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George VIII of Georgia

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"George VIII" redirects here. For George VIII of Imereti, seeGeorge IV of Guria.
George VIII
გიორგი VIII
George VIII from 1460 royal charter
20thKing of Georgia
(more...)
Reign1446–1465
PredecessorVakhtang IV
SuccessorBagrat VI
1stKing of Kakheti
Reign1465–1476
SuccessorAlexander I
Born1417
Died1476 (aged 58–59)
IssueAlexander I of Kakheti
DynastyBagrationi
FatherAlexander I of Georgia
MotherTamar of Imereti
ReligionGeorgian Orthodox Church
KhelrtvaGeorge VIII გიორგი VIII's signature

George VIII(Georgian:გიორგი VIII,romanized:giorgi VIII;1417–1476) of theBagrationi dynasty,wasde factolastking(mepe) of the formerly unitedKingdom of Georgiafrom 1446 to 1465. He would later rule in theKingdom of KakhetiasGeorge Ifrom 1465 until his death in 1476, founding a local branch of the Bagrationi dynasty.

He was the third son ofAlexander I of Georgia,who appointed him co-ruler with his brothersVakhtang IV,DemetriusandZaalin 1433, when he was still very young, in order to consolidate his power against the powerful nobles. However, the future George VIII fell under the influence of this nobility, which caused his father's abdication in 1442, and he took over the administration ofeastern Georgianterritories under the leadership of his elder brother Vakhtang IV. On the latter's death in 1446, he seized the throne and disinherited his other elder brother, Demetrius.

George VIII is still known as the last monarch to rule the entireKingdom of Georgia,although the division of the kingdom became official in 1490. He quickly lost control ofSamtskhein the 1460s when theAtabegQvarqvare II Jaqelideclared independence, and then of West Georgia during theGeorgian civil war of 1463–1491.He was also dethroned after being captured and imprisoned by Qvarqvare II in 1465, which created a new power that allowed the great nobility to seize large semi-independent territories throughout Georgia. Released in 1466, he seizedKakhetiand proclaimed the independence of theKingdom of Kakheti,which he ruled peacefully until his death in 1476, endowing it with its first institutions.

Internationally, George VIII witnessed great geopolitical upheaval in theMiddle Eastcaused by thefall of Constantinoplein 1453, followed by thefall of Trebizondin 1461, two conflicts in which he did not intervene against theOttoman EmpiredespiteByzantinerequests for help. His proposedcrusadeagainst the Ottomans, formed withRome,failed becauseEuropeanstates refused to participate in the conflict.

Early life

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Youth

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George born between 1415 and 1417, he was the third son ofAlexander I of Georgia.[1]His mother,Tamar,was the second wife of Alexander I and daughter of the rebellious monarchAlexander I of Imereti.[2][3][4]He was educated at the royal court with his older brothers,VakhtangandDemetrius,and has been named as a prince in documents since 1417.[5]Therefore, he is mentioned alongside his father in the royal letters between September 29, 1417, September 22, 1419, January 6, 1424, 1427 and January 21, 1428.[6]However, some letters ignore it while they do cite to his brothers during the same period.[7]

His father achieved many successes during his reign, including the capture ofLoriin 1431.[8]He then centralized his kingdom and attempted to increase his control over theGeorgian Orthodox Church;He groomed his sonDavid,brother of George, as the futureCatholic Patriarch of Georgia.[9]

Co-ruler of Georgia

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In the 1430s,Alexander Ibegan a program of centralization of the kingdom; He punished the great feudal lords who were still rebellious.[10]Afterwards, he confiscated the territories of many of them and decided to appoint his four sons as co-rulers:Vakhtang,Demetrius,George andZaal,in 1433.[10]According to the historianCyril Toumanoff,the king was inspired by theByzantinesystem to delegate his power to his sons and entrusted them with the daily management of the kingdom, but this explanation is denied by the chroniclerVakhushti of Kartli,who questioned this association in the 18th century.[11][12]He also supported the military expansion of the kingdom, as well as the reconstruction of the numerous cities destroyed by centuries of war.[13]

Each of the co-rulers sent a representative to the Georgian delegation that took part in the Council ofFerrarain 1438, then inFlorencein 1439, two ecumenical assemblies presided over byPope Eugene IV.[14]The king allowed his sons were represented in the two councils to balance the representations ofMingreliaandSamtskhe,which wanted to receive support fromRometo become independent.[14]

In 1439,Alexander Ibecame seriously ill and his sons took over the administration of the kingdom.[15]However, despite the lack of hope among his doctors, he regained health in 1440, but found himself with a royal court beyond his control.[10]The influential nobility encouraged division within the royal family; his sons became more independent and refused to obey his orders.[10]This division was particularly severe when the royal council failed to agree on a strategy to defend against the invasion of theQara QoyunlurulerJahan Shah,who ultimately massacred nearly two thousandGeorgians.[15]

In 1442, Alexander, no longer control his kingdom in the face of his sons' ambitions and abdicated after a reign of thirty years; He retired to a monastery where he adopted the name Athanasius. Before retiring, he arranged the wedding of George VIII to Princess Nestan-Darejan, daughter of his uncleBagrat.The throne was reserved for his eldest son,Vakhtang IV,while the others divided the kingdom among themselves.[16]The youngZaaldied in 1442, at the age of 14,[17]while Alexander I died in 1446.[18]

King of Georgia

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Successor of Vakhtang IV

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Relief ofConstantine I,Alexander I,Vakhtang IVand George VIII.

After his father's abdication,Vakhtang IVsucceeded him as "King of Kings", a title that conferred superiority over his younger brothers.[19]Demetriusand George, however, remained administrators of certain regions of the kingdom, but sources remain uncertain about their titles;Cyril ToumanoffandDonald Rayfieldconjecture that they were still called kings, but theGeorgian Chroniclesonly mention them as "princes".[15][19]According toVakhushti of Kartli,they did not It was not until 1445 that the king appointed George as co-ruler.[19]

Prince David,a 19th-century Georgian prince, wrote that the king assigned him the territories of the northeasternCaucasus,includingDerbenton theCaspian Sea.[19]Vakhushti of Kartli,for his part, cited the borders of his territories differently. domains:North Caucasusto the north, theAragvi Riverto the west to Mount Lilo (Iori Plateau), theKura riverto the south and the Caspian Sea to the west.[20]Demetrius and Vakhtang IV shared WesternGeorgiaandKartli.The king ruled for a short time and died in 1446 without leaving any heirs.[21]Under mysterious circumstances and perhaps in accordance with the king's will, George VIII took possession of the crown and disinherited his other elder brother, who was forced to return to Western Georgia.[1][15]The official chronology of themonarchs of Georgia,written in the 18th century, however, recognizes the latter as legitimate king until 1452.[22]Various royal letters indicate that the reign of George VIII began on December 25, 1446.[1]

The Georgian army remained strong since the reforms ofAlexander I,as evidenced by its success in clashes with theTurkomansin 1444.[23]On his diplomatic missions, the king estimated that he could muster seventy thousand men, a large difference compared to two decades later when an army of forty thousand Turkoman devastated the country.[24]This force became strategic in an Orthodox world increasingly besieged by theOttoman Empire.Thus, in 1451,George Sphrantzes,a Byzantine diplomat, arrived at the Georgian court in search of a wife for EmperorConstantine XI Palaiologos.[25]

The king agreed to marry his daughter to the emperor but ran into financial difficulties: while Sphrantzes demanded a dowry, Georgian tradition demanded a bride price and a series ofByzantinetowns were sued in the negotiations.[25]Because of this agreement, theOttomans,who had already begun preparations to encircleConstantinople,wanted to eliminate the Byzantine Empire's possible allies before undertaking their siege.[26]In 1451, they organized a quick but devastating raid on the coast ofAbkhaziaagainst which theGeorgiansdid not retaliate.[26]Finally, the king agreed to pay fifty-six thousand ducats, jewelry, fine furniture, ceremonial vestments and an annuity of three thousand ducats.[27]This sum risked ruining the country's economy, but the marriage project did not materialize due to thefall of Constantinoplein 1453.[27]

First obstacles

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Since his accession to the throne, George VIII had to face the separatist ambitions of the Georgianprincipalities,such asMingrelia,GuriaandSamtskhe,which already exercised their own military and diplomatic policies.[25]Although he officially ruled as sovereign over all ofGeorgia,its control was de facto limited toKartli.[25]In 1447, a civil war broke out in Samtskhe when theAtabegAghbugha II Jaqeli,who received support from the royal court, was overthrown by his brotherQvarqvare II Jaqeli.[25][21][27]Aghbugha II took refuge inTbilisi,capital of the kingdom, and continued to be recognized as lord of his province until his death in 1451.[21]When he died, the king, convinced by the rebels, offered the title of atabeg and its recognition to his brother, but this did not change the tense relations between the kingdom and its vassal.[28][21]

Qvarqvare II, who then ruled as an autonomous lord, undertook a policy of complete separation from the Georgian crown.[27]He confiscatedVardziaand royal estates and proclaimed the autocephaly of the Samtskhe Orthodox Church with the help of a Greek metropolitan who The clergy ofJerusalemandAntiochwere sent to him.[27]Soon, the names of George VIII and the CatholicDavidwere omitted from regional prayers and the governor promoted the bishop of Atsquri to the status of patriarch.[27]In response, The Catholicos excommunicated the priests who recognized this autocephaly and organized a boycott of the local churches for theGeorgiansofSamtskhe.Fearing a financial crisis, the bishop of Atsquri abandoned the autocephaly project and received the ordination of bishop again inMtskheta;This was a sign of a strategic defeat for the separatists.[27]In 1452 or 1453,Demetriusdied in a hunting accident and George VIII thus became the solemonarch of Georgia.[27]The son of his deceased brother, PrinceConstantine,was under the protection of the king, who educated him in the military arts.[27]

A precarious peace

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On the death ofDemetrius,he was crowned soleking of Georgia;he bore the traditional title of 'King of Kings, Suzerain and Sovereign of two thrones and kingdoms, of the Abkhazians, Iberians, Ranis, Kakhetians and Armenians, descendant ofNimrod,"and in 1455 he appointedBagratasduke of Samokalako,which gave him control of the region ofImereti.[29]

Upon coming to the throne, he had to face a revolt inShirvan,aMuslimprovince on theCaspian Seaand a vassal of Georgia.[29]The localShirvanshah,Khalilullah I,tried to form an independent state and stopped paying tribute to him.[29]As a result, he invaded the region and, after a brief siege onQabala,forced it back into the Georgian sphere of influence and the Shirvanians resumed paying tribute.[29]In 1456,Uzun Hasan,ruler ofAq Qoyunluinvaded Georgia; He devastatedSomkhitiand besieged the citadel of Orbeti.[30]The territory was saved when the local governor offered to submit and aided him in his raids against the rest of the kingdom.[30]Uzun Hasan subsequently devastatedKartliand occupied the city ofMukhrani.before returning to his domains.[30]

Preparations for a crusade

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Thefall of ConstantinopleisolatedGeorgiafrom any contact withEuropeans.These, for their part, faced a new geopolitical reality: the rise to power of theOttomanSultanMehmed IIcould create a new common enemy for theCatholicsof the West.[21]This drastic change in the situation on the borders forced the various nobles and Georgian rulers to form an apparent unity.[21]In 1459 an armistice was signed between the Georgia andSamtskhe.[21]The king then saw an opportunity to react against theMuslimsand become the center of a possiblecrusade.[21]

In 1452,Pope Nicholas Vembarked on a project to reconquerConstantinople,but his death in April 1455 put an end to his plans. In 1456,Ludovico da Bologna,apostolic nuncio to the newPope Callixtus III,arrived in Georgia to submit a full report on the kingdom and theGeorgian Orthodox Churchto Rome; He highlighted the piety of its inhabitants, but also the serious situation caused by the civil conflicts in the region.[15]After this report, the Holy See asked George VIII to send an embassy to Europe and in September 1459 the successor of Callistus III,Pius II,organized a public call for a new crusade against the Ottomans.[15]Starting in November, regular communication began between George VIII,Qvarqvare II,Pius II, the Doge of VenicePasquale Malipieroand the DukePhilip III of Burgundy.[25]

TheGeorgianshoped to mobilize a total of 120,000 soldiers (or 140,000 according to certain sources) as part of this crusade; 40,000 fromGeorgia,30,000 from theEmpire of Trebizond(then under Georgian protection), 20,000Armenians,20,000 fromSamtskheand 10,000 fromMingrelia.[31][27]Other contributions fromGuriawere also expected, as well as 30 ships from the port ofAnakopiaand a detachment ofUzun Hasan,who claimed the Ottoman city ofBursa.[27]The king also organized the plan for this possible campaign: the Georgian forces would invadeAnatoliawith a contingent under the command of Qvarqvare II that would advance toPalestine,while the Europeans would open another front inGreece.[32]

In 1460, a large embassy ofGeorgians,Armenians,TrapezuntinesandPersians,led by Bishop Nicholas ofTbilisiand Qartchikhan ofMingrelia,arrived inEuropeand met withFrederick III, Holy Roman Emperor,inVienna.[33]In Venice, was received by the senate of the Serenissima, before embarking toFlorenceto attend an ecclesiastical council.[33]InRome,the Georgians metPius IIin December 1460, who made the mistake of naming George VIII as "king of the Persians" and DukeBagrat of Samokalakoas "king of the Iberians."[10][33]From Rome, the pope sent the embassy throughout Europe to ensure military assistance.[33]

In May 1461, the delegation arrived inParisto meet KingCharles VII of France,but he was ill and unable to make a decision of such importance.[34]AtSaint-Omer,the Georgians metPhilip III of Burgundy,but He hesitated to embark on a crusade, as he feared the fate of his duchy during his absence.[33]InGhent,they met with representatives of theBurgundiannobility, but was unable to convince them of the benefits of this war.[33]On August 15, they returned to Paris to attend the coronation ofLouis XI of France,but the monarch refused to undertake any military campaign because he was facing a series of internal problems.[33][34]The crusade failed when Western monarchs refused to participate.[32]The embassy leftEuropeuttering these words:

Because it has not been able to take advantage of the right moment, Europe will see the Ottomans at the gates of Vienna.[32]

Fall of Trebizond

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Cassonewith the "Conquest of Trebizond" byApollonio di Giovanni di Tommaso.

The neighboringEmpire of Trebizondwas the last stronghold of theByzantinesafter thefall of Constantinople.[35]Founded in 1204 with the support of QueenTamar of Georgia,ancestor of George VIII, thisBlack SeaState was one of the closest allies of theKingdom of Georgia.[35]EmperorJohn IV Megas Komnenos,who married the daughter ofAlexander I,lived at the Georgian court after attempting to usurp his father's throne in 1426.[36]In communications between Georgia andEurope,the king also promised a military force of Trapezuntines to participate in a newcrusade.[36]

This close alliance provoked the discontent ofMehmed II,who conqueredConstantinople.[37]John IV, who feared that his city would suffer the same fate, sought Georgian military assistance.[38]TheOttomansunderstood, however, that the city ofTrebizondwas well protected by a complex series of walls and an allied fleet could save the imperial capital.[39]Konstantin Mihailović,who served in the Ottoman army, recounted the sultan's raid on Georgia to intimidate its ruler and prevent him from coming to the aid of the Trapezuntines.[39]The Ottomans managed to advance throughRioniand theNorth Caucasusmountains, indicating a probable attack onKutaisi.[39]

On September 14, 1460, while the Georgian embassy was still in Europe, Mehmed IIbesieged Trebizond.[40]EmperorDavid Megas Komnenos,successor to John IV, waited in vain for help from his ally for months before finally opening the city gates on August 15, 1461, exactly two hundred years after thereconquest of ConstantinoplebyMichael VIII Palaiologos,which put an end to the last vestige of Byzantine civilization.[41][42]Helena Kantakouzene,the emperor's consort, took refuge in Georgia, much to the sultan's anger.[43]A few years later, George, David's last surviving son, escaped from his prison in Constantinople to take refuge at the court of George VIII.[44]

Bagrat's rebellion

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Extension of theKingdom of Georgiaduring the government of George VIII.

Unity within the Georgian statesdisappeared after the failure of the king's diplomatic mission.Qvarqvare II Jaqeliformally remained a subject and associate of the king, but began encouraging DukeBagrat of Samokalakoto rebel against the king.[45]The latter was heir to theBagrationi dynastyofwestern Georgia,the oldest branch of the royal family whose last ruler,Constantine II of Imereti,was overthrown byGeorge VII of Georgiain 1401 and began to claim the throne of his ancestors.[32]Being a cousin of George VIII, the local nobility did not suspect his separatist plans, but he was soon encouraged by the powerful nobles of WestGeorgia.[46]

In addition toSamtskhe,Bagrat allied himself withLiparit I Dadiani,Mamia Gurieli,and the princes ofAbkhaziaandSvaneti,whom he promised to liberate from the central government.[47]Together, the rebels captured many fortresses inImeretiin 1462, after which George VIII abolished theDuchy of Samokalakoand decided to intervene.[32]In 1463, the king crossed theLikhi mountain rangeand demanded military aid from Samtskhe, as he was convinced of his loyalty. Qvarqvare II landed in Imereti with his troops camped but far from the conflict zone and waited to see who would emerge victorious.[48]This reaction was generally seen as direct aid to the separatists.[49]

George VIII and Bagrat clashed at theBattle of Chikhoriduring which the rebels inflicted a decisive defeat on the central government forces.[47]The king retreated towardsKartliand severely punished the nobility he did not consider sufficiently loyal.[34]Meanwhile, Bagrat capturedKutaisi,the largest city in Western Georgia, and was crownedking of Imeretias Bagrat II against the great nobility of Mingrelia, Guria, Abkhazia, Samtskhe and Svaneti, but his power remained weak, even within its capital.[49][50]The Battle of Chikhori marked the beginning of thefall of the Kingdom of Georgia:its monarchs would never again control the entire country.

War against Samtskhe

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Qvarqvare II Jaqelionce again began his plans for independence fromGeorgia.[47]He soon minted his own coins atAkhaltsikheand was named "king" (Mepe)in his decrees, before declaring war on George VIII.[47]For this plan, he had the help ofUzun Hasan,who managed to defeat the king in 1462, according to some sources in 1461 or 1463, and occupied the region ofLori.[32][34][47]This alliance turned against Qvarqvare II when theWhite Sheep Turkomansdevastated and sackedSamtskheduring his attack.[51]

After this defeat, the king decided to take revenge and took advantage of a visit by Qvarqvare II inImereti,during which he recognized the crown ofBagrat,to invade his domains.[52]He received the support of the majority of the local nobility who feared the autocratic reign of Qvarqvare II and occupied the region without confrontation.[52]Qvarqvare II was forced to temporarily take refuge with the king of Imereti.[48]The absence of the king from his dominions opened the doors for Uzun Hasan to return to Georgia and in 1463 he sent his generals Tavrij Gilak and Timur to devastateKartli.[52]The Georgian army rushed towards the enemy, but they were defeated by the invaders, as a result of which the Turkomans devastatedEast Georgia.[52]The kingdom quickly lost control of the situation and the eastern provinces ofShirvan,Arranand Movakan were freed from Georgian rule.[52]

Meanwhile, Qvarqvare II, together with Bagrat's troops, returned to Samtskhe to recover his domains.[48]After recovering Akhaltsikhe, he severely punished the local nobility and executed many of his enemies.[48]The noblemanZaza Panaskerteli-Tsitsishvilitook refuge at the Georgian court and became a royal advisor.[48]Subsequently, Qvarqvare II used the help of DukeMamia Gurielito reconquer his infidel provinces and offered him the territories ofAdjaraandChanetiin exchange, solidifying the fragmentation of West Georgia.[52]

In 1465, George VIII was the victim of an assassination attempt in which his courtier, JoathamZedginidze,succumbed to a stab wound.[52]George VIII must have elevated Joatham's eldest son, T'aqa II (or Joatham himself before he died of the wounds he had received) to the new title and offices and he offered them numerous citadels in Kartli, the title ofMouraviofGoriand the title of "generalissimo of Kartli". Following this, he decided to invade Samtskhe once again, after having achieved an alliance with theDuchy of Aragvi.[10]

They met in a decisivebattle at Lake Paravani,a day after a second assassination attempt and a failed round of negotiations.[10][48]During the battle, the royalist forces were winning but Qvarqvare II managed to surround their positions.[48]The king was captured with the rest of his guard.[47][34]The youngConstantine,his nephew, managed to escape and assumed command of the army, but had to retreat northwards, before being besieged atGoriby Qvarqvare II, after which he took refuge in Western Georgia.[47]George VIII was imprisoned atAkhaltsikhe,marking the end of his reign asking of Georgia.[47]

Captivity and release

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Without a central power, the situation seriously degenerated within the kingdom.[51]WithConstantinetaking refuge in Western Georgia, the throne was vacant following the capture of George VIII.[51]The king became a hostage ofQvarqvare II Jaqeliuntil the first months of 1466.[53]In February 1466,Bagrat II of Imeretiarrived with his army in the Georgian capital and, after offering two peasant villages to the Catholic David, was crownedking of Georgiaunder the name Bagrat VI of Georgia, deposing the prisoner monarch.[54][55]The new king now controlled most ofGeorgia,except the province ofKakheti,which rebelled against his autocratic rule and appointed the noble David of Didoeti as regional ruler.

Qvarqvare II feared the growing power of the new Georgian monarch, despite having supported his rise.[56]ForSamtskhe,stability in Georgia was a threat to the separatist ambitions of theHouse of Jaqeli,regardless of which monarch was on the throne.[55]Qvarqvare II made an agreement with the deposed king:[48]the latter promised to forgive Samtskhe's betrayal, ensureAkhaltsikhe'sautonomy, and give up claiming Western Georgia in exchange for his freedom.[57]A little-recognized version added that he was also forced to marry Princess Tamar Jaqeli, daughter of Qvarqvare II, even though he was still married to Nestan-Darejan, who resided inTbilisi.[58]

Appointed in charge of an army of Samtskhe, he attempted to invadeKartliin 1466, but met only widespread opposition from the local nobility, who feared his revenge if he returned to power.[56][53]Defeated at Kartli, he set out with Qvarqvare II and his troops towards Kakheti, then under the control of David of Didoeti.[57][56]In this province ofEast Georgia,he received the support of the petty nobility, probably as a tribute to his previous term as governor of this province.[56]He soon defeated its ruler, despite his military support from King Bagrat VI, and was expelled to the mountainous regions of Kakheti, having to remain in the center of the region to consolidate his power and not being able to achieve it.[54][59]Qvarqvare II returned to Samtskhe and declared its independence and George VIII remained in Kakheti, which aggravated the Georgian division.[57][55]

King of Kakheti

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Patriarch Nikolaoz, king George VIII and his sonAlexander.A miniature by Rossi based on the 17th century fresco fromSvetitskhoveli Cathedral(1830s)

In 1465 George was crownedking of Kakhetiat theBodbe Monastery,as George I, However, he fought to have his authority recognized at the time of his accession and, despite his recognition as monarch by David's mountain province of Didoeti in exchange for his freedom, the other northern peoples remained formally subject to theKingdom of Georgia.[60]Thus,Khevsureti,TushetiandPshavionly named him lord of Kakheti and only after an agreement withBagrat VIdid these provinces enter the dominions of George I.[60]

Faced with a great nobility hostile to the idea ofKakheti'sindependence, he formed a series of alliances with the peasant class, the lords of the lower nobility and his former enemy, Bagrat VI.[56]With the latter, he agreed to a military partnership around 1467 to help him in the conflict he waged againstConstantine,his former protégé who also claimed the Georgian crown, in exchange for the recognition of Kakheti as an independent kingdom.[56]Both kings invadedKartliand expelled it from central Georgia, allowing Bagrat VI to recoverTbilisiand his crown.[56]A detachment of royal forces was subsequently sent to capture the stubborn nobles of Kakheti and assist George I in solidify his power.[56]

After an attempted rebellion to put David of Didoeti on the throne in 1470, George I undertook to reform the Kakheti system of government to end the power of the nobility. He abolished the semi-autonomous duchies and established a series of prefectures, including Kiziki, Elisseni, Tsoukheti, Didoeti,Tianeti,Tchiaouri, Shilda,Kvareli,Martqopi,GremiandPankisi.[60]These were headed byMouravisappointed by the king who were responsible for collecting taxes and bring them back to the capital, Gremi. These prefects were changed regularly, abolishing the power of the hereditary nobility. He subsequently organized a military reform, dividing the kingdom into four districts calledSadrosho,each with its troops led by a bishop appointed by the king, a big difference from Western Georgia, where the troops were commanded by powerful hereditary princes.[61][56]

He also promoted the abbot of theAlaverdi Monasteryto the status of bishop, he offered him a diocese and placed him at the head of the other regional bishops. While Kakheti continued to recognize the supremacy of theGeorgian Orthodox Church,the reform converted the province into an autonomous region within the Catholicosate. The city of Gremi was elevated to the status of capital and the king expanded and strengthened the city and repealed the autonomy of the province, as well as the nameHereti.[60]These reforms managed to preserve peace and stability within the kingdom during decades, eliminating the great problem of the rebellious nobility thatKingdom of KartliandKingdom of Imeretihad to face until the 18th century.

Internationally, the situation in Kakheti, which borderedAq Qoyunlu,continued to be more complex.Uzun Hasansooninvadedthe kingdom and devastated the provinces of Kherki, Saguramo,MartqopiandTianeti,and George I was forced to recognize him as his lord to ensure peace and had to pay him an annual tribute of slaves of both sexes. In the 1470s, he refused to help his neighbor Kartli when the Turkomans devastated the region and secured peace. for his kingdom by diplomatic means.[60]According toVakhushti of Kartli,he spent his last years in vain trying to reconquer the rest of Georgia.[54]

George I died in 1476. He left his eldest son,Alexander,on the throne, associated as co-ruler from 1460.[62]

Marriage and children

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George VIII's royal charters make mention of two names of his consort, Tamar (fl. 1453) and Nestan-Darejan (fl. 1458–1463). Two explanations exist to account for this. One of them, suggested byCyril Toumanoff,has it that both names were borne by the same woman, a daughter ofBagrat,son ofConstantine I of Georgia,and, thus a first cousin of George VIII, whom she married in 1445. Such polyonymy was not infrequent in Georgia, Toumanoff explains, reflecting the twofold cultural background of the country, "Hellenistic-Christian on the one hand, and Caucasio-Iranoid, on the other." She is last mentioned in 1510.[63]

An alternative view, enjoying a more general currency in Georgia, holds it that George VIII was married twice, first to Tamar, sometimes thought to have been daughter ofQvarqvare II Jaqeli,AtabegofSamtskhe,whom he wed c. 1445 and, secondly to Nestan-Darejan, of unknown origin, whom the king took as his wife sometime before 1456. According to this version, George had a son, Vakhtang, and two daughters; and a son, Aleksandre, and a daughter, Mariam, by Nestan-Darejan.[64]

George VIII's children were:

  • Prince Vakhtang (c. 1445 – before 1510), a "provincial king", he was married to the certain Gulkan;
  • Princess Elene, married to Spiridon Beenashvili, a nobleman fromMeskheti;
  • Princess Keteon (Kristine), married to Vakhushti Shalikahsvili, a nobleman from Samtskhe;
  • PrinceAlexander(1445 or c. 1456 – 1511), King of Kakheti (1476–1511);
  • Princess Mariam (fl. 1465), married to Prince GiorgiShaburidze,son of Vamek,Duke of Argavi.She is identified by C. Toumanoff with the anonymous daughter of George VIII betrothed in 1451 toConstantine XI,the lastByzantine emperor,who was killed in thefall of Constantinopletwo years later, before the marriage could be consummated.

In historical fiction

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  • Emanuele Rizzardi,L'ultimo Paleologo.PubMe Editore, 2017

Ancestors

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References

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  1. ^abcToumanoff 1949–1951,p. 186.
  2. ^Toumanoff 1949–1951,p. 181.
  3. ^Rayfield 2012,p. 164.
  4. ^Rayfield 2012,p. 271.
  5. ^Brosset 1851,p. 13.
  6. ^Brosset 1851,pp. 13–14.
  7. ^Brosset 1851,p. 14.
  8. ^Rayfield 2012,p. 155.
  9. ^Toumanoff 1949–1951,p. 189.
  10. ^abcdefgAsatiani & Janelidze 2009,p. 120.
  11. ^Toumanoff 1949–1951,pp. 204–212.
  12. ^Brosset 1858,pp. 1–6.
  13. ^Allen 1932,pp. 126–127.
  14. ^abRayfield 2012,p. 157.
  15. ^abcdefRayfield 2012,p. 158.
  16. ^Toumanoff 1949–1951,p. 184.
  17. ^Toumanoff 1949–1951,p. 190.
  18. ^Toumanoff 1949–1951,p. 178.
  19. ^abcdBrosset 1849,p. 682.
  20. ^Brosset 1849,pp. 683–684.
  21. ^abcdefghSalia 1980,p. 262.
  22. ^Brosset 1849,pp. 684–685.
  23. ^Brosset 1849,p. 643.
  24. ^Salia 1980,p. 268.
  25. ^abcdefRayfield 2012,pp. 158–159.
  26. ^abAllen 1932,p. 151.
  27. ^abcdefghijkRayfield 2012,p. 159.
  28. ^Brosset 1858,p. 207.
  29. ^abcdBrosset 1849,p. 685.
  30. ^abcBrosset 1849,p. 688.
  31. ^Salia 1980,p. 264.
  32. ^abcdefSalia 1980,p. 265.
  33. ^abcdefgRayfield 2012,pp. 159–160.
  34. ^abcdeAsatiani & Janelidze 2009,p. 121.
  35. ^abSalia 1980,pp. 215–216.
  36. ^abKaldellis 2012,pp. 260–262.
  37. ^Miller 1969,p. 100.
  38. ^Nicol 2004,p. 407.
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  48. ^abcdefghBrosset 1858,p. 208.
  49. ^abBrosset 1858,p. 250.
  50. ^Brosset 1849,p. 646.
  51. ^abcAsatiani 2008,p. 111.
  52. ^abcdefgBrosset 1849,p. 686.
  53. ^abSalia 1980,p. 266.
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  55. ^abcRayfield 2012,p. 161.
  56. ^abcdefghiAsatiani & Janelidze 2009,p. 122.
  57. ^abcBrosset 1858,p. 209.
  58. ^Rayfield 2012,pp. 160–161.
  59. ^Brosset 1858,p. 147.
  60. ^abcdeBrosset 1858,p. 148.
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Bibliography

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Further reading

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Preceded by King of Georgia
1446–1465 		Succeeded by
Bagrat VI(usurper)
Preceded by
New creation
 King of Kakheti
1465–1476 		Succeeded by
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