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China–Germany relations

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China-German relations
Map indicating locations of China and Germany

China
Germany

China–German relationswere formally established in 1861, whenPrussiaand theQing dynastyconcluded a Sino-German treaty during theEulenburg expedition.A decade later, theGerman Empirewas established, with the new state inheriting the Prussian-era treaties concluded with China. Sino-German relations during the late 19th and early 20th century were frequently tense, as Germany followed the example of other European colonial powers in carving out asphere of influencein China; by 1914, Germany had obtained several concessions in China, including thetreaty portsofYantaiandQingdaoand most prominently theJiaozhou Bay Leased Territory.

Germany was a member of theEight-Nation Alliance,and theImperial German Armyparticipated in the suppression of theBoxer Rebellion.AfterWorld War I,during which Germany lost all its territories in China, Sino-German relations gradually improved asGerman military advisersassisted theKuomintanggovernment'sNational Revolutionary Army,though this would change during the 1930s asAdolf Hitlergraduallyallied himself with Japan.During the aftermath ofWorld War II,Germany was divided in two states: a liberal and democraticWest Germanyand a communistEast Germany.Cold Wartensions led to a West German alliance with the United States against communism and thus allied against thePeople's Republic of China(PRC). The Eastern part was allied through theSoviet Unionwith the PRC. AfterGerman reunification,relations between Germany and China improved.

History

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Early contacts

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Although the German composerJ.S. Bachnever visited China in his lifetime, his statue now welcomes visitors entering Shanghai from the city's main railway station.
In The Chinese Room of the Royal Palace, Berlin, considerable effort was invested in creating Chinese decorations and furnishings (19th Century depiction byEduard Gaertner).

UnlikePortugalor theNetherlands,German states were not involved, on the state level, in the early (16-17th centuries) contacts between Europe and China. Nonetheless, a number of individual Germans reached China at that time, in particular asJesuit missionaries.Some of them played a significant role in China's history, as didJohann Adam Schall von Bell(in China in 1619–1666), who was inBeijingwhen it was taken by theManchusin 1644, and soon became a trusted counselor of the earlyQingleaders. Meanwhile, inRomeanother German Jesuit,Athanasius Kircher,who never got to go to China himself, used reports of other Jesuits in China to compileChina Illustrata,a work that was instrumental in popularizing knowledge about China among the 17th-century European readers.

The earliest Sino-German trade occurred overland throughSiberia,and was subject to transit taxes by theRussian government.To make trading more profitable,Prussiadecided to take the sea route, and the first German merchant ships arrived inQing China,as part of theRoyal Prussian Asian Trading CompanyofEmdenin the 1750s. In 1861, after China's defeat in theSecond Opium War,theTreaty of Tientsinwas signed, which opened formal commercial relations between various European states, including Prussia, with China.[1]

Early diplomatic relations

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In 1859, following China's defeat in theSecond Opium War,Prussia sent theEulenburg Expeditionto negotiate commercial treaties with China,JapanandSiam.On 2 September 1861,Friedrich Albrecht zu Eulenburgand a representative from theZongli Yamensigned theTreaty of Tianjin,which opened formal commercial relations between China andPrussia,which represented theGerman Customs Union.Prussia would later on become the dominant and leading part of the newly foundedGerman Empire.The treaty would govern Sino-German relations untilWorld War I,when theRepublic of Chinarepudiated the treaty unilaterally.

During the late 19th century, Sino-foreign trade was dominated by theBritish Empire,andOtto von Bismarckwas eager to establish German footholds in China to balance theBritishdominance. In 1885, Bismarck had theReichstagpass a steamship subsidy bill which offered direct service to China. In the same year, he sent the first German banking and industrial survey group to evaluate investment possibilities, which led to the establishment of theDeutsch-Asiatische Bankin 1890. Through these efforts, Germany was second to Britain in trading and shipping in China by 1896.

Due to the decisiveness of steam-powered fleets over thejunksof the smallImperial Chinese Navyduring China's conflicts with European powers in the mid-nineteenth century, the Chinese began a naval construction program in the 1880s to meet these threats more effectively. They enlisted British andGermanassistance, and twoDingyuan-class ironcladswere ordered from Germany, theDingyuanand theZhenyuan.[2][3]

In 1897, theGerman empiretook advantage of themurder of two German missionariesto invadeQingdaoand founded theJiaozhou Bay colony.Germany took control of key points in the Shandong Peninsula. In 1898, it leased for 99 years Jiaozhou Bay and its port of Qingdao under threat of force. Development was a high priority for Berlin. Over 200 million marks were invested in world-class harbor facilities such as berths, heavy machinery, rail yards, and a floating dry dock. Private enterprise worked across the Shandong Province, opening mines, banks, breweries, factories, shops and rail lines.[4]In 1900, Germany took part in theEight-Nation Alliancethat was sent to relieve theSiege of the International Legationsin Beijing during theBoxer Uprising.China paid a large annual indemnity.

In 1907–1908, Kaiser Wilhelm II sentPrince of Bülow,Chancellor at the time, to discuss a potential treaty of triple alliance with the Qing high-ranking official Yuan and PresidentTheodore Roosevelt.[5]But it was overturned in favor of theGentlemen's Agreement of 1907and due to the passing of Grand Empress Dowager,Cixi.

During theXinhai revolution,revolutionaries killed a German arms dealer in Hankou as he was delivering arms to the Qing.[6]Revolutionaries killed 2 Germans and wounded 2 other Germans at the battle of Hanyang, including a former colonel.[7]

Early twentieth century

[edit]
Main articles:East Asia SquadronandChina–Germany relations (1912-1949)
Wang JingweiwithGerman diplomatsas head of the state of Japanese puppet China

The German military had a major role in Republican China.[8]The German Navy'sEast Asia Squadronwas in charge of Germany's concessions atQingdao,and spent heavily to set up modern facilities that would be a showcase for Asia. Japan seized the German operations in 1914 after sharp battles. After World War I, theWeimar Republicprovided extensive advisory services to the under Japan rule Republic of China, especially training for the Japanese led Chinese army.

As well as studying and visiting Japan, Germans visited and studied China in between the two World Wars.

Colonel GeneralHans von Seeckt,the former commander the German army, organized the training of Japanese led China's elite army units and the beginning civil war that included military activities against the Chinese Communists from 1933 to 1935.[9]All military academies had German officers, as did most army units. In addition, German engineers provided expertise and bankers provided loans for China's railroad system. Trade with Germany flourished in the 1920s, with Germany as China's largest supplier of government credit.[citation needed]According to some not confirmed sources in 1937,H.H. Kungvisited Germany in an attempt "to convince Hitler to side with China against Japan".[10][11]With assurances of the contrary Nazi Germany sided with the Japanese after they invaded China the following month and the last important German advisor left in 1938.[12][13]

However, at the same time, the exiled German CommunistOtto Braunwas in China as aCominternagent, probably sent in 1934, but most probably adouble agent,to advise theChinese Communist Party(CCP) on military strategy and taking a major part in TheLong Marchunder a Chinese name, Li De (Chinese:Lý đức;pinyin:Lǐ Dé); it was only many years later that Otto Braun and "Li De" came to be known as the same person.[14]

World War II (1941–1945)

[edit]
Main articles:World War II;German-Japanese relations § Rapprochement, Axis and World War II (1920–1945);andPersecution of Chinese people in Nazi Germany

Sino-German cooperation collapsed in 1939 due to the start ofWorld War IIin Europe, forcing many Chinese nationals to leave Germany due to increased government surveillance and coercion. The exampleJapanset in theSecond Sino-Japanese Warforced Hitler to replace China with Japan as the Nazi's strategic ally in East Asia.[15]Following the JapaneseAttack on Pearl Harborin 1941, the Chinese declared war on Germany, which resulted in theGestapolaunching mass arrests of Chinese nationals across Germany. At the end of the war, the Chinese communities in cities such asBerlin,Hamburg,andBrementhat existed before the war were destroyed.[citation needed]

Division of Germany and the Cold War (1945-1990)

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China'sDong Biwu(second from the right) withOtto Grotewohl(third from the right) andWalter Ulbricht(fourth from the right) in East-Berlin (1958)
Main article:Cold War

TheFederal Republic of GermanyorWest Germanyinitially did not recognize thePeople's Republic of Chinaprimarily because of its hard-line anti-communist foreign policy of theHallstein Doctrine.West Germany formally supported theOne-China policy,in hopes of finding Chinese backing of the reunification of Germany. In October 1972, West Germany officially established diplomatic contacts with the PRC, although unofficial contacts had been in existence since 1964.[16][17][18]

TheGerman Democratic Republicalso managed to have good relations with the PRC, despite theSino-Soviet Splitthat occurred for most of theCold Waruntil the1989 Sino-Soviet Summit.[19]Since the March 1982 speech on Sino-Soviet rapprochement by General SecretaryLeonid Brezhnevto theCommunist Party of UzbekistaninTashkent,Sino-East German relations began to steadily improve. In June 1986, Foreign MinisterWu XueqianvisitedEast Berlinin the highest-level Chinese delegation toEastern Europesince the 1961 split.[20]Moreover, ChairmanErich HoneckervisitedBeijingin early October 1986, where he was met by PresidentLi Xiannianwith in a welcoming ceremony onTiananmen Squareamilitary bandand a marchpast by thePeople's Liberation Armyhonor guard.The visit became the first official visit by anEastern Blocleader to the PRC.[21][22]

Reunified Germany (1990-present)

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Early post-communism in united Germany

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The frequent high-level diplomatic visits are acknowledged to have helped guarantee the smooth development of Sino-German relations. From 1993 to 1998, German and Chinese leaders met face-to-face 52 times: Among those Chinese leaders who visited Germany wereJiang Zemin,formerGeneral Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party;Qiao Shi,formerChairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress(NPC); andLi Peng,formerPremier of Chinaand Chairman of the NPC Standing. Meanwhile, German leaders who visited China included PresidentRoman Herzog,ChancellorHelmut Kohl,Foreign MinisterKlaus Kinkeland Minister of State at the German Federal Foreign OfficeLudger Volmer.Among these leaders, Chancellor Kohl visited China twice in 1993 and 1995. Since the new German government came into power in October 1998, ChancellorGerhard Schröderhas paid three visits to China. One after another from Germany came Vice Prime Minister and Foreign MinisterJoschka Fischer,Defense MinisterRudolf Scharping,and Minister of Economics and TechnologyWerner Müller.At the same time, Germany welcomed Chinese PrimerZhu Rongji,Foreign MinisterTang Jiaxuan,State CouncilorWu Yi,member of thePolitical Bureauof the CCPCentral CommitteeWei Jianxingas well as member of theCCP Politburo Standing CommitteeHu Jintao.

After 2000

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Relations would continue to improve even more after 1998. For instance,BerlinandPeking(at that time yet called Peking), and fervently opposedthe invasionofIraqmade byUSin 2003, and in 2006 Germany (the largest economy and the most populous country of the European Union) and the Chinese Republic further enhanced their foreign political, economic and diplomatic relations and even ties within one of an EU-Sino strategic partnerships. For example, Germany and Republic of China[citation needed]also opposed direct military involvement of US in the2011 Libyan civil warthat had been made after the liberation of the accused Libean medical sisters and doctors, that were accused of crimes against children there, and liberated by the French President.

Huawei,a major Chinese tech company, has collaborated withPorsche Design,a German design company in developing their Porsche Design Huawei Smartwatch GT 2[23][24]

Before the 2011 visit of China's PM Wen Jiabao, the Chinese government issued a "White Book on the accomplishments and perspective of Sino-German cooperation", the first of its kind for a European country. The visit also marked the first Sino-German government consultations, an exclusive mechanism for Sino-German communications.

In 2018,Mercedes-Benzapologized to China for quoting theDalai Lamaon Instagram.[25]

In July 2019, the UN ambassadors from 22 nations, including Germany, signed a joint letter to theUnited Nations Human Rights CouncilcondemningChina's persecution of the Uyghursas well as its mistreatment of other minority groups, urging theCCP leaderXi Jinping'sgovernmentto close theXinjiang internment camps.[26][27]

In September 2019, China's ambassador to Germany stated that the meeting between Germany's foreign minister and Hong Kong activistJoshua Wongwill damage relations with China.[28]

2020-present

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On 22 April 2020, Germany'sInterior Ministryreleased a letter revealing that Chinese diplomats had contacted German Government officials "to encourage them" "to make positive statements on how China was handling the coronavirus pandemic". The German government did not comply with these requests.[29]

In June 2020, Germany opposed theHong Kong national security law.[30]

On 6 October 2020, Germany's ambassador to the UN, on behalf of the group of 39 countries including Germany, the U.K. and the U.S., made a statement to denounce China for its treatment of ethnic minorities and for curtailing freedoms in Hong Kong.[31]

In December 2020, with Germany ending its two-year term on theUnited Nations Security Council,Chinese AmbassadorGeng Shuangresponded "Out of the bottom of my heart: good riddance" in response to the German AmbassadorChristoph Heusgen's appeal to free two CanadiansMichael KovrigandMichael Spavordetained in China.[32]

In October 2021, a tweet from theGlobal Timescalled for a "final solution to the Taiwan question" which was condemned by German politicianFrank Müller-Rosentrittfor its similarity to the “final solution to the Jewish question” which resulted inthe Holocaust.[33]

In December 2021, as a result of a diplomatic spat betweenLithuaniaand China over Taiwan andhuman rightsChina pressuredContinental AGand other German companies to stop doing business with Lithuania.[34][35]TheBundesverband der Deutschen Industriedescribed the expansion of the ban on importing Lithuanian goods to components in integrated supply chains as a "devastating own goal."[36]The German government approved a quarter ownership for China shipper,COSCO,in the Hamburg container terminal port in May 2023.[37]

In September 2023, German Foreign MinisterAnnalena BaerbocknamedXi Jinpinga dictator next toVladimir Putin.[38]In April 2024, German authorities arrested three German nationals for spying for China and arranging illicit militarytechnology transfers.[39][40]The same month, authorities arrested a suspected spy working forMaximilian Krah.[41][42]In July 2024, Germany blocked the sale of a gas turbine business to a subsidiary ofChina State Shipbuilding Corporationfor national security reasons.[43]The same month, the German government announced a deal with telecommunication companies in the country to remove Chinese 5G equipment by 2029.[44]

In July 2024, Germany summoned the Chinese ambassador over a 2021 cyber-attack against theFederal Agency for Cartography and Geodesyattributed to "Chinese state actors" for the "purpose of espionage."[45]In August 2024, Germany's IT sector trade association reported that 45% of German businesses had suffered cyberattacks orindustrial espionagetraced to China.[46]

Trade

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Chinese markets are important forGerman industry,particularly theGerman automotive industry.[47]: 24 Germany is China's biggest trading partner and technology exporter in Europe.[48]

The trade volume between China and Germany surpassed 100 billion U.S. dollars in 2008.[49][needs independent confirmation]

By 2014,German ChancellorAngela Merkelhad visited China on trade missions seven times since assuming office in 2005; this underlines the importance of China to the German economy.[50]

Resident diplomatic missions

[edit]
  • Embassy of China in Berlin
    Embassy of China in Berlin
  • Consulate-General of China in Munich
    Consulate-General of China in Munich
  • Consulate-General of Germany in Shanghai
    Consulate-General of Germany in Shanghai

See also

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References

[edit]
  1. ^Joanne Miyang Cho, and David M. Crowe, eds.Germany and China: Transnational Encounters since the Eighteenth Century(2014)online reviewArchived2022-05-14 at theWayback Machine
  2. ^Wright,pp. 41–49.
  3. ^Gardiner,p. 395.
  4. ^Thomas W. Burkman,Japan and the League of Nations: Empire and world order, 1914–1938(U of Hawaii Press, 2007). p 4.
  5. ^Hall, Luella J. (1929)."The Abortive German-American-Chinese Entente of 1907-8".The Journal of Modern History.1(2): 219–235.doi:10.1086/235452.JSTOR1872005.S2CID143600941.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-10-02.Retrieved2020-12-28.
  6. ^Thomson, John Stuart (1913).China Revolutionized.Bobbs-Merrill Company. p. 59.Archivedfrom the original on 2024-04-23.Retrieved2022-09-05.
  7. ^Thomson, John Stuart (1913).China Revolutionized.Bobbs-Merrill Company. p. 54.Archivedfrom the original on 2024-04-23.Retrieved2022-09-05.
  8. ^William C. Kirby,Germany and Republican China(Stanford UP, 1984).
  9. ^Hsi‐Huey Liang, "China, the Sino‐Japanese conflict and the Munich crisis."Diplomacy & Statecraft10.2-3 (1999): 342-369.
  10. ^kung with hitler[permanent dead link]
  11. ^Kung and chinese kuomintang with adolf hitler[permanent dead link]
  12. ^Odd Arne Westad,Restless Empire: China in the world since 1750(2012) pp. 133–135.
  13. ^Robyn L. Rodriguez, "Journey to the East: The German Military Mission in China, 1927-1938" (PhD Diss. The Ohio State University, 2011)onlineArchived2024-04-23 at theWayback Machine
  14. ^Braun, Otto (1982).A Comintern Agent in China 1932-1939.Stanford University Press.ISBN9780804711388.Archivedfrom the original on 2024-04-23.Retrieved2023-04-29.
  15. ^Wheeler-Bennet 1939, p. 8.
  16. ^"Kooperation im Wandel: 30 Jahre diplomatische Beziehungen Bundesrepublik Deutschland - Volksrepublik China".Archivedfrom the original on 2020-04-08.Retrieved2019-08-09.
  17. ^Alexander Troche:Berlin wird am Mekong verteidigt.Die Ostasienpolitik der Bundesrepublik in China, Taiwan und Süd-Vietnam 1954–1966. Düsseldorf 2001, S. 86.
  18. ^Gunter Schubert: Gunter Schubert - The European Dimension of German-Taiwanese Relations. Vortrag auf der Konferenz «The Role of France and Germany in Sino-European Relations» in Hongkong Juli / August 2001PDFArchived2019-08-20 at theWayback Machine
  19. ^"Beyond Moscow: East German-Chinese Relations during the Cold War | Wilson Center".Archivedfrom the original on 2019-08-09.Retrieved2019-08-09.
  20. ^Markham, James M. (3 September 1986)."East Germany Steps up Contacts with China".The New York Times.Archivedfrom the original on 8 April 2020.Retrieved9 August2019.
  21. ^"Honecker visits China".Archivedfrom the original on 2020-04-08.Retrieved2019-08-09.
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  23. ^"Porsche Design Huawei Smartwatch GT 2".Porsche Shop.Archived fromthe originalon 2022-01-28.Retrieved2021-12-20.
  24. ^"Porsche Design Huawei Smartwatch GT 2".Porsche Design.Archivedfrom the original on 2021-12-20.Retrieved2021-12-20.
  25. ^"Mercedes apologises to China after quoting Dalai Lama".The Daily Telegraph.7 February 2018.Archivedfrom the original on 24 December 2019.Retrieved9 October2019.
  26. ^"Which Countries Are For or Against China's Xinjiang Policies?".The Diplomat.15 July 2019.Archivedfrom the original on 11 October 2019.Retrieved17 July2019.
  27. ^"More than 20 ambassadors condemn China's treatment of Uighurs in Xinjiang | Xinjiang | The Guardian".The Guardian.11 July 2019.Archivedfrom the original on 14 July 2019.Retrieved17 July2019.
  28. ^"China envoy raps Germany over meeting with Hong Kong activist".Reuters.2019-09-11.Archivedfrom the original on 2019-09-12.Retrieved2019-09-12.
  29. ^"Germany says China sought to encourage positive COVID-19 comments".Reuters.27 April 2020.Archivedfrom the original on 21 December 2020.Retrieved23 December2020.
  30. ^Lawler, Dave (2 July 2020)."The 53 countries supporting China's crackdown on Hong Kong".Axios.Archivedfrom the original on 25 July 2020.Retrieved3 July2020.
  31. ^Wainer, David (6 October 2020)."Western Allies Rebuke China at UN Over Xinjiang, Hong Kong".Bloomberg.com.Archived fromthe originalon 7 October 2020.Retrieved6 October2020.
  32. ^Nichols, Michelle (23 December 2020)."'Good riddance,' China says as Germany leaves U.N. Security Council ".Reuters.Archivedfrom the original on 23 December 2020.Retrieved23 December2020.
  33. ^Haime, Jordyn (21 October 2021)."Chinese state-run site proposes 'final solution to the Taiwan question'".www.jpost.com.The Jerusalem Post.Archivedfrom the original on 30 June 2022.Retrieved21 October2021.
  34. ^Sytas, Andrius; O'Donnell, John (17 December 2021)."China pressures Germany's Continental to cut out Lithuania - sources".reuters.com.Reuters.Archivedfrom the original on 29 January 2022.Retrieved18 December2021.
  35. ^FUKAO, KOSEI."China said to arm-twist Continental on Lithuania business".asia.nikkei.com.Nikkei.Archivedfrom the original on 18 December 2021.Retrieved18 December2021.
  36. ^Miller, Joe; Chazan, Guy; Bounds, Andy (17 December 2021)."German business hits out at China after Lithuania trade row snares exports".Financial Times.The Financial Times.Archivedfrom the original on 14 February 2022.Retrieved18 December2021.
  37. ^Arthur Sullivan. (11 May 2023). "Germany inks deal with China's COSCO on Hamburg port".DW websiteArchived2023-05-12 at theWayback MachineRetrieved 12 May 2023.
  38. ^"Germany's Baerbock calls China's Xi Jinping a dictator".POLITICO.2023-09-16.Archivedfrom the original on 2023-09-17.Retrieved2024-04-22.
  39. ^"3 Germans arrested on suspicion of spying for China, transferring info on potential military tech".Associated Press.2024-04-22.Archivedfrom the original on 2024-04-22.Retrieved2024-04-22.
  40. ^"Germany spying: Three suspected Chinese agents arrested".BBC News.2024-04-22.Archivedfrom the original on 2024-04-22.Retrieved2024-04-23.
  41. ^Connolly, Kate (2024-04-23)."AfD politician's aide arrested on suspicion of spying for China".The Guardian.ISSN0261-3077.Archivedfrom the original on 2024-08-31.Retrieved2024-04-23.
  42. ^Lulu, Jichang (2024-04-27)."The spooks and the merchants: Germany's arrest of a suspected MSS agent and the CCP's cultivation of business associations".Sinopsis.Charles University.Archivedfrom the original on 2024-04-30.Retrieved2024-05-18.
  43. ^"Germany stops planned sale of VW's gas turbine business to China".Reuters.July 3, 2024.RetrievedJuly 3,2024.{{cite news}}:CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  44. ^Burger, Ludwig; Rinke, Andreas (July 10, 2024)."Germany in deal to cut Huawei's role in 5G wireless network, report says".Reuters.RetrievedJuly 10,2024.
  45. ^Moulson, Geir (2024-07-31)."Germany says China was behind a 2021 cyberattack on a government agency and summons its ambassador".Associated Press.Archivedfrom the original on 2024-08-01.Retrieved2024-08-01.
  46. ^"Chinese cyberattacks hit nearly half of German firms, study".Deutsche Welle.28 August 2024.Archivedfrom the original on 2024-08-29.Retrieved2024-08-31.
  47. ^Garlick, Jeremy (2024).Advantage China: Agent of Change in an Era of Global Disruption.Bloomsbury Academic.ISBN978-1-350-25231-8.
  48. ^Geitner, Paul (22 April 2012)."China, Amid Uncertainty at Home and in Europe, Looks to Germany".The New York Times.Archivedfrom the original on 24 December 2019.Retrieved26 February2017.
  49. ^"Sino-German trade to hit $100 BLN this year".Archived fromthe originalon 2011-05-20.
  50. ^"Angela Merkel sets off for China to forge new economic ties".Herald Globe. Archived fromthe originalon 2014-07-14.Retrieved5 July2014.
  51. ^"Embassy of China in Berlin".Archivedfrom the original on 2021-07-25.Retrieved2021-07-15.
  52. ^"Embassy of Germany in Beijing".Archivedfrom the original on 2021-07-15.Retrieved2021-07-15.

Further reading

[edit]
Library resourcesabout
China–Germany relations
  • Wright, Richard N.J. (2000).The Chinese Steam Navy.London: Chatham Publishing.ISBN978-1-86176-144-6.
  • Gardiner, Robert, ed. (1979).Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1860–1905.London: Conway Maritime Press.ISBN978-0-85177-133-5.
  • Albers, Martin. "Business with Beijing, détente with Moscow: West Germany's China policy in a global context, 1969–1982."Cold War History14.2 (2014): 237–257.
  • Bernier, Lucie. "Christianity and the Other: Friedrich Schlegel's and F.W.J. Schelling's Interpretation of China."International Journal of Asian Studies2.2 (2005): 265–273.
  • Chen, Zhong Zhong. "Defying Moscow: East German-Chinese relations during the Andropov-Chernenko interregnum, 1982–1985."Cold War History14.2 (2014): 259–280.
  • Cho, Joanne Miyang, and David M. Crowe, eds.Germany and China: Transnational Encounters since the Eighteenth Century(2014)online review
  • Depner, Heiner, and Harald Bathelt. "Exporting the German model: the establishment of a new automobile industry cluster in Shanghai."Economic Geography81.1 (2005): 53-81online.
  • Dijk, Kees van.Pacific Strife: The Great Powers and their Political and Economic Rivalries in Asia and the Western Pacific 1870-1914(2015)
  • Eberspaecher, Cord. "Arming the Beiyang Navy. Sino-German Naval Cooperation."International Journal of Naval History(2009)online.
  • Fox, John P. "Max Bauer: Chiang Kai-shek's first German military adviser."Journal of Contemporary History5.4 (1970): 21–44.
  • Fox, John P.Germany and the Far Eastern Crisis, 1931-1938(Clarendon Press, 1982)
  • Gareis, Sven Bernhard. “Germany and China – A Close Partnership with Contradictions.” inGermany’s New Partners: Bilateral Relations of Europe’s Reluctant Leader,edited by Sven Bernhard Gareis and Matthew Rhodes, 1st ed. (Berlin: Verlag Barbara Budrich, 2019), pp. 87–108online
  • Garver, John W. "China, German Reunification, and the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence."Journal of East Asian Affairs8.1 (1994): 135–172.online
  • Groeneveld, Sabina. "Far away at Home in Qingdao (1897–1914)."German Studies Review39.1 (2016): 65-79online.
  • Hall, Luella J. "The Abortive German-American-Chinese Entente of 1907-8."Journal of Modern History1#2 1929, pp. 219–235.online
  • Heiduk, Felix. "Conflicting images? Germany and the rise of China."German Politics23.1-2 (2014): 118-133online.
  • Jenkins, Jennifer L., et al. "Asia, Germany and the Transnational Turn."German History28#4 (2010): 515–536.
  • Jones, Francis I. W. "The German challenge to British shipping 1885–1914: its magnitude, nature and impact in China."Mariner's Mirror76.2 (1990): 151–167.
  • Klein, Thoralf. "Biography and the making of transnational imperialism: Karl Gützlaff on the China coast, 1831–1851."Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History47.3 (2019): 415-445online.
  • Kranzler, David. "Restrictions against German-Jewish Refugee Immigration to Shanghai in 1939."Jewish Social Studies36.1 (1974): 40–60.online
  • Kirby, William C.Germany and Republican China(Stanford UP, 1984).
  • Kundnani, Hans, and Jonas Parello-Plesner. "China and Germany: why the emerging special relationship matters for Europe."European Council on Foreign Relations(2012)online.
  • Lach, Donald F. “Leibniz and China.”Journal of the History of Ideas6#4 (1945), pp. 436–455.online
  • Lü, Yixu. "German Colonial Fiction on China: The Boxer Uprising of 1900."German Life and Letters59.1 (2006): 78–100.
  • Lü, Yixu. "Germany's war in China: media coverage and political myth."German Life and Letters61.2 (2008): 202–214. On Boxer uprising.
  • Mak, Ricardo K, S. et al. eds/Sino-German Relations since 1800: Multidisciplinary Explorations(Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2000)
  • Martin, Bernd.Japan and Germany in the modern world(Berghahn books, 2006).
  • Martin, Bernd. "The Prussian expedition to the Far East (1860–1862)."Journal of the Siam Society78.1 (1990): 35–42.online
  • Möller, Kay. "Germany and China: a continental temptation."China Quarterly147 (1996): 706–725, covers 1960 to 1995.
  • Port, Andrew I. "Courting China, Condemning China: East and West German Cold War Diplomacy in the Shadow of the Cambodian Genocide."German History33.4 (2015): 588-608online[dead link].
  • Rodriguez, Robyn L. "Journey to the East: The German Military Mission in China, 1927-1938" (PhD Diss. The Ohio State University, 2011)online.
  • Schäfer, Bernd. "Weathering the Sino-Soviet Conflict: The GDR and North Korea, 1949-1989."Cold War International History Project Bulletin14.15 (2003): 2004.
  • Schrecker, John E.Imperialism and Chinese Nationalism: Germany in Shantung(Harvard UP, 1971).online review
  • Shen, Qinna. "Tiananmen Square, Leipzig, and the" Chinese Solution ": Revisiting the Wende from an Asian-German Perspective."German Studies Review42.1 (2019): 37-56online.
  • Skřivan, Aleš, and Aleš Skřivan. "Financial Battle for Beijing: The Great Powers and Loans to China, 1895–1898."Historian79.3 (2017): 476–503.
  • Slobodian, Quinn. "The Maoist Enemy: China’s Challenge in 1960s East Germany."Journal of Contemporary History51.3 (2016): 635-659online[dead link].
  • Smith, Julianne, and Torrey Taussig. "The Old World and the Middle Kingdom: Europe Wakes up to China's Rise."Foreign Affairs.98 (2019): 112+ How Angela Merkel et al. looked at China.online
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