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Gesta Hungarorum

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This article is about the early 13th-century history. For the later history by Simon of Kéza, seeGesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum.
First page of the manuscript written inMedieval Latin

Gesta Hungarorum,orThe Deeds of the Hungarians,is the earliest book aboutHungarianhistory which has survived for posterity. Its genre is not chronicle, butgesta,meaning "deeds" or "acts", which is a medieval entertaining literature. It was written in Latin by an unidentified author who has traditionally been calledAnonymusin scholarly works. According to most historians, the work was completed between around 1200 and 1230.[1][2]TheGestaexists in a solemanuscriptfrom the second part of the 13th century, which was for centuries held inVienna.It is part of the collection ofSzéchényi National LibraryinBudapest.

The principal subject of theGestais theHungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basinat the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries, and it writes of theorigin of the Hungarians,identifying the Hungarians' ancestors with the ancientScythiansandHuns.Many of its sources—including theBible,Isidore of Seville'sEtymologiae,the 7th-centuryExordia Scythica,the late 9th-centuryRegino of Prüm'sChronicon,andearly medieval romances of Alexander the Great—have been identified by scholars. Anonymus also used folk songs and ballads when writing his work. He knew a version of the late 11th-century "Hungarian Chronicle" the text of which has partially been preserved in his work and in later chronicles, but his narration of the Hungarian Conquest differs from the version provided by the other chronicles. Anonymus did not mention the opponents of the conquering Hungarians known from sources written around 900, but he wrote of the Hungarians' fight against rulers unknown from other sources. According to a scholarly theory, he used place names when naming the opponents of the Hungarians.

Background[edit]

TheGesta Hungarorum

Although theHungarians,orMagyars,seem to have usedtheir own alphabetbefore adopting Christianity in the 11th century,most information of their early history was recorded byMuslim,Byzantineand Western European authors.[3][4]For instance, theAnnals of Fulda,Regino of Prüm'sChronicon,and EmperorConstantine VII'sDe administrando imperiocontain contemporaneous or nearly contemporaneous reports oftheir conquest of the Carpathian Basinat the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries.[5][6]Among the Hungarians, oral tradition—songs and ballads—preserved the memory of the most important historical events.[7][8]TheIlluminated Chronicleexplicitly stated that the "seven captains" who led the Hungarians during the Conquest "composed lays about themselves and sang them among themselves in order to win worldly renown and to publish their names abroad, so that their posterity might be able to boast and brag to neighbours and friends when these songs were heard".[9][10]

TheGesta Hungarorum,orThe Deeds of the Hungarians,is the first extant Hungarian chronicle.[11][1]Its principal subject is the conquest of the Carpathian Basin and it narrates the background and the immediate aftermath of the conquest.[12][13][1]Many historians—includingCarlile Aylmer MacartneyandAndrás Róna-Tas—agree thatSimon of Kéza's chronicle, theIlluminated Chronicleand other works composed in the 13th–15th centuries preserved texts which had been written before the completion of theGesta.[1][13]They say that the first "Hungarian Chronicle"was completed in the second half of the 11th century or in the early 12th century.[13][14][15][16]The existence of this ancient chronicle is proven by later sources.[17]One Ricardus's report of a journey of a group ofDominicanfriarsin the early 1230s refers to a chronicle,The Deeds of the Christian Hungarians,which contained information of an easternMagna Hungaria.[18][19]TheIlluminated Chroniclefrom 1358[13]refers to "the ancient books about the deeds of the Hungarians"[20]in connection with thepagan uprisings of the 11th century.[21]The earliest "Hungarian Chronicle" was expanded and rewritten several times in the 12th–14th centuries, but its content can only be reconstructed based on 14th-century works.[15]

Manuscript[edit]

An old codex
An 11th-century copy of theAnnals of Fulda—an important contemporaneous source of theHungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin

The work exists in a solemanuscript.[22][2]Thecodexis 17 by 24 centimetres (0.56 ft × 0.79 ft) in size and contains 24folios,including two blank pages.[1]The first page of the codex originally contained the beginning of theGesta.[23]It was blanked because thescribehad made mistakes when writing the text.[23][24]The work was written in aGothic minuscule.[1]The style of the letters and decorations, including the elaborateinitialon its first page, shows that the manuscript was completed in the middle or in the second part of the 13th century.[1][2]Scribal errors suggest that the extant manuscript is a copy of the original work.[1][2]For instance, the scribe wroteCleopatraminstead ofNeopatramin the text narrating a Hungarian raid in theByzantine Empirealthough the context clearly shows that the author of theGestareferred toNeopatras(now Ypati inGreece).[1]

The history of the manuscript up until the early 17th century is unknown.[25]It became part of the collection of theImperial LibraryinViennabetween 1601 and 1636.[25]In this period, the court librarian Sebastian Tengnagel registered it under the titleHistoria Hungarica de VII primis ducibus Hungariae auctore Belae regis notario( "Hungarian History of the First Seven Princes of Hungary Written by King Béla's Notary" ).[25]Tengnagel added numbers to the folios and the chapters.[25]The codex wasboundwith a leather book cover, impressed with adouble-headed eagle,in the late 18th century.[25]The manuscript, which was transferred to Hungary in 1933 or 1934, is held in theSzéchényi National LibraryinBudapest.[2][26]

The author[edit]

Main article:Anonymus (notary of Béla III)
A man wearing a cowl which covers his face sits on a bench
Statue ofAnonymus,the author of theGesta HungaroruminVajdahunyad CastleinBudapest.(Miklós Ligeti,1903)

The author of theGesta Hungarorumhas been known as Anonymus ever since the publication of the first Hungarian translation of his work in 1790.[26]The author described himself as "P who is called magister, and sometime notary of the most glorious Béla,king of Hungaryof fond memory "[27]in the opening sentence of theGesta.[28][29]The identification of this King Béla is subject to scholarly debate, because four Hungarian monarchs bore this name.[30][31][32]Most historians identify the king withBéla III of Hungarywho died in 1196.[32][33][34]

Anonymus dedicated his work to "the most venerable man N"[27]who had been his schoolmate in an unspecified school.[35][36]Anonymus mentioned that they had found pleasure in reading theTrojan History,a work attributed toDares Phrygius,which enjoyed popularity in the Middle Ages.[36]He also referred to a work of the Trojan War that he had "brought most lovingly together into one volume"[27]upon his masters' instructions.[37]Anonymus stated that he had decided to write of "the genealogy of the kings of Hungary and of their noblemen"[27]because he had no knowledge of any decent account of the Hungarian Conquest.[38]According to scholars who identify Anonymus as King Béla III's notary, he wrote hisGestaaround 1200 or in the first decades of the 13th century.[12][33][39][40]

The study of place names mentioned in theGestasuggests that Anonymus had a detailed knowledge both of the wider region ofÓbudaandCsepel Island(in and to the south of present-dayBudapest) and of the lands along the upper courses of the riverTisza.[41]For instance, he mentioned a dozen places—settlements, ferries and streams—in the former region, including "a small river that flows through a stone culvert"[42]to Óbuda.[43]He did not write of the southern and eastern parts ofTransylvania.[44]

Sources[edit]

Minstrels and folk-singers reciting heroic songs were well-known figures of the age of Anonymus.[38]He explicitly referred to "the gabbling rhymes of minstrels and the spurious tales of peasants who have not forgotten the brave deeds and wars of the Hungarians"[45]even to his time.[38]However, he did not conceal his scorn for oral tradition, stating that it "would be most unworthy and completely unfitting for the so most noble people of Hungary to hear as if in sleep of the beginning of their kind and of their bravery and deeds from the false stories of peasants and the gabbling song ofminstrels".[46][38][47]All the same, stylistic elements (including formulaic repetitions which can be found in his text) imply that he occasionally used heroic songs.[47]According to Kristó, the legend ofEmese's dream of the "falcon that seemed to come to her and impregnate her"[48]was one of the motifs that Anonymus borrowed from oral tradition.[49]

Anonymus, as Macartney says, claimed to "rely solely on written sources, as alone trustworthy" when writing his work.[38]Among his sources, Anonymus explicitly mentioned theBibleand Dares Phrygius'sTrojan History.[47]He borrowed texts from the latter work and adopted its "overall structure of short but informative accounts naming important protagonists and main events", according to historians Martyn Rady and László Veszprémy.[50]Anonymus also referred to "historians writing of the deeds of the Romans"[51]when narrating the history of theScythians.[52]According to Kristó, Györffy and Thoroczkay, Anonymus obviously read the so-calledExordia Scythica( "Scythian Genesis" ), a 7th-centuryabridgementof a work of the 2nd-century historian,Justin.[53][52][54]

Anonymus used Regino of Prüm'sChronicon,that he mentioned as "the annals of chronicles"[55]in hisGesta.[52]He accepted Regino of Prüm's view when identifying the Scythians as the Hungarians' ancestors.[53]Sometimes, he misinterpreted his sources.[56]For instance, he wrote of "the boundaries of theCaranthiansof theMura"(Carinthinorum Moroanensium fines)[57]instead of the "lands of the Carinthians,Moravians"(Carantenorum, Marahensium... fines)[58]of which he read in Regino of Prüm'sChronicon,which shows that Anonymus did not understand Regino of Prüm's reference to the Moravians.[56]

Direct borrowings fromIsidore of Seville'sEtymologiae,Hugh of Bologna'sRationes dictani prosaice,andmedieval romances about Alexander the Greatprove that Anonymus also used these works.[53][50]According to Macartney, textual coincidences show that Anonymus adopted parts of late 12th-century chronicles narratingFrederick Barbarossa'scrusade.[59][60]For instance, Anonymus' descriptions oftournamentsseem to have been taken fromArnold of Lübeck'sChronicle of the Slavs.[59]

Anonymus also used the ancient "Hungarian Chronicle" or its sources.[61][62][63][64]However, there are differences between Anonymus' narration of the Hungarian Conquest and other works preserving texts from the ancient chronicle.[65]For instance, theIlluminated Chroniclewrote of the Hungarians' arrival inTransylvaniaacross the Carpathian Mountains from the east at the beginning of the Conquest, but according to Anonymus the Hungarians invaded Transylvania across the valleys of theMeseş Mountainsfrom the west at a later stage.[60][66]

Map of the Carpathian Basin
A map which depicts theCarpathian Basinon the eve of theHungarian Conquesttaking into account the narration of theGesta Hungarorum

Sources from the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries mentioned more than a dozen persons who played an important role in the history of the Carpathian Basin at the time of the Hungarian Conquest.[12][67][24]Anonymus did not mention any of them; he did not refer, for instance, to EmperorArnulf of Carinthia,Boris I of Bulgaria,andSvatopluk I of Moravia.[12][67][24]On the other hand, none of the persons whom Anonymus listed among the opponents of the conquering Hungarians—for instance, theBulgarianSalan,theKhazarMenumorutand theVlachGelou—were mentioned in other sources.[12][24]According to Györffy, Engel, and other historians, Anonymus either invented these personalities or listed them anachronistically among the conquering Hungarians' opponents.[65][12][68]Martyn Rady and László Veszprémy explicitly describe theGesta Hungarorumas a "'toponymic romance' that seeks to explain place-names by reference to imagined events or persons, and vice versa."[69]For instance, Györffy writes that Gelou's story was based on the conquest ofGyula of Transylvania's realm byStephen I of Hungaryin the early 11th century and Gelou was named after the townGilăuwhere he was killed in battle, according to Anonymus.[70]Anonymus likewise wrote that the BulgarianLaborechad died at the RiverLaborecand the Czech Zubur on the Mount Zobor nearNitra.[71]

Anonymus did not allude to the Hungarians' decisive victory over the unitedBavarianforces in theBattle of Pressburgin 907, but he narrated battles unknown from other works.[24]Anonymus seems to have applied place names when creating these battles, according to Győrffy.[72]For instance, theGesta Hungarorumwrote of a battle between the Greeks and the Hungarians at a ford by the RiverTiszawhich was named after this event as "Ford of the Greeks",[73]according to Anonymus, although it received this name after its revenues were granted to theGreek Orthodoxmonastery ofSremska Mitrovicain the 12th century.[72]

Late 9th-century sources mentioned theAvars,the Bavarians, the Bulgarians, the DanubianSlavs,theGepidsand theMoraviansamong the peoples inhabiting the Carpathian Basin.[24][74]Anonymus did not mention the Avars, the Bavarians, the Gepids and the Moravians, but he listed theCzechs,theGreeks,the Khazars, the "Romans" and their shepherds, theSzékelys,and the Vlachs besides the Bulgarians and the Slavs.[75]According to Györffy and Madgearu, Anonymus may have based his list of the peoples inhabiting the Carpathian Basin on the local Slavs' oral tradition which was preserved in the early 12th-centuryRussian Primary Chronicle.[76][77]The latter source described the Slavs as the first settlers in the Carpathian Basin and mentioned that they were conquered by the"Volokhi"before the Hungarians arrived and expelled theVolokhi.[76][77]According to Györffy, Kristó and other historians, Anonymus misinterpreted his source when identifying theVolokhiwith the Vlachs, because theVolokhiwere actuallyFrankswho occupiedPannonia,but the Hungarians expelled them during the Conquest.[76][78]But Spinei, Pop and other historians write thatRussian Primary Chronicleconfirms Anonymus's report of the Hungarians' fight against the Vlachs.[79][page needed][39][80]Madgearu, who does not associate theVolokhiwith the Vlachs, emphasizes that Anonymous "had no interest to invent the presence of the [Vlachs] in Transylvania in the 10th century, because if [Vlachs] had indeed arrived there in the 12th century, his readers would not have believed this assertion".[81]Györffy says that the Vlachs, Cumans, Czechs and other peoples whose presence in the late-9th-century Carpathian Basin cannot be proven based on sources from the same period reflects the situation of the late 13th century.[82]

Structure[edit]

TheGestacontains aprologueand 57 chapters.[83]

In the prologue, Anonymus introduced himself and declared that he decided to write his work to put in writing the early history of the Hungarians and their conquest of the Carpathian Basin.[84]In addition, he stated that he wanted to write of thegenealogyof the royalÁrpád dynastyand of the noble families of theKingdom of Hungary.[85]

The first seven chapters describe the Hungarians' legendary homeland—mentioned as Scythia orDentumoger—[86]and their departure from there.[87]According to Macartney, the first chapter was based on the late 11th-century "Hungarian Chronicle", and it contains interpolations from theExordia Scythicaand Regino of Prüm's chronicle.[62]The second chapter explains that the Hungarians were named after "Hunguar"[88](present-dayUzhhorodinUkraine).[62]The third chapter preserved thetotemisticpre-Christian tradition of the origin of the Árpád dynasty, narrating Emese's dream of the falcon impregnating her before the birth of her son,Álmos.[89][90]The next section describes Álmos, mentioning that he was "more powerful and wiser than all the princes of Scythia",[91]which may have derived from oral tradition or from the common wording of contemporaneous legal documents.[89][92]The fifth chapter writes of the election of Álmos as "the leader and master"[93]of the Hungarians, mentioning ablood-mingling ceremony.[89]In this section, Anonymus states that the Hungarians "chose to seek for themselves the land of Pannonia that they had heard from rumor had been the land ofKing Attila"[93]whom Anonymus describes as Álmos's forefather.[89]The next chapter narrates the oath that the leaders of the Hungarians took after Álmos's election, including the confirmation of the hereditary right of Álmos's descendants to rule and the right of his electors and his electors' offspring to hold the highest offices in the realm.[94][95]In the seventh chapter, Anonymus writes of the Hungarians' departure from Scythia and their route across the river "Etil" and "Russiawhich is calledSuzdal"[55]toKiev.[83]

The next four sections of theGestadescribe the fights of the Hungarians with theRus' peopleand the "Cumans".[87]Anonymus's report of the Hungarians' passing by Kiev was based on the ancient "Hungarian Chronicle", according to Macartney.[96]References to the Hungarians' march by Kiev towards the Carpathian Basin can also be found in theRussian Primary Chronicle,and in Simon of Kéza's andHenry of Mügeln's chronicles.[97]In an attempt to make his work more entertaining, Anonymus supplemented this information with vivid battle-scenes borrowed from theTrojan Historyand the romances about Alexander the Great, according to Macartney.[98]Anonymus mentions an alliance between the Rus' people and the "Cumans" against the Hungarians.[96]Macartney, Györffy, Spinei and many other historians agree that he misinterpreted theHungarianwordkun,which originally designated all nomadicTurkic peoples,and wrongly identified theKunsmentioned in one of his sources with the Cumans of his age.[99][100][101]The latter had at least twice supported theRus' princesagainst theHungarian monarchsin the 12th century, which explains Anonymus's mistake.[102][101]The ninth chapter of theGestadescribes the submission of the Rus' and "Cuman" princes to Álmos.[103]Anonymus also writes how seven Cuman chieftains joined the Hungarians, which may have preserved the memory of the integration of theKabarsin the Hungarian tribal alliance based on oral tradition of the noble families of Kabar origin, according to Györffy.[104]

Reception and editions[edit]

The existence of a sole manuscript of theGesta Hungarorumshows that the chronicle "was not very popular during either its author's lifetime or the subsequent centuries", according to historianFlorin Curta.[22]For instance, the contemporary 13th centuryFriar Julianand his Dominican brethren studied a century earlier work:The Deeds of the Christian Hungariansinstead of Anonymus's work before departing for the ancient homeland of the Magyars in the early 1230s.[105]Later chronicles did not use theGesta,suggesting that Anonymus's contemporaries knew that he had invented most details of his account of the Hungarian Conquest, according toGyula Kristó.[105]

TheGestawas first published as the first volume of the seriesScriptures rerum Hungaricarumin 1746 byJohann Georg von Schwandtner.[26][2][106]Matthias Bélwrote a preface to this first edition.[26]Professors of theUniversities of HalleandGöttingensoon raised their doubts about the reliability of theGesta,emphasizing, for instance, the anachronistic description of the Rus' principalities.[26]TheSlovakscholarJuraj Sklenárdismissed Anonymus's work in the 1780s, pointing out that Anonymus failed to mentionGreat Moravia.[107][dubious–discuss].

When demanding the emancipation of the Romanians of Transylvania in the late 18th century, the authors of theSupplex Libellus Valachorumreferred to Anonymus's work.[107]Anonymus's three heroes—Gelou, Glad and Menumorut—play a preeminent role in Romanian historiography.[108]Romanian historians have presented them as Romanian rulers whose presence in theGestaproves the existence of Romanian polities in the territory of present-day Romania at the time of the Hungarian Conquest.[109]The Romanian government even published a full-page advertisement about the reliability of Anonymus's reference to the Romanians inThe Timesin 1987.[110]

The view of modern historians on theGesta Hungarorumis mixed: some consider it a reliable source; others consider its information doubtful.[111]Alexandru Madgearu, who wrote a monography of theGesta Hungarorum,concluded that the "analysis of several fragments of" the Gesta Hungarorum "has demonstrated that this work is generally credible, even if it ignores important events and characters and even if it makes some chronological mistakes".[112]According toNeagu Djuvara,professor of international law and economic history, the factual accuracy of Anonymus's work is likely high, because it is the earliest preserved Hungarian chronicle and is based on even older Hungarian chronicles.[113]On the other hand,Carlile Aylmer Macartneydescribed Anonymus's work as "the most famous, the most obscure, the most exasperating and most misleading of all the early Hungarian texts" in his book of medieval Hungarian historians.[2]Carlile Aylmer Macartneywrites in his critical and analytical guide of Anonymus "this is not evidence that he introduced the whole person of Gelou or the presence of Vlachs in Transylvania".[114]Paul Robert Magocsialso regarded theGestaas an unreliable work.[115]Romanian-British historianDennis Deletantjoins the opinion that it is a debatable chronicle, criticizing how Anonymous has the Hungarians fighting Bulgarians while making no mention of the Moravians, Carinthians, Franks and Bavarians, and also his reliance upon legends and historical tradidion than facts, such as in the parts where he makes the dubious claim that the Hungarian leader Almos was descended from Attila. Deletant further concludes that the cases for and against the existence of Gelou and the Vlachs simply cannot be proven[116]Martyn Rady,the translator of the first English version of the Gesta, states that "It is at best to project contemporary conditions backwards."[117]

See also[edit]

LatinWikisourcehas original text related to this article:

Notes[edit]

  1. ^abcdefghiRady & Veszprémy 2010,p. xvii.
  2. ^abcdefgMacartney 1953,p. 59.
  3. ^Engel 2001,pp. 8–9.
  4. ^Róna-Tas 1999,pp. 53–58, 67–71.
  5. ^Engel 2001,p. 12.
  6. ^Róna-Tas 1999,pp. 53–54, 57.
  7. ^Kristó 2002,p. 11.
  8. ^Macartney 1953,p. 1.
  9. ^The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle(ch. 36), p. 100.
  10. ^Kristó 2002,p. 16.
  11. ^Curta 2006,p. 15.
  12. ^abcdefEngel 2001,p. 11.
  13. ^abcdRóna-Tas 1999,p. 58.
  14. ^Macartney 1953,pp. 16–17.
  15. ^abBerend, Urbańczyk & Wiszewski 2013,p. 405.
  16. ^Kristó 2002,p. 32.
  17. ^Kristó 2002,p. 30.
  18. ^Kristó 2002,p. 46.
  19. ^Macartney 1953,pp. 43–44, 85–86.
  20. ^The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle(ch. 82), p. 111.
  21. ^Kristó 2002,pp. 30–31.
  22. ^abCurta 2006,p. 16.
  23. ^abRady & Veszprémy 2010,p. xx.
  24. ^abcdefGyörffy 1988,p. 39.
  25. ^abcdeRady & Veszprémy 2010,p. xviii.
  26. ^abcdeRady & Veszprémy 2010,p. xix.
  27. ^abcdAnonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians(Prologue), p. 3.
  28. ^Györffy 1988,pp. 28, 30, 39.
  29. ^Madgearu 2005,pp. 16–17.
  30. ^Macartney 1953,p. 61.
  31. ^Madgearu 2005,pp. 16–20.
  32. ^abKordé 1994,p. 50.
  33. ^abBerend, Urbańczyk & Wiszewski 2013,p. 490.
  34. ^Madgearu 2005,p. 16.
  35. ^Rady & Veszprémy 2010,p. xxiii.
  36. ^abMadgearu 2005,p. 18.
  37. ^Kristó 2002,p. 54.
  38. ^abcdeMacartney 1953,p. 64.
  39. ^abSpinei 2009,p. 73.
  40. ^Rady & Veszprémy 2010,p. xxii.
  41. ^Györffy 1988,p. 44.
  42. ^Anonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians(ch. 53), p. 115.
  43. ^Györffy 1988,p. 41-44.
  44. ^Madgearu 2005,p. 19.
  45. ^Anonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians(ch. 42.), p. 91.
  46. ^Anonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians(Prologue), p. 5.
  47. ^abcRady & Veszprémy 2010,p. xxix.
  48. ^Anonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians(ch. 3.), p. 13.
  49. ^Kristó 2002,p. 55.
  50. ^abRady & Veszprémy 2010,p. xxx.
  51. ^Anonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians(ch. 1.), p. 9.
  52. ^abcKristó 2002,p. 53.
  53. ^abcGyörffy 1988,p. 34.
  54. ^Thoroczkay 2009,p. 112.
  55. ^abAnonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians(ch. 7.), p. 21.
  56. ^abKristó 1983,p. 374.
  57. ^Anonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians(ch. 50.), pp. 106-107.
  58. ^TheChronicleof Regino of Prüm(year 889), p. 205.
  59. ^abMacartney 1953,pp. 82–83.
  60. ^abMadgearu 2005,p. 17.
  61. ^Rady & Veszprémy 2010,p. xxviii.
  62. ^abcMacartney 1953,p. 67.
  63. ^Madgearu 2005,pp. 15–16.
  64. ^Armbruster 1972,p. 29.
  65. ^abRóna-Tas 1999,p. 53.
  66. ^Spinei 2009,pp. 71–72.
  67. ^abKristó 2002,p. 56.
  68. ^Györffy 1988,p. 94.
  69. ^Rady & Veszprémy 2010,p. xxvii.
  70. ^Györffy 1988,pp. 88–89, 94.
  71. ^Györffy 1988,p. 36.
  72. ^abGyörffy 1988,p. 37.
  73. ^Anonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians(ch. 39.), p. 85.
  74. ^Róna-Tas 1999,p. 263-266.
  75. ^Györffy 1988,p. 68.
  76. ^abcGyörffy 1988,p. 76.
  77. ^abMadgearu 2005,p. 52.
  78. ^Kristó 1983,pp. 147–148.
  79. ^Ţurcanu 2007.
  80. ^Pop 2013,p. 64.
  81. ^Madgearu 2005,pp. 53–54, 105.
  82. ^Györffy 1988,pp. 92–94.
  83. ^abGyörffy 1988,p. 28.
  84. ^Thoroczkay 2009,p. 64.
  85. ^Rady & Veszprémy 2010,p. xxv.
  86. ^Macartney 1953,pp. 100.
  87. ^abMadgearu 2005,p. 21.
  88. ^Anonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians(ch. 2.), p. 13.
  89. ^abcdMacartney 1953,p. 68.
  90. ^Kristó 2002,p. 13.
  91. ^Anonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians(ch. 4.), p. 15.
  92. ^Rady & Veszprémy 2010,p. 15, note 15.
  93. ^abAnonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians(ch. 5.), p. 17.
  94. ^Macartney 1953,pp. 68–69.
  95. ^Györffy 1988,p. 54.
  96. ^abMacartney 1953,p. 69.
  97. ^Spinei 2009,p. 70.
  98. ^Macartney 1953,pp. 64–65, 69.
  99. ^Macartney 1953,pp. 65, 73.
  100. ^Spinei 2009,p. 75.
  101. ^abGyörffy 1988,p. 110.
  102. ^Macartney 1953,p. 73.
  103. ^Macartney 1953,pp. 73–74.
  104. ^Györffy 1988,p. 111.
  105. ^abKristó 2002,p. 52.
  106. ^Madgearu 2005,p. 15.
  107. ^abRady & Veszprémy 2010,p. xxxii.
  108. ^Boia 2001,p. 124.
  109. ^Boia 2001,p. 125.
  110. ^Rady & Veszprémy 2010,p. xxxiii.
  111. ^Magocsi & Pop 2002,pp. 170, 265.
  112. ^Madgearu 2005,p. 147.
  113. ^Djuvara 2003,p. 20.
  114. ^Macartney 1953,pp. 61, 75.
  115. ^Magocsi & Pop 1978,p. 107.
  116. ^Deletant, Dennis (1992)."Ethnos and Mythos in the History of Transylvania: the case of the chronicler Anonymus".Historians and the History of Transylvania.Vol. East European Monographs. New York: Columbia University Press.ISBN0880332298.
  117. ^Rady, Martin (2009).The deeds of the Hungarians(PDF).The Slavonic and East European Review. pp. 2–3.

Sources[edit]

Primary sources[edit]

  • Anonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians(Edited, Translated and Annotated by Martyn Rady and László Veszprémy) (2010). In: Rady, Martyn; Veszprémy, László; Bak, János M. (2010);Anonymus and Master Roger;CEU Press;ISBN978-963-9776-95-1.
  • Silagi, Gabriel (1991).Die "Gesta Hungarorum" des anonymen Notars.Ungarns Geschichtsschreiber (in German). Vol. 4. Sigmaringen: Jan Thorbecke.ISBN3-7995-2910-1.(critical edition with German translation).
  • TheChronicleof Regino of Prüm(2009). In:History and Politics in Late Carolingian and Ottonian Europe: TheChronicleof Regino of Prüm and Adalbert of Magdeburg(Translated and annotated by Simon MacLean); Manchester University Press;ISBN978-0-7190-7135-5.
  • The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle:Chronica de Gestis Hungarorum (Edited by Dezső Dercsényi) (1970). Corvina, Taplinger Publishing.ISBN0-8008-4015-1.

Secondary sources[edit]

  • Armbruster, Adolf (1972).Romanitatea românilor: Istoria unei idei[The Romanity of the Romanians: The History of an Idea].Romanian Academy Publishing House.
  • Berend, Nora; Urbańczyk, Przemysław; Wiszewski, Przemysław (2013).Central Europe in the High Middle Ages: Bohemia, Hungary and Poland, c. 900-c. 1300.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-78156-5.
  • Boia, Lucian (2001).History and Myth in Romanian Consciousness (Translated by James Christian Brown).CEU Press.ISBN963-9116-96-3.
  • Curta, Florin (2006).Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-89452-4.
  • Deletant, Dennis (1992). "Ethnos and Mythos in the History of Transylvania: the case of the chronicler Anonymus". In Péter, László (ed.).Historians and the History of Transylvania.Boulder. pp. 67–85.ISBN0-88033-229-8.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Djuvara, Neagu (2003).O scurtă istorie a românilor povestită celor tineri(in Romanian). Istros.
  • Engel, Pál (2001).The Realm of St Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895–1526.I.B. Tauris Publishers.ISBN1-86064-061-3.
  • Georgescu, Vlad (1991).The Romanians:A History.Ohio State University Press.ISBN0-8142-0511-9.
  • Györffy, György (1988).Anonymus: Rejtély vagy történeti forrás[Anonymous: An Enigma or a Source for History](in Hungarian). Akadémiai Kiadó.ISBN963-05-4868-2.
  • Kordé, Zoltán (1994). "Anonymus". In Kristó, Gyula; Engel, Pál; Makk, Ferenc (eds.).Korai magyar történeti lexikon (9–14. század)[Encyclopedia of the Early Hungarian History (9th–14th centuries)](in Hungarian). Akadémiai Kiadó. pp. 50–51.ISBN963-05-6722-9.
  • Kristó, Gyula (1983).Tanulmányok az Árpád-korról, 14. fejezet: Szempontok Anonymus gestájának megítéléséhez[Studies on the Age of the Árpáds, Chapter 14: Thoughts of the Evaluation of Anonymus's Gesta](in Hungarian). Magvető Könyvkiadó.ISBN963-271-890-9.
  • Kristó, Gyula (2002).Magyar historiográfia I.: Történetírás a középkori Magyarországon[Hungarian Historiography, Volume I: History in Medieval Hungary](in Hungarian). Osiris.ISBN963-389-261-9.
  • Macartney, C. A. (1953).The Medieval Hungarian Historians: A Critical & Analytical Guide.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-08051-4.Google Books
  • Madgearu, Alexandru (2005).The Romanians in the Anonymous Gesta Hungarorum: Truth and Fiction.Romanian Cultural Institute, Center for Transylvanian Studies.ISBN973-7784-01-4.
  • Magocsi, Paul Robert; Pop, Ivan (1978).The Shaping of a National Identity: Subcarpathian Rus', 1848-1948.Harvard University Press.ISBN0-674-80579-8.
  • Magocsi, Paul Robert; Pop, Ivan (2002).Encyclopedia of Rusyn History and Culture.University of Toronto Press.ISBN0-8020-3566-3.
  • Pop, Ioan-Aurel (2013)."De manibus Valachorum scismaticorum...": Romanians and Power in the Mediaeval Kingdom of Hungary: The Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries.Peter Lang.ISBN978-3-631-64866-7.
  • Rady, Martyn; Veszprémy, László (2010). "Introduction". In Bak, János M.; Borkowska, Urszula; Constable, Giles; Jaritz, Gerhard; Klaniczay, Gábor (eds.).Anonymus and Master Roger.CEU Press. pp. xvii–xxxviii.ISBN978-963-9776-95-1.
  • Oța, Silviu (2014).The Mortuary Archaeology of Medieval Banat.Brill.ISBN978-90-04-21438-5.
  • Róna-Tas, András (1999).Hungarians and Europe in the Early Middle Ages: An Introduction to Early Hungarian History (Translated by Nicholas Bodoczky).CEU Press.ISBN978-963-9116-48-1.
  • Spinei, Victor (2009).The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth century.Koninklijke Brill NV.ISBN978-90-04-17536-5.
  • Thoroczkay, Gábor (2009).Írások az Árpád-korról: Történeti és historiográfiai tanulmányok, 7. fejezet: Anonymusról - röviden[On the Age of the Árpáds: Historical and Historiographic Studies, Chapter 7: On Anonymous in short](in Hungarian). L'Harmattan.ISBN978-963-236-165-9.
  • Ţurcanu, Ion (2007).Istoria românilor[History of the Romanians](in Romanian). Istros.ISBN978-973-1871-02-8.

External links[edit]

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