe M. Allbaughannounced a switch to nitrogen gas as the state's primary method of execution.[58]After struggling for years to design a nitrogen execution protocol, the State of Oklahoma announced in February 2020 that it was abandoning the project after finding a reliable source of drugs to carry out the lethal injection executions.[59]

In 2018, Alabama approved nitrogen asphyxiation as an execution method and allowed death row inmates a choice of method. In September 2022, a court stayed theexecution of Alan Eugene Miller,who was set to be executed by lethal injection. Miller asserted that he had chosen nitrogen hypoxia as his method of execution, as permitted by Alabama law, but the form documenting his choice had been lost. The court decided to stay the execution to allow for further investigation into his claim.[60]On January 25, 2024,Kenneth Eugene Smithbecame the first person to be executed by nitrogen asphyxiation.[61]

Further reading

  • Christianson, Scott(2010).The Last Gasp: The rise and fall of the American gas chamber(Kindle edition). Berkeley:University of California Press,ISBN978-0-520-25562-3

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