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Giants (Greek mythology)

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"Gigantes" redirects here. For other uses, seeGigantes (disambiguation).
Poseidon (left) holding a trident, with the islandNisyroson his shoulder, battling a Giant (probablyPolybotes),red-figurecup c. 500–450 BC (Cabinet des Médailles573)[1]

InGreekandRoman mythology,theGiants,also calledGigantes(Greek:Γίγαντες,Gígantes,singular:Γίγας,Gígas), were a race of great strength and aggression, though not necessarily of great size. They were known for theGigantomachy(orGigantomachia), their battle with theOlympian gods.[2]According toHesiod,the Giants were the offspring ofGaia(Earth), born from the blood that fell whenUranus(Sky) was castrated by hisTitansonCronus.[3]

Archaic and Classical representations show Gigantes as man-sizedhoplites(heavily armed ancient Greek foot soldiers) fully human in form.[4]Later representations (after c. 380 BC) show Gigantes withsnakes for legs.[5]In later traditions, the Giants were often confused with other opponents of the Olympians, particularly theTitans,an earlier generation of large and powerful children of Gaia and Uranus.

The vanquished Giants were said to be buried under volcanoes and to be the cause of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.

Origins

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The name "Gigantes" is usually taken to imply "earth-born",[6]andHesiod'sTheogonymakes this explicit by having the Giants be the offspring ofGaia(Earth). According to Hesiod, Gaia, mating with Uranus, bore many children: the first generation ofTitans,theCyclopes,and theHundred-Handers.[7]However, Uranus hated his children and, as soon as they were born, he imprisoned them inside of Gaia, causing her much distress. Therefore, Gaia made a sickle ofadamantwhich she gave toCronus,the youngest of her Titan sons, and hid him (presumably still inside Gaia's body) to wait in ambush.[8]When Uranus came to lie with Gaia, Cronus castrated his father, and "the bloody drops that gushed forth [Gaia] received, and as the seasons moved round she bore... the great Giants."[9]From these same drops of blood also came theErinyes(Furies) and theMeliai(ash tree nymphs), while the severed genitals of Uranus falling into the sea resulted in a white foam from whichAphroditegrew. The mythographerApollodorusalso has the Giants being the offspring of Gaia and Uranus, though he makes no connection with Uranus' castration, saying simply that Gaia "vexed on account of the Titans, brought forth the Giants".[10]

There are three brief references to theGigantesinHomer'sOdyssey,though it is not entirely clear that Homer and Hesiod understood the term to mean the same thing.[11]Homer has Giants among the ancestors of thePhaiakians,a race of men encountered byOdysseus,their rulerAlcinousbeing the son ofNausithous,who was the son ofPoseidonandPeriboea,the daughter of the Giant king Eurymedon.[12]Elsewhere in theOdyssey,Alcinous says that the Phaiakians, like the Cyclopes and the Giants, are "near kin" to the gods.[13]Odysseus describes theLaestrygonians(another race encountered by Odysseus in his travels) as more like Giants than men.[14]Pausanias,the 2nd century AD geographer, read these lines of theOdysseyto mean that, for Homer, the Giants were a race of mortal men.[15]

The 6th–5th century BC lyric poetBacchylidescalls the Giants "sons of the Earth".[16]Later the term "gegeneis" ( "earthborn" ) became a common epithet of the Giants.[17]The first century Latin writerHyginushas the Giants being the offspring of Gaia andTartarus,another primordial Greek deity.[18]

Confusion with Titans and others

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Though distinct in early traditions,[19]Hellenistic and later writers often confused or conflated the Giants and their Gigantomachy with an earlier set of offspring of Gaia and Uranus, theTitansand their war with the Olympian gods, theTitanomachy.[20]This confusion extended to other opponents of the Olympians, including the huge monsterTyphon,[21]the offspring ofGaiaandTartarus,whomZeusfinally defeated with his thunderbolt, and theAloadae,the large, strong and aggressive brothers Otus and Ephialtes, who piledPelionon top ofOssain order to scale the heavens and attack the Olympians (though in the case of Ephialtes there was probably a Giant with the same name).[22]For example,Hyginusincludes the names of three Titans,Coeus,Iapetus,andAstraeus,along with Typhon and the Aloadae, in his list of Giants,[23]andOvidseems to conflate the Gigantomachy with the later siege ofOlympusby the Aloadae.[24]

Ovid also seems to confuse theHundred-Handerswith the Giants, whom he gives a "hundred arms".[25]So perhaps doCallimachusandPhilostratus,since they both make Aegaeon the cause of earthquakes, as was often said about the Giants (see below).[26]

Descriptions

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Homer describes the Giant king Eurymedon as "great-hearted" (μεγαλήτορος), and his people as "insolent" (ὑπερθύμοισι) and "froward" (ἀτάσθαλος).[27]Hesiod calls the Giants "strong" (κρατερῶν) and "great" (μεγάλους) which may or may not be a reference to their size.[28]Though a possible later addition, theTheogonyalso has the Giants born "with gleaming armour, holding long spears in their hands".[29]

Other early sources characterize the Giants by their excesses.Pindardescribes the excessive violence of the Giant Porphyrion as having provoked "beyond all measure".[30]Bacchylides calls the Giants arrogant, saying that they were destroyed by "Hybris"(the Greek word hubris personified).[31]The earlier seventh century BC poetAlcmanperhaps had already used the Giants as an example of hubris, with the phrases "vengeance of the gods" and "they suffered unforgettable punishments for the evil they did" being possible references to the Gigantomachy.[32]

Homer's comparison of the Giants to theLaestrygoniansis suggestive of similarities between the two races. The Laestrygonians, who "hurled... rocks huge as a man could lift", certainly possessed great strength, and possibly great size, as their king's wife is described as being as big as a mountain.[33]

Over time, descriptions of the Giants make them less human, more monstrous and more "gigantic". According toApollodorusthe Giants had great size and strength, a frightening appearance, with long hair and beards and scaly feet.[34]Ovidmakes them "serpent-footed" with a "hundred arms",[35]andNonnushas them "serpent-haired".[36]

The Gigantomachy

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"Gigantomachy" redirects here. For the painting, seeGigantomachy by the Suessula Painter.

The most important divine struggle in Greek mythology was the Gigantomachy, the battle fought between the Giants and the Olympian gods for supremacy of the cosmos.[37]It is primarily for this battle that the Giants are known, and its importance to Greek culture is attested by the frequent depiction of the Gigantomachy in Greek art.

Early sources

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Athena(left) fighting the GiantEnceladus(inscribed retrograde) on anAtticred-figuredish, c. 550–500 BC (LouvreCA3662).[38]

The references to the Gigantomachy in archaic sources are sparse.[39]Neither Homer nor Hesiod mention anything explicit about the Giants battling the gods.[40] Homer's remark that Eurymedon "brought destruction on his froward people" might possibly be a reference to the Gigantomachy[41]and Hesiod's remark thatHeraclesperformed a "great work among the immortals"[42]is probably a reference to Heracles' crucial role in the gods' victory over the Giants.[43]The HesiodicCatalogue of Women(or theEhoiai), following mentions of Heracles' sacks ofTroyand ofKos,refers to his having slain "presumptious Giants".[44]Another probable reference to the Gigantomachy in theCataloguehas Zeus produce Heracles to be "a protector against ruin for gods and men".[45]

There are indications that there might have been a lost epic poem, aGigantomachia,which gave an account of the war: Hesiod'sTheogonysays that theMusessing of the Giants,[46]and the sixth century BC poetXenophanesmentions the Gigantomachy as a subject to be avoided at table.[47]TheApolloniusscholia refers to a "Gigantomachia"in which the TitanCronus(as a horse) sires thecentaurChironby mating withPhilyra(the daughter of two Titans), but the scholiast may be confusing the Titans and Giants.[48]Other possible archaic sources include the lyric poets Alcman (mentioned above) and the sixth-centuryIbycus.[49]

The late sixth early fifth century BC lyric poetPindarprovides some of the earliest details of the battle between the Giants and the Olympians. He locates it "on the plain ofPhlegra"and hasTeiresiasforetell Heracles killing Giants "beneath [his] rushing arrows".[50]He calls Heracles "you who subdued the Giants",[51]and hasPorphyrion,whom he calls "the king of the Giants", being overcome by the bow ofApollo.[52]Euripides'Heracleshas its hero shooting Giants with arrows,[53]and hisIonhas the chorus describe seeing a depiction of the Gigantomachy on the late sixth centuryTemple of Apollo at Delphi,withAthenafighting the GiantEnceladuswith her "gorgon shield",Zeusburning the GiantMimaswith his "mighty thunderbolt, blazing at both ends", andDionysuskilling an unnamed Giant with his "ivy staff".[54]The early 3rd century BC authorApollonius of Rhodesbriefly describes an incident where the sun godHeliostakes upHephaestus,exhausted from the fight in Phlegra, on his chariot.[55]

Apollodorus

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Dionysus(left) with ivy crown, andthyrsusattacking a Giant,Atticred-figurepelike,c. 475–425 BC (LouvreG434).[56]

The most detailed account of the Gigantomachy[57]is that of the (first or second-century AD) mythographerApollodorus.[58]None of the early sources give any reasons for the war. Scholia to theIliadmention the rape ofHeraby the Giant Eurymedon,[59]while according to the scholia toPindar'sIsthmian6, it was the theft of the cattle ofHeliosby the GiantAlcyoneusthat started the war.[60]Apollodorus, who also mentions the theft of Helios' cattle by Alcyoneus,[61]suggests a mother's revenge as the motive for the war, saying that Gaia bore the Giants because of her anger over the Titans (who had been vanquished and imprisoned by the Olympians).[62]Seemingly, as soon as the Giants are born they begin hurling "rocks and burning oaks at the sky".[63]

There was a prophecy that the Giants could not be killed by the gods alone, but they could be killed with the help of a mortal.[64]Hearing this, Gaia sought for a certain plant (pharmakon) that would protect the Giants. Before Gaia or anyone else could find this plant, Zeus forbadeEos(Dawn),Selene(Moon) andHelios(Sun) to shine, harvested all of the plant himself and then he hadAthenasummon Heracles.

According to Apollodorus, Alcyoneus andPorphyrionwere the two strongest Giants. Heracles shot Alcyoneus, who fell to the ground but then revived, for Alcyoneus was immortal within his native land. So Heracles, onAthena's advice, dragged him beyond the borders of that land, where Alcyoneus then died (compare withAntaeus).[65]Porphyrion attacked Heracles andHera,but Zeus caused Porphyrion to become enamoured of Hera, whom Porphyrion then tried to rape, but Zeus struck Porphyrion with his thunderbolt and Heracles killed him with an arrow.[66]

Other Giants and their fates are mentioned by Apollodorus. Ephialtes was blinded by an arrow from Apollo in his left eye, and another arrow from Heracles in his right.Eurytuswas killed byDionysuswith histhyrsus,ClytiusbyHecatewith her torches andMimasbyHephaestuswith "missiles of red-hot metal" from his forge.[67]Athena crushed Enceladus under the Island of Sicily and flayedPallas,using his skin as a shield.Poseidonbroke off a piece of the island ofKoscalledNisyros,and threw it on top ofPolybotes(Straboalso relates the story of Polybotes buried under Nisyros but adds that some say Polybotes lies under Kos instead).[68]Hermes,wearingHades' helmet, killedHippolytus,Artemiskilled Gration, and theMoirai(Fates) killed Agrius and Thoas with bronze clubs. The rest of the giants were "destroyed" by thunderbolts thrown by Zeus, with each Giant being shot with arrows by Heracles (as the prophecy seemingly required).

Ovid

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The Latin poetOvidgives a brief account of the Gigantomachy in his poemMetamorphoses.[69]Ovid, apparently including theAloadae's attack upon Olympus as part of the Gigantomachy, has the Giants attempt to seize "the throne of Heaven" by piling "mountain on mountain to the lofty stars" but Jove (i.e.Jupiter,the Roman Zeus) overwhelms the Giants with his thunderbolts, overturning "fromOssahuge, enormousPelion".[70]Ovid says that (as "fame reports" ) from the blood of the Giants came a new race of beings in human form.[71]According to Ovid, Earth (Gaia) did not want the Giants to perish without a trace, so "reeking with the copious blood of her gigantic sons", she gave life to the "steaming gore" of the blood soaked battleground. These new offspring, like their fathers the Giants, also hated the gods and possessed a bloodthirsty desire for "savage slaughter".

Later in theMetamorphoses,Ovid refers to the Gigantomachy as: "The time when serpent footed giants strove / to fix their hundred arms on captive Heaven".[72]Here Ovid apparently conflates the Giants with theHundred-Handers,[73]who, though in Hesiod fought alongside Zeus and the Olympians, in some traditions fought against them.[74]

Other late sources

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Eratosthenesrecords that Dionysus, Hephaestus and several satyrs mounted on donkeys and charged against the Giants. As they drew closer and before the Giants had spotted them, the donkeys brayed, scaring off some Giants who ran away in terror of the unseen enemies, for they had never heard a donkey's bray before.[75]Dionysus placed the donkeys in the skies in gratitude, and in vase paintings from the classical period, satyrs andMaenadscan sometimes be seen confronting their gigantic opponents.[76]

A late Latin grammarian of the fifth century AD,Servius,mentions that during the battle, theeagle of Zeus(who once had been the boyAëtosbefore his metamorphosis) assisted his master by placing the lightning bolts on his hands.[77]

Location

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Various places have been associated with the Giants and the Gigantomachy. As noted above Pindar has the battle occur at Phlegra ( "the place of burning" ),[78]as do other early sources.[79]Phlegra was said to be an ancient name forPallene(modernKassandra)[80]and Phlegra/Pallene was the usual birthplace of the Giants and site of the battle.[81]Apollodorus, who placed the battle at Pallene, says the Giants were born "as some say, in Phlegrae, but according to others in Pallene". The name Phlegra and the Gigantomachy were also often associated, by later writers, with a volcanic plain in Italy, west ofNaplesand east ofCumae,called thePhlegraean Fields.[82]The third century BC poetLycophron,apparently locates a battle of gods and Giants in the vicinity of the volcanic island ofIschia,the largest of thePhlegraean Islandsoff the coast of Naples, where he says the Giants (along with Typhon) were "crushed" under the island.[83]At least one tradition placed Phlegra inThessaly.[84]

According to the geographerPausanias,theArcadiansclaimed that battle took place "not atPelleneinThrace"but in the plain ofMegalopoliswhere "rises up fire".[85]Another tradition apparently placed the battle atTartessusin Spain.[86]Diodorus Siculuspresents a war with multiple battles, with one at Pallene, one on the Phlegraean Fields, and one onCrete.[87]Strabo mentions an account of Heracles battling Giants atPhanagoria,a Greek colony on the shores of theBlack Sea.[88]Even when, as in Apollodorus, the battle starts at one place. Individual battles between a Giant and a god might range farther afield, with Enceladus buried beneath Sicily, and Polybotes under the island ofNisyros(orKos). Other locales associated with Giants includeAttica,Corinth,Cyzicus,Lipara,Lycia,Lydia,Miletus,andRhodes.[89]

The presence of volcanic phenomena, and the frequent unearthing of the fossilized bones of large prehistoric animals throughout these locations may explain why such sites became associated with the Giants.[90]

In art

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Sixth century BC

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A depiction of the Gigantomachy showing a typical central group of Zeus, Heracles and Athena.black-figureamphorain the style of theLysippides Painter,c. 530-520 BC (British MuseumB208).[91]

From the sixth century BC onwards, the Gigantomachy was a popular and important theme in Greek art, with over six hundred representations cataloged in theLexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae(LIMC).[92]

The Gigantomachy was depicted on the newpeplos(robe) presented toAthenaon theAcropolis of Athensas part of thePanathenaic festivalcelebrating her victory over the Giants, a practice dating from perhaps as early as the second millennium BC.[93]The earliest extant indisputable representations of Gigantes are found on votivepinakesfromCorinthandEleusis,andAtticblack-figurepots, dating from the second quarter of the sixth century BC (this excludes early depictions of Zeus battling single snake-footed creatures, which probably represent his battle withTyphon,as well as Zeus' opponent on the west pediment of theTemple of Artemison Kerkyra (modernCorfu) which is probably not a Giant).[94]

Though all these early Attic vases[95]are fragmentary, the many common features in their depictions of the Gigantomachy suggest that a common model or template was used as a prototype, possibly Athena'speplos.[96]These vases depict large battles, including most of the Olympians, and contain a central group which appears to consist of Zeus, Heracles, Athena, and sometimes Gaia.[97]Zeus, Heracles and Athena are attacking Giants to the right.[98]Zeus mounts a chariot brandishing his thunderbolt in his right hand, Heracles, in the chariot, bends forward with drawn bow and left foot on the chariot pole, Athena, beside the chariot, strides forward toward one or two Giants, and the four chariot horses trample a fallen Giant. When present, Gaia is shielded behind Herakles, apparently pleading with Zeus to spare her children.

On either side of the central group are the rest of the gods engaged in combat with particular Giants. While the gods can be identified by characteristic features, for exampleHermeswith his hat (petasos) andDionysushis ivy crown, the Giants are not individually characterized and can only be identified by inscriptions which sometimes name the Giant.[99]The fragments of one vase from this same period (Getty 81.AE.211)[100]name five Giants: Pankrates against Heracles,[101]Polybotesagainst Zeus,[102]Oranion against Dionysus,[103]Euboios and Euphorbus fallen[104]and Ephialtes.[105]Also named, on two other of these early vases, areAristaeusbattlingHephaestus(Akropolis 607),Eurymedonand (again)Ephialtes(Akropolis 2134). AnamphorafromCaerefrom later in the sixth century, gives the names of more Giants:HyperbiosandAgasthenes(along with Ephialtes) fighting Zeus, Harpolykos againstHera,Enceladus against Athena and (again) Polybotes, who in this case battles Poseidon with his trident holding the island of Nisyros on his shoulder (Louvre E732).[106]This motif of Poseidon holding the island of Nisyros, ready to hurl it at his opponent, is another frequent feature of these early Gigantomachies.[107]

Siphnian TreasuryatDelphi,North frieze (c. 525 BC). Detail showing gods facing right and Giants facing left.

The Gigantomachy was also a popular theme in late sixth century sculpture. The most comprehensive treatment is found on the north frieze of theSiphnian TreasuryatDelphi(c. 525 BC), with more than thirty figures, named by inscription.[108]From left to right, these include Hephaestus (with bellows), two females fighting two Giants; Dionysus striding toward an advancing Giant;Themis[109]in a chariot drawn by a team of lions which are attacking a fleeing Giant; the archers Apollo and Artemis; another fleeing Giant (Tharos or possibly Kantharos);[110]the Giant Ephialtes lying on the ground;[111]and a group of three Giants, which includeHyperphas[112]and Alektos,[113]opposing Apollo and Artemis. Next comes a missing central section presumably containing Zeus, and possibly Heracles, with chariot (only parts of a team of horses remain). To the right of this comes a female stabbing her spear[114]at a fallen Giant (probably Porphyrion);[115]Athena fighting Eriktypos[116]and a second Giant; a male stepping over the fallen Astarias[117]to attack Biatas.[118]and another Giant; and Hermes against two Giants. Then follows a gap which probably contained Poseidon and finally, on the far right, a male fighting two Giants, one fallen, the other the Giant Mimon (possibly the same as the Giant Mimas mentioned by Apollodorus).[119]

The Gigantomachy also appeared on several other late sixth century buildings, including the west pediment of the AlkmeonidTemple of Apolloat Delphi, the pediment of theMegarian TreasuryatOlympia,the east pediment of theOld Temple of Athenaon the Acropolis of Athens, and the metopes ofTemple FatSelinous.[120]

Fifth century BC

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The theme continued to be popular in the fifth century BC. A particularly fine example is found on ared-figurecup (c. 490–485 BC) by theBrygos Painter(Berlin F2293). On one side of the cup is the same central group of gods (minus Gaia) as described above: Zeus wielding his thunderbolt, stepping into a quadriga, Heracles with lion skin (behind the chariot rather than on it) drawing his (unseen) bow and, ahead, Athena thrusting her spear into a fallen Giant. On the other side are Hephaestus flinging flaming missiles of red-hot metal from two pairs of tongs, Poseidon, with Nisyros on his shoulder, stabbing a fallen Giant with his trident and Hermes with hispetasoshanging in back of his head, attacking another fallen Giant. None of the Giants are named.[121]

Phidiasused the theme for themetopesof the east façade of theParthenon(c. 445 BC) and for the interior of the shield ofAthena Parthenos.[122]Phidias' work perhaps marks the beginning of a change in the way the Giants are presented. While previously the Giants had been portrayed as typicalhoplitewarriors armed with the usual helmets, shields, spears and swords, in the fifth century the Giants begin to be depicted as less handsome in appearance, primitive and wild, clothed in animal skins or naked, often without armor and using boulders as weapons.[123]A series of red-figure pots from c. 400 BC, which may have used Phidas' shield of Athena Parthenos as their model, show the Olympians fighting from above and the Giants fighting with large stones from below.[124]

Fourth century BC and later

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In the Gigantomachy from a 1st-century AD frieze in the agora ofAphrodisias,the Giants are depicted with scaly coils, likeTyphon
Winged Giant (usually identified asAlcyoneus),Athena,Gaia(rising from the ground), andNike,detail of the Gigantomachy frieze,Pergamon Altar,Pergamon museum,Berlin

With the beginning of the fourth century BC probably comes the first portrayal of the Giants in Greek art as anything other than fully human in form, with legs that become coiled serpents having snake heads at the ends in place of feet.[125]Such depictions were perhaps borrowed from Typhon, the monstrous son of Gaia andTartarus,described by Hesiod as having a hundred snake heads growing from his shoulders.[126]This snake-legged motif becomes the standard for the rest of antiquity, culminating in the monumental Gigantomachy frieze of the second century BCPergamon Altar.Measuring nearly 400 feet long and over seven feet high, here the Gigantomachy receives its most extensive treatment, with over one hundred figures.[127]

Although fragmentary, much of the Gigantomachy frieze has been restored. The general sequence of the figures and the identifications of most of the approximately sixty gods and goddesses have been more or less established.[128]The names and positions of most Giants remain uncertain. Some of the names of the Giants have been determined by inscription,[129]while their positions are often conjectured on the basis of which gods fought which Giants inApollodorus' account.[130]

The same central group of Zeus, Athena, Heracles and Gaia, found on many early Attic vases, also featured prominently on the Pergamon Altar. On the right side of the East frieze, the first encountered by a visitor, a winged Giant, usually identified asAlcyoneus,fightsAthena.[131]Below and to the right of Athena, Gaia rises from the ground, touching Athena's robe in supplication. Flying above Gaia, a wingedNikecrowns the victorious Athena. To the left of this grouping a snake-legged Porphyrion battles Zeus[132]and to the left of Zeus is Heracles.[133]

On the far left side of the East frieze, a tripleHecatewith torch battles a snake-legged Giant usually identified (following Apollodorus) as Clytius.[134]To the right lays the fallen Udaeus, shot in his left eye by an arrow from Apollo,[135]along with Demeter who wields a pair of torches against Erysichthon.[136]

The Giants are depicted in a variety of ways. Some Giants are fully human in form, while others are a combination of human and animal forms. Some are snake-legged, some have wings, one has bird claws, one is lion-headed, and another is bull-headed. Some Giants wear helmets, carry shields and fight with swords. Others are naked or clothed in animal skins and fight with clubs or rocks.[137]

The large size of the frieze probably necessitated the addition of many more Giants than had been previously known. Some, like Typhon and Tityus, who were not strictly speaking Giants, were perhaps included. Others were probably invented.[138]The partial inscription "Mim" may mean that the Giant Mimas was also depicted. Other less-familiar or otherwise unknown Giant names include Allektos, Chthonophylos, Eurybias, Molodros, Obrimos, Ochthaios and Olyktor.[139]

In post-classical art

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Detail of theSala dei Gigantiin thePalazzo del Te,Mantua,c. 1530,Giulio Romano

The subject was revived in the Renaissance, most famously in the frescos of theSala dei Gigantiin thePalazzo del Te,Mantua.These were painted around 1530 byGiulio Romanoand his workshop, and aimed to give the viewer the unsettling idea that the large hall was in the process of collapsing. The subject was also popular inNorthern Mannerismaround 1600, especially among theHaarlem Mannerists,and continued to be painted into the 18th century.[140]

Symbolism, meaning and interpretations

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Historically, the myth of the Gigantomachy (as well as the Titanomachy) may reflect the "triumph" of the new imported gods of the invading Greek speaking peoples from the north (c. 2000 BC) over the old gods of the existing peoples of the Greek peninsula.[141]For the Greeks, the Gigantomachy represented a victory for order over chaos—the victory of the divine order and rationalism of the Olympian gods over the discord and excessive violence of the earth-bornchthonicGiants. More specifically, for sixth and fifth century BC Greeks, it represented a victory for civilization over barbarism, and as such was used byPhidiason the metopes of theParthenonand the shield ofAthena Parthenosto symbolize the victory of the Athenians over the Persians. Later theAttalidssimilarly used the Gigantomachy on thePergamon Altarto symbolize their victory over theGalatiansofAsia Minor.[142]

The attempt of the Giants to overthrow the Olympians also represented the ultimate example of hubris, with the gods themselves punishing the Giants for their arrogant challenge to the gods' divine authority.[143]The Gigantomachy can also be seen as a continuation of the struggle between Gaia (Mother Earth) and Uranus (Father Sky), and thus as part of the primal opposition between female and male.[144]Platocompares the Gigantomachy to a philosophical dispute about existence, wherein thematerialistphilosophers, who believe that only physical things exist, like the Giants, wish to "drag down everything from heaven and the invisible to earth".[145]

A Giant fighting Artemis. Illustration of a Roman relief in theVatican Museum.[146]

InLatin literature,in which the Giants, theTitans,Typhonand theAloadaeare all often conflated, Gigantomachy imagery is a frequent occurrence.[147]Cicero,while urging the acceptance of aging and death as natural and inevitable, allegorizes the Gigantomachy as "fighting against Nature".[148]The rationalistEpicureanpoetLucretius,for whom such things as lightning, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions had natural rather than divine causes, used the Gigantomachy to celebrate the victory of philosophy over mythology and superstition. In the triumph of science and reason over traditional religious belief, the Gigantomachy symbolized for himEpicurusstorming heaven. In a reversal of their usual meaning, he represents the Giants as heroic rebels against the tyranny of Olympus.[149]Virgil—reversing Lucretius' reversal—restores the conventional meaning, making the Giants once again enemies of order and civilization.[150]Horacemakes use of this same meaning to symbolize the victory ofAugustusat theBattle of Actiumas a victory for the civilized West over the barbaric East.[151]

Ovid,in hisMetamorphoses,describes mankind's moral decline through the ages of gold, silver, bronze and iron, and presents the Gigantomachy as a part of that same descent from natural order into chaos.[152]Lucan,in hisPharsalia,which contains many Gigantomachy references,[153]makes theGorgon's gaze turn the Giants into mountains.[154]Valerius Flaccus,in hisArgonautica,makes frequent use of Gigantomachy imagery, with theArgo(the world's first ship) constituting a Gigantomachy-like offense against natural law, and example of hubristic excess.[155]

Claudian,the fourth-century AD court poet of emperorHonorius,composed aGigantomachiathat viewed the battle as a metaphor for vast geomorphic change: "The puissant company of the giants confounds all differences between things; islands abandon the deep; mountains lie hidden in the sea. Many a river is left dry or has altered its ancient course....robbed of her mountains Earth sank into level plains, parted among her own sons."[156]

Association with volcanoes and earthquakes

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Various locations associated with the Giants and the Gigantomachy were areas of volcanic and seismic activity (e.g. thePhlegraean Fieldswest ofNaples), and the vanquished Gigantes (along with other "giants" ) were said to be buried under volcanos. Their subterranean movements were said to be the cause of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.[157]

The Giant Enceladus was thought to lay buried underMount Etna,the volcano's eruptions being the breath of Enceladus, and its tremors caused by the Giant rolling over from side to side beneath the mountain[158](the monsterTyphon[159]and the Hundred-HanderBriareus[160]were also said to be buried under Etna). The Giant Alcyoneus along with "many giants" were said to lie underMount Vesuvius,[161]Prochyte(modernProcida), one of the volcanicPhlegraean Islandswas supposed to sit atop the GiantMimas,[162]and Polybotes was said to lie pinned beneath the volcanic island ofNisyros,supposedly a piece of the island ofKosbroken off and thrown byPoseidon.[163]

Describing the catastrophiceruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD,which buried the towns ofPompeiiandHerculaneum,Cassius Diorelates accounts of the appearance of many Giant-like creatures on the mountain and in the surrounding area followed by violent earthquakes and the final cataclysmic eruption, saying "some thought that the Giants were rising again in revolt (for at this time also many of their forms could be discerned in the smoke and, moreover, a sound as of trumpets was heard)".[164]

Named Giants

[edit]

Names for the Giants can be found in ancient literary sources and inscriptions. Vian and Moore provide a list with over seventy entries, some of which are based upon inscriptions which are only partially preserved.[165]Some of the Giants identified by name are:

  • Aezeius(Αἰζειός): His sonLycaonwas possibly the maternal grandfather of aLycaonwho was king of Arcadia.[166]
  • Agrius(Ἄγριος): According to Apollodorus, he was killed by theMoirai(Fates) with bronze clubs.[167]
  • Alcyoneus(Ἀλκυονεύς):According to Apollodorus, he was (along with Porphyrion), the greatest of the Giants. Immortal while fighting in his native land, he was dragged from his homeland and killed by Heracles.[168]According to Pindar, he was a herdsman and, in a separate battle from the Gigantomachy, he was killed by Heracles andTelamon,while they were traveling throughPhlegra.[169]Representations of Heracles fighting Alcyoneus are found on many sixth century BC and later works of art.[170]
  • Alektos/Allektos(Ἀλέκτος/Ἀλλέκτος): Named on the late sixth centurySiphnian Treasury(Alektos),[171]and the second century BCPergamon Altar(Allektos).[172]
  • Aristaeus(Ἀρισταῖος): According to theSuda,he was the only Giant to "survive".[173]He is probably named on anAtticblack-figuredinosbyLydos(Akropolis 607) dating from the second quarter of the sixth century BC, fightingHephaestus.[174]
  • Astarias(Ἀστερίας)[See Asterius below]
  • Aster(Ἀστήρ) [See Asterius below]
  • Asterius(Ἀστέριος:"Bright one" or "Glitterer" ):[175]A Giant (also called Aster), killed by Athena whose death, according to some accounts, was celebrated by thePanathenaea.[176]Probably the same as the Giant Astarias named on the late sixth centurySiphnian Treasury.[177]Probably also the same as Asterus, mentioned in the epic poemMeropis,as an invulnerable warrior killed by Athena.[178]In the poem,Heracles,while fighting the Meropes, a race of Giants, on the Island ofKos,would have been killed but for Athena's intervention.[179]Athena kills and flays Asterus and uses his impenetrable skin for heraegis.Other accounts name others whose hide provided Athena's aegis:[180]Apollodorus has Athena flay the GiantPallas,[181]whileEuripides'Ionhas "theGorgon",an offspring of Gaia born by her as an ally for the Giant, as Athena's victim.[182]
  • Asterus(Ἀστέρος) [See Asterius above]
  • Clytius(Κλυτίος): According to Apollodorus, he was killed byHecatewith her torches.[183]
Gilt-bronzeEnceladusby Gaspar Mercy in theBosquet de l'Encéladein thegardens of Versailles
  • Damysus(Δάμυσος): The fastest of the Giants.Chironexhumed his body, removed the ankle and incorporated it intoAchillesburnt foot.[184]
  • Enceladus(Ἐγκέλαδος): A Giant named Enceladus, fightingAthena,is attested in art as early as anAtticBlack-figurepot dating from the second quarter of the sixth century BC (Louvre E732).[185]EuripideshasAthenafighting him with her "Gorgon shield" (heraegis).[186]According to Apollodorus, he was crushed by Athena under the Island of Sicily.[187]Virgilhas him struck by Zeus' lightning bolt, and both Virgil andClaudianhave him buried underMount Etna[188](other traditions hadTyphonorBriareusburied under Etna). For some Enceladus was instead buried in Italy.[189]
  • Ephialtes(Ἐφιάλτης): probably different from theAloadGiant who was also named Ephialtes):[190]According to Apollodorus he was blinded by arrows from Apollo and Heracles.[191]He is named on three Attic black-figure pots (Akropolis 2134, Getty 81.AE.211, Louvre E732) dating from the second quarter of the sixth century BC.[192]On Louvre E732 he is, along with Hyperbios and Agasthenes, opposed by Zeus, while on Getty 81.AE.211 his opponents are apparently Apollo and Artemis.[193]He is also named on the late sixth century BCSiphnian Treasury,[194]where he is probably one of the opponents of Apollo and Artemis, and probably as well on what might be the earliest representation of the Gigantomachy, apinaxfragment fromEleusis(Eleusis 349).[195]He is also named on a late fifth century BC cup fromVulci(Berlin F2531), shown battlingApollo.[196]Although the usual opponent of Poseidon among the Giants is Polybotes, one early fifth century red-figurecolumn krater(Vienna 688) has Poseidon attacking Ephialtes.[197]
  • Euryalus(Εὐρύαλος): He is named on a late sixth century red-figure cup (Akropolis 2.211) and an early fifth century red-figure cup (British Museum E 47) fightingHephaestos.[198]
  • Eurymedon(Εὐρυμέδων): According toHomer,he was a king of the Giants and father ofPeriboea(mother ofNausithous,king of thePhaeacians,byPoseidon), who "brought destruction on his froward people".[199]He was possibly the Eurymedon who rapedHeraproducingPrometheusas offspring (according to an account attributed to the Hellenistic poetEuphorion).[200]He is probably named on Akropolis 2134.[201]He is possibly mentioned by the Latin poetPropertiusas an opponent ofJove.[202]
  • Eurytus(Εὔρυτος): According to Apollodorus, he was killed byDionysuswith histhyrsus.[203]
  • Gration(Γρατίων): According to Apollodorus, he was killed byArtemis.[204]His name may have been corrupted text, as various emendations have been suggested, includingAigaion(Αἰγαίων - "goatish", "stormy" ),Eurytion(Εὐρυτίων: "fine flowing", "widely honored" ) andRhaion(Ῥαίων - "more adaptable", "more relaxed" ).[205]
  • HopladamasorHopladamus(ὉπλαδάμαςorὉπλάδαμος): Possibly named (asHopladamas) on two vases dating from the second quarter of the sixth century BC, on one (Akropolis 607) being speared by Apollo, while on the other (Getty 81.AE.211) attacking Zeus.[206]Mentioned (asHopladamus) by the geographerPausaniasas being a leader of Giants enlisted by the TitanessRhea,pregnant with Zeus, to defend herself from her husbandCronus.[207]
  • Hippolytus(Ἱππόλυτος): According to Apollodorus, he was killed byHermes,who was wearingHades' helmet[208]which made its wearer invisible.[209]
  • LionorLeon(Λέων): Possibly a Giant, he is mentioned byPhotius(as ascribed toPtolemy Hephaestion) as a giant who was challenged to single combat by Heracles and killed.[210]Lion-headed Giants are shown on the Gigantomachy frieze of the second century BCPergamon Altar.[211]
  • Mimas(Μίμας): According to Apollodorus, he was killed byHephaestus.[212]EuripideshasZeusburning him "to ashes" with his thunderbolt.[213]According to others he was killed byAres.[214]"Mimos" —possibly in error for "Mimas" —is inscribed (retrograde) on Akropolis 607.[215]He was said to be buried underProchyte.[216]Mimas is possibly the same as the Giant named Mimon on the late sixth century BCSiphnian Treasury,as well as on a late fifth century BC cup fromVulci(Berlin F2531) shown fightingAres.[217]Several depictions in Greek art, though, show Aphrodite as the opponent of Mimas.[218]
  • Mimon(Μίμων) [See Mimas above]
  • Mimos(Μίμος) [See Mimas above]
Poseidon attacks Polybotes in the presence of Gaia,red-figurecup late fifth century BC (Antikensammlung BerlinF2531)[219]
  • Pallas(Πάλλας): According to Apollodorus, he was flayed byAthena,who used his skin as a shield.[220]Other accounts name others whose hyde provided Athena's aegis [see Asterus above]. Claudian names Pallas as one of several Giants turned to stone by Minerva's Gorgon shield.[221]
  • Pelorus(Πέλορος): According toClaudian,he was killed byMars,the Roman equivalent ofAres.[222]
  • Picolous(Πικόλοος): A Giant who fled the battle and came toCirce'sislandand attempted to chase her away, only to be killed byHelios.It is said that the legendarymolyplant first sprang forth from Picolous' blood as it seeped into the ground.[223]
  • Polybotes(Πολυβότης): According to Apollodorus, he was crushed underNisyros,a piece of the island ofKosbroken off and thrown byPoseidon.[224]He is named on two sixth century BC pots, on one (Getty 81.AE.211) he is opposed by Zeus, on the other (Louvre E732) he is opposed by Poseidon carrying Nisyros on his shoulder.[225]
  • Porphyrion(Πορφυρίων): According to Apollodorus, he was (along with Alcyoneus), the greatest of the Giants. He attackedHeraclesandHerabutZeus"smote him with a thunderbolt, and Hercules shot him dead with an arrow."[226]According to Pindar, who calls him "king of the Giants", he was slain by an arrow from the bow ofApollo.[227]He is named on a late fifth century BC cup fromVulci(Berlin F2531), where he is battling withZeus.[228]He was also probably named on the late sixth century BCSiphnian Treasury.[229]
  • ThoasorThoon(ΘόαςorΘόων): According to Apollodorus, he was killed by theMoirai(Fates) with bronze clubs.[230]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^Beazley Archive204546;Cook,Plate III,A.
  2. ^Hansen, pp. 177–179; Gantz, pp. 445–454. As for their size: Hansen p. 177: "Hesiod describes them as being" great, "referring perhaps to their stature, but the Giants are not always represented as being huge. Although the wordgiantsderives ultimately from the GreekGigantes,the most persistent traits of the Gigantes are strength and hubristic aggression. "
  3. ^Hesiod,Theogony185.Hyginus,FabulaePrefacegivesTartarusas the father of the Giants. A parallel to the Giants' birth is the birth ofAphroditefrom the similarly fertilized sea.
  4. ^Gantz, pp. 446, 447.
  5. ^Gantz, p. 453; Hanfmann 1992,The Oxford Classical Dictionarys.v. "Giants"; Frazer 1898b, note to Pausanias 8.29.3 "That the giants have serpents instead of feet"pp. 315–316.
  6. ^Hard,p. 86;Gantz, p. 16; Merry,Homer's Odyssey7.59;Douglas Harper mentions that aPre-Greekorigin has also been proposed ("giant".Online Etymology Dictionary).
  7. ^Hesiod,Theogony132–153
  8. ^Hesiod,Theogony154–175;Gantz, p. 10.
  9. ^Hesiod,Theogony176 ff.
  10. ^Apollodorus,1.6.1;Hansen, p. 178.
  11. ^Gantz, p. 446. Ogden,p. 82 n. 74says that the "Odyssey's Giants stand a little outside the remainder of the tradition, in so far as they are ethnologized into a wild, arrogant, and doomed race, formerly presided over by a king Eurymedon. "Hanfmann 1937, p. 175, sees in the" conflicting "descriptions of Homer and Hesiod," two different local traditions ".
  12. ^Homer,Odyssey7.56–63.AlcaeusandAcusilausmake the Phaiakians, like the Giants, offspring of the castration of Uranus, Gantz, p. 16.
  13. ^Homer,Odyssey7.199–207.
  14. ^Homer,Odyssey10.119–120.
  15. ^Pausanias,8.29.1–4.Smith, William,"Gigantes"and Hanfmann 1992,The Oxford Classical Dictionarys.v. "Giants", following Pausanias, both assert that, for Homer, the Giants were a "savage race of men". For the mythographerDiodorus Siculus,the Giants were also a race of men, see4.21.5,Gantz, p. 449.
  16. ^Bacchylides,15.63;Castriota,pp. 233–234.
  17. ^"Gegeneis",Brills New Pauly;Crusius,p.93;Batrachomyomachia7 (pp. 542–543);Sophocles,Women of Trachis1058;Euripides,The Phoenician Women1131;Lycophron,Alexandra127 (pp. 504–505),1408 (pp. 610–611).
  18. ^Hyginus,FabulaePreface.Latin
  19. ^Gantz, p. 450.
  20. ^Smith, William,"Gigantes";Gantz, p. 447; Hansen p. 178, Grimal, p. 171; Tripp, p. 250; Morford, pp. 82–83. A probable early confusion (or at least a possible cause of later confusion) can be seen inEuripides'Iphigenia in Tauris221–224andHecuba466–474,see Torrance,p. 155 n. 74.Later examples includeCallimachus,Hymn 4 (to Delos)173 ff. (pp. 98–99)(see Vian and Moore 1988 p. 193; Mineur,p. 170).
  21. ^Rose,The Oxford Classical Dictionarys.v. "Typhon, Typhoeus"; Fontenrose,p. 80.
  22. ^Gantz, pp. 450–451.
  23. ^Hyginus,FabulaePreface.For other examples of Typhon as a Giant, seeHorace,Odes3.4.53,(which has Typhon battling Athena, alongside the Giants Mimas, Porphyrion, and Enceladus);Manilius,Astronomica2.874–880 (pp. 150–151);Nonnus,Dionysiaca1.176 (I pp. 16–17),1.220 (I pp. 18–19),1.244 (I pp. 20–21),1.263 (I pp. 22–23),1.291 (I pp. 24–25).
  24. ^Hansen, p. 178;Ovid,Metamorphoses1.151–162.See alsoHorace,Odes3.4.42 ff.,with Lynep. 51.Platohad already associated the Aloadae with the Giants,Symposium190b–c.
  25. ^Ovid,Metamorphoses1.182–184:"The time when serpent footed giants strove / to fix their hundred arms on captive Heaven" (see Anderson,p. 170, note to line 184 "centumwithbracchia"),Fasti4.593,with Fazer's note.
  26. ^Callimachus,Hymn 4 (to Delos)141–146;Philostratus,Life of Apollonius of Tyana4.6.
  27. ^Homer,Odyssey7.58–60.The translations given are A.T. Murray's.Richard Lattimoretranslatesὑπερθύμοισιas "high-hearted" andἀτάσθαλοςas "recklessly daring". See also Liddell and Scott,μεγαλήτωρ( "greathearted" ),ὑπέρθυμος( "overweening" ), andἀτάσθαλος( "reckless, presumptuous, wicked" ).
  28. ^Hesiod,Theogony50,185;Liddell and Scottκρατερός,μέγας;Hansen, p. 177.
  29. ^Gantz, p. 446.
  30. ^Pindar,Pythian8.12–18.
  31. ^Bacchylides,15.50 ff.;Castriota,p. 139,pp. 233–234.
  32. ^Alcman fragment 1Poetarum melicorum Graecorum fragmenta,see Cairns,p. 310;Wilkinson,p. 142;Ferrari, pp.28,109,151 ff.;Hanfmann 1937, pp. 475–476.
  33. ^According to Gantz, p. 446: "In all, the account rather suggests that the huge bulk of Antiphates' wife is not typical of the Laistrygones as a whole. But they are clearly thought of as good-sized, although whether it is in this respect that they are like the Gigantes and unlike men we cannot say; theOdyssey's emphasis might be thought to fall more on their uncivilized behjavior "
  34. ^Apollodorus,1.6.1.
  35. ^Ovid,Metamorphoses1.182–184:"The time when serpent footed giants strove / to fix their hundred arms on captive Heaven"; Newlands,p. 81.Here Ovid has apparently conflated the Giants with theHundred-Handers,see Anderson,p. 170, note to line 184 "centumwithbracchia".Compare withFasti5.35–37,where Ovid says "Earth brought forth the Giants, a fierce brood, enormous monsters, who durst assault Jove's mansion; she gave them a thousand hands, and snakes for legs".
  36. ^Nonnus,Dionysiaca1.18 (I, pp. 4–5).
  37. ^Moore 1985,p. 21.
  38. ^Beazley Archive200059,LIMC29890 (Gigantes 342).
  39. ^Gantz, p. 15. For a survey of literary sources see Gantz, pp. 445–450, Vian and Moore 1988, pp. 191–196.
  40. ^Gantz, p. 446.
  41. ^A scholion toOdyssey7.59 asserts that Homer does not know that the Giants fought against the gods, Gantz, p. 447.
  42. ^Hesiod,Theogony954;for the translation used here see Most 2006, p. 79.
  43. ^Gantz, p. 446.
  44. ^Hesiod fragment 43a.65 MW, see Most 2007, p. 143. Gantz, p. 446, says that this line "with no link to what precedes or follows, might easily be an interpolation".
  45. ^Hesiod fragment 195.28–29 MW, Most 2007, p. 5; Gantz, p. 446.
  46. ^Hesiod,Theogony50–52.
  47. ^Xenophanes,1.21 (Lesher,pp. 12, 13); Gantz, p. 446.
  48. ^Since Chiron did apparently figure in a lost poem about the Titanomachy, and there is no obvious role for the centaur in a poem about the Gigantomachy, see Gantz, p. 447.
  49. ^Wilkinsonpp. 141–142;Gantz p. 447.
  50. ^Pindar,Nemean1.67–69.
  51. ^Pindar,Nemean7.90.
  52. ^Pindar,Pythian8.12–18.
  53. ^Euripides,Heracles177–180;Gantz, p. 448.
  54. ^Euripides,Ion205–218.
  55. ^Apollonius of Rhodes,Argonautica3. 221
  56. ^Beazley Archive207774.
  57. ^Tripp, p. 252.
  58. ^Apollodorus,1.6.1–2.
  59. ^Gantz, pp. 16, 57, 448–449; Hardp. 88.According to Gantz, p. 449, it is possible but unlikely, that this is the incident being referred to in Odyssey 7, noting that the story of the rape of Hera by Eurymedon may be a later invention to explain Homer's remark.
  60. ^Gantz, pp. 419, 448–449; Scholia onPindar,Isthmian Odes6.47.
  61. ^According to Apollodorus, Alcyoneus stole Helios' cattle fromErytheia,where the cattle ofGeryonare usually found.
  62. ^Gantz, p. 449; Grimal, p. 171; Tripp, p. 251. The late 4th century AD Latin poetClaudianexpands on this notion in hisGigantomachia1–35 (pp. 280–283)with Gaia, "jealous of the heavenly kingdoms and in pity for the ceasless woes of the Titans" (1–2), gave birth to the Giants, urging them to war saying "Up, army of avengers, the hour is come at last, free the Titans from their chains; defend your mother." (27–28)
  63. ^Compare withHesiod,Theogony185–186which seems to have the Giants born, likeAthenaand theSpartoi,fully grown and armed for battle (Apollodorus,1.3.6,1.3.6). Also compare withPlato,Sophist246a,where comparing materialist philosophers with the Giants, says they "drag down everything from heaven and the invisible to earth, actually grasping rocks and trees with their hands".
  64. ^Compare withPindar,Nemean1.67–69(mentioned above) whereTeiresiasprophesies that Heracles will aid the gods in their battle with the Giants.
  65. ^Antaeus, another offspring of Gaia who was an opponent of Heracles, was immortal as long as he was in contact with the earth. Heracles killed Antaeus by crushing him while holding him off the ground. ForPindar,Hearacles' battle with Alcyoneus (whom he calls a herdsman) and the Gigantomachy were separate events, see:Isthmian6.30–35,Nemean4.24–30.
  66. ^As noted above Pindar has Apollo kill Porphyrion.
  67. ^As noted above, Euripides has Zeus kill Mimas; other accounts have Mimas killed byAres:Apollonius of Rhodes,Argonautica3.1225–7 (pp. 276–277);Claudian,Gigantomachia85–91 (pp. 286–287).
  68. ^Strabo,10.5.16.The mention of a millstone, in the poem fragment by Alcman (mentioned above) may be an early reference to the island of Nisyros, see Hanfmann 1937, pp. 476; Vian and Moore 1988, p. 192.
  69. ^Ovid,Metamorphoses1.151–162.
  70. ^Ovid also refers to Giants piling up Pelion on top of Ossa elsewhere, seeAmores2.1.11–18,Fasti1.307–308,3.437–442;Green,p. 143.
  71. ^Compare withLycophron,Alexandra1356–1358 (pp. 606–607), who has the Pelasgian race born from the "blood of theSithoniangiants ", Sithonia being the middle spur ofChalcidicejust north of the southern spur ofPallene,the traditional home of the Giants.
  72. ^Ovid,Metamorphoses1.182 ff..
  73. ^Anderson,p. 170, note to line 184 "centumwithbracchia".Ovid'sAmores2.1.11–18,see Knox,p. 209,likewise associates the Gigantomachy with the Hundred-Hander "Gyas", while inFasti5.35–37,Ovid has the Giants have a "thousand hands". This same conflation may already occur inEuphorion,fragment 169 (Lightfoot) (Lightfoot,pp. 394–395), see Vian and Moore 1988, p. 193.
  74. ^Hesiod,Theogony617–736,815–819.For the Hundred-Handers as opponents of Zeus, see for exampleVirgil,Aeneid10.565–568;O'Hara,p. 99.
  75. ^Hard 2015,p.66.
  76. ^Hard 2015,p.68.
  77. ^Kerenyi 1951,p.95.
  78. ^Singleton,p. 235.
  79. ^Aeschylus,Eumenides294;Euripides,Heracles1192–1194;Ion987–997;Aristophanes,The Birds824;Apollonius of Rhodes,Argonautica3.232–234 (pp. 210–211),3.1225–7 (pp. 276–277).See also Hesiod fragment 43a.65 MW (Most 2007, p. 143, Gantz, p. 446)
  80. ^Herodotus,7.123.1;Strabo,7 Fragment 25,27;Philostratus,On Heroes8.16 (p. 14); Stephanus Byzantius,s.v.Παλλήνη(Hunterp. 81),Φλέγρα;Liddell and Scott,Φλέγρα
  81. ^Gantz, p. 419; Frazer 1898b, note to Pausanias 8.29.1 "the legendary battle of the gods and the giants"pp. 314–315;Lycophron,Alexandra115–127 (pp. 504–505),1356–1358 (pp. 606–607),1404–1408 (pp. 610–611);Diodorus Siculus,4.15.1;Pausanias,1.25.2,8.29.1;AT-scholia toIliad15.27 (Hunterp. 81).
  82. ^Strabo,5.4.4,5.4.6,6.3.5;Diodorus Siculus,4.21.5–7,5.71.4.
  83. ^Lycophron,Alexandra688–693 (pp. 550–551).
  84. ^Servius,Commentary on the Aeneid of Vergil3.578;Leigh, p. 122.
  85. ^Pausanias,8.29.1.
  86. ^Scholiast A onIliad8.479 (Brown,p. 125).
  87. ^Diodorus Siculus,4.15.1,4.21.5–7,5.71.2–6.
  88. ^Strabo,11.2.10.
  89. ^Hanfmann 1937, p. 475 n. 52.
  90. ^Mayor,p. 197 ff.;Apollodorus1.6.1 n. 3;Frazer 1898b, note to Pausanias 8.29.1 "the legendary battle of the gods and the giants"pp. 314–315;Pausanias,8.32.5;Philostratus,Life of Apollonius of Tyana5.16 (pp. 498–501),On Heroes8.15–16 (p. 14).
  91. ^Schefold,p. 56;Beazley Archive302261;LIMC27185 (Gigantes 120).
  92. ^Vian and Moore 1988; Schefold,p. 51,p. 64;Ogden,p. 82;See also Vian 1951; 1952; Morford, p. 72.
  93. ^Barber 1992, pp. 103–104, 112, 117; Barber 1991, pp.361–362,380–381;Simon,p. 23;Euripides,Hecuba,466–474,Iphigenia in Tauris222–224;Aristophanes,The Birds823–831,The Knights565;Plato,Euthyphro6b–c;Republic2.378c;Vian and Moore 1988, p. 210 no. 32. For the importance of the Gigantomachy to the Athenian Acropolis see Hurwit,pp. 30–31.
  94. ^Gantz, p. 450; Moore 1985,p. 21;Schefold,pp. 51–52;Robertson, Martin,pp. 16–17.
  95. ^Akropolis 607 (Beazley Archive310147,LIMC9257 (Gigantes 105)); Akropolis 1632 (Beazley Archive15673,LIMC4867 (Gigantes 110)); Akropolis 2134 (Beazley Archive301942,LIMC26166 (Gigantes 106)); Akropolis 2211 (Beazley Archive3363,LIMC20013 (Gigantes 104)).
  96. ^Moore 1985,p. 21;Schefold,p. 55,57;Neils, p. 228.
  97. ^Gantz, p. 451; Moore 1979, pp. 81–84, ILL. 1. & 2.; Moore 1985,p. 21;Schefold,57;Beazley,pp. 38–39;Day,p. 163.Several examples from later in the sixth century BC depict a similar central group of Zeus, Heracles and Athena. Moore 1979, p. 83 n. 36 lists as examples: Tarquina 623 (Beazley Archive310411,LIMC29174 (Gigantes 114)), Munich 1485 (Beazley Archive302287), British Museum B208 (Beazley Archive302261;LIMC27185 (Gigantes 120)). Arafat, p. 14 n. 12, in addition to British Museum B208, also gives as examples Vatican 422 (Beazley Archive302040,LIMC29187 (Gigantes 123)) and Vatican 365 (Beazley Archive301601), however Moore says that Zeus is not present in Vatican 365. For British Museum B208, see also Schefold,p. 56.Euripides,perhaps referring to archaic vase paintings or to Athena'speplos,locates Heracles and Athena fighting near Zeus in the Gigantomachy, seeHeracles177–179;Ion1528–1529;Vian and Moore 1988, p. 192.
  98. ^Rightward was conventionally the "direction of victory", see Schefold,p. 62;Stewart, p. 128.
  99. ^Schefold,pp. 56–57;Gantz p. 451; Moore 1985,p. 21
  100. ^Beazley Archive10047,LIMC10415 (Gigantes 171).
  101. ^Moore 1985,p. 28.
  102. ^Moore 1985,pp. 30–31.
  103. ^Moore 1985,p. 32.
  104. ^Moore 1985,pp. 34–36.
  105. ^Moore 1985,pp. 34–35.
  106. ^Gantz, p. 451; Arafat, p. 16; Beazley Archive14590,LIMC52 (Gigantes 170).
  107. ^Gantz, p. 453; Moore 1985,p. 32;Cook,pp. 14–18;Frazer 1898a, note to Pausanias 1.2.4 "Poseidon on horseback hurling a spear at the giant Polybotes"pp. 48–49.
  108. ^Gantz, pp. 451–452; Stewart, pp. 128–129, plates 195–198; Schefold,pp. 59–62;Morford, p. 73;Drawing: J.Boardman,Greek Sculpture Archaic Periodfig.212.1;Perseus: Delphi, Siphnian Treasury Frieze--North (Sculpture);LIMC5020 (Gigantes 2).
  109. ^Brinkmann, N17 p. 101. According to Schefold, p. 62, Themis "appears here in the guise ofKybele".
  110. ^Brinkmann, N5 p. 92, reads only Tharos.
  111. ^Brinkmann, N7 p. 94.
  112. ^Brinkmann, N6 p. 92, others have read Hypertas.
  113. ^Brinkmann, N8 p. 94.
  114. ^Possibly Aphrodite, has been identified as Hera, but Brinkmann, p. 94 finds no trace of that name.
  115. ^Brinkmann, N22 p. 103, only the last four letters:ριονcan be read.
  116. ^Brinkmann, N10 p. 96; others have read Berektas.
  117. ^Brinkmann, N12 p. 103; others have read Astartas.
  118. ^Brinkmann, N11 p. 96.
  119. ^Brinkmann, N14 pp. 98, 124–125. The fallen Giant Mimon against Ares is also named on a late fifth century BC cup fromVulci(Berlin F2531): Beazley Archive220533:detail showing Mimon and Ares;Cook,p. 56,Plate VI.
  120. ^Gantz, p. 452. For the Temple of Apollo see: Schefold,p 64;Shapiro,p. 247;Stewart, pp. 86–87;Euripides,Ion205–218;LIMC18960 (Gigantes 3).For the Megarian Treasury see: Pollitt 1990,pp. 22–23;Pausanias,6.19.12–14;Frazer 1898b, note to Pausanias 6.19.12 "The people of Megara – built a treasury"pp 65–67,note to 6.19.13 "In the gable – is wrought in relief the war of the giants"pp 67–69;ASCA Digital Collections,Megarian Treasury.For the Old Temple of Athena see: Schefold,pp. 64–67.
  121. ^Arafat, pp 12–15; Cohen,pp. 177–178;Gantz p. 452; Beazley Archive203909;LIMC11564 (Gigantes 303).
  122. ^For the Parthenon Gigantomachy metopes see Schwab,pp. 168–173,for the statue of Athena see Lapatin,pp. 262–263,for both see Kleiner,pp. 136—137.
  123. ^Dwyer,p. 295;Gantz, pp. 446, 447, 452–453; Hard,p. 90.For an example of a particularly "handsome" Giant see Schefold,p. 67:British MuseumE 8 (Beazley Archive302261,LIMC11609 (Gigantes 365),image 1 of 2), for Giants with animal skins fighting with boulders see acalyx kraterfrom Ruvo, c. 400: Naples 81521 (Beazley Archive217517,LIMC10553 (Gigantes 316),image 2 of 5.
  124. ^Robertson, Martin,pp. 106–107;Dwyer,p. 295;Cook,p. 56;Arafat, p. 25; LouvreMNB810(Beazley Archive217568,LIMC11533 (Gigantes 322);Naples 81521 (Beazley Archive217517,LIMC10553 (Gigantes 316)).
  125. ^Ogden,pp. 82–83,Gantz, p. 453; Berlin V.I. 3375 (Beazley Archive6987,LIMC30005 (Gigantes 389)). Snake-legged Giants may exist in earlier Etruscan art, for example a winged and snake-footed monster depicted on a late sixth century Etruscan hydria (British Museum B62,LIMC2639 (Typhon 30)), might be a Giant, see de Grummond,p. 259,compare with Ogden,p. 71.For more on snake-legged Giants see Ogden,pp. 82–86,and Vian and Moore 1988, pp. 253–254.
  126. ^Pollitt 1986,p. 109;Ogden,p. 83;Hesiod,Theogony820 ff..The similarities between Typhon and the Giants are several, both "monstrous children produced by Earth in a spirit of revenge, with the mission to attack and overthrow the gods in heaven, and whose fate they share, blasted by thunderbolts and, in Enceladus' case buried under Sicily." (Ogden, p. 83).
  127. ^Kleiner,pp. 155–156;Ridgway, Brunilde Sismondo 2000,p. 33;Smith, R. R. R. 1991, p. 159; Queyrel, p. 49; Pergamon Altar (LIMC617 (Gigantes 24)).
  128. ^Ridgway, Brunilde Sismondo 2005.The names of the gods and goddesses were inscribed on the upper molding of the frieze, with the exception of Gaia whose name was inscribed on the background next to her head, see Ridgway, Brunilde Sismondo 2000,p. 32.For the total number of gods and goddesses, see Ridgway, Brunilde Sismondo 2000,p. 54 n. 35.
  129. ^The names of the Giants were inscribed on the lower molding or, for the walls flanking the stairs where the moulding was omitted, on the background of the frieze between the figures, see Brunilde Sismondo 2000,p. 32,p. 54 n. 34.Queyrel, p. 52, lists the names of 27 Giants fully or partly preserved in the inscriptions which have so far been found. For Queyrel's identification of the various figures, see Fig. 33, pp. 50–51.
  130. ^Pollitt 1986,p. 109.
  131. ^Cunningham,p. 113;Kleiner,p. 156 FIG. 5-79;Queyrel, pp. 52–53; Ridgway, Brunilde Sismondo 2000,p. 39,pp. 59–60 n. 59.Supporting the identification of this Giant as Alcyoneus, is the fragmentary inscription "neus", that may belong to this scene, for doubts concerning this identification, see Ridgway.
  132. ^Ridgway, Brunilde Sismondo 2000,p. 54 n. 35;Queyrel, pp. 53–54.
  133. ^Ridgway, Brunilde Sismondo 2005.Though virtually nothing of Heracles remains, only part of a linonskin, and a left hand holding a bow, the location of the hero is identified by inscription, see Queyrel, pp. 54–55.
  134. ^Queyrel, pp. 56–58; Ling,p. 50;Apollodorus1.6.2.
  135. ^Queyrel, pp. 55–56. This figure, now identified by inscription as Udaeus, was previously supposed to be Ephialtes, who Apollodorus,1.6.2has Apollo shoot in the left eye. Udaeus (earthy) was also the name of one of theSpartoi,who were sometimes called Gegeneis or Gigantes, see Fontenrose,p. 316;Apollodorus;3.4.1;Pausanias,9.5.3;Hyginus,Fabulae178.Pelorus (monstrous), the name of another Spartoi, is a possible restoration of the fragmentary inscription "oreus" listed by Queyrel, p. 52.
  136. ^Queyrel, p. 55; Moore 1977, p. 324 n. 70; McKay,p. 93;Callimachus,Hymn 6 (to Demeter)25 ff. (pp. 126 ff.).
  137. ^Pollitt 1986,p. 109;Smith, R. R. R. p. 162.
  138. ^Pollitt 1986,p. 109.
  139. ^Queyrel, p. 52.
  140. ^Hall, James,Hall's Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art,p. 140, 1996 (2nd edn.), John Murray,ISBN0719541476
  141. ^Morford, pp. 82–83.
  142. ^Morford, p. 72; Schefold,p. 50;Kleiner,p. 118,p. 136,p. 156;Lyne,p. 50;Castriota,p. 139;Dwyer,p. 295.
  143. ^Castriota,p. 139;Dwyer,p. 295;Gale,p. 121;Wilkinson,p. 142;Cairns,p. 310;Commager,pp. 119,199.
  144. ^Schefold,p. 51.
  145. ^Plato,Sophist246a–c;Chaudhuri,pp.60–61.
  146. ^Peck,Gigantes.
  147. ^Lovatt,pp. 115 ff..
  148. ^Cicero,De Senectute5;Powell,p. 110 "Gigantum modo bellare";Chaudhuri,p. 7 n. 22.
  149. ^Chaudhuri,pp. 58–63;Hardie 2007,p. 116;Gale,pp. 120–121,p. 140;Lucretius,De Rerum Natura1.62–79,5.110–125.
  150. ^Gale,pp. 140–141;Gee,pp. 56–57.
  151. ^Lyne,pp. 52–54,pp. 167–168;Commager,p. 199;Horace,Odes3.4.42 ff..
  152. ^Wheeler,pp. 23–26;Ovid,Metamorphoses1.151–162.
  153. ^Hardie 2014,p. 101.
  154. ^Dinter,p. 296;Lucan,Pharsalia9.654–658.
  155. ^Zissos,pp. 79 ff.;For more on the use of Gigantomachy imagery in theArgonauticasee Stover, pp.5–6,71–73,79–150.
  156. ^Mayor, p. 195;Claudian,Gigantomachia62–73 (pp. 284–287).
  157. ^It has been common for cultures (including the ancient Greeks) to attribute earthquakes and volcanoes to the movements of buried "giants", see Andrews, "Earthquakes"pp. 62–63,"Giants"p. 81,"Volcanoes"pp. 218–219;Cook,n. 5 pp. 2–3;Frazer 1914,p. 197:"The people of Timor, in the East Indies, think that the earth rests on the shoulders of a mighty giant, and that when he is weary of bearing it on one shoulder he shifts it to the other and so causes the ground to quake";pp. 200–201:"The Tongans think that the earth is supported on the prostrate form of the god Móooi. When he is tired of lying in one posture, he tries to turn himself about, and that causes an earthquake"; Hanfmann 1937, p. 475; Lemprière"MYCŎNOS" p. 456;Philostratus the Elder,Imagines2.17.5 (pp. 198–201).
  158. ^Callimachus,fragment 117 (382) (pp. 342–343);Statius,Thebaid11.8 (pp. 390–391);Aetna(perhaps written byLucilius Junior),71–73 (pp. 8–9);Apollodorus,1.6.2;Virgil,Aeneid3.578 ff.(with Conington's note to3.578);Philostratus,Life of Apollonius of Tyana5.16 (pp. 498–501);Claudian,Rape of Proserpine1.153–159 (pp. 304–305),2.151–162 (pp. 328–331),3.186–187 (pp. 358–359);Quintus Smyrnaeus,Posthomerica(orFall of Troy)5.641–643 (pp. 252–253),14.582–585 (pp. 606–607).Philostratus the Elder,Imagines2.17.5 (pp. 198–201)has Enceladus buried in Italy rather than Sicily.
  159. ^Pindar,Pythian1.15–29,Olympian4.6–7;Aeschylus(?),Prometheus Bound353–374;Nicander,apudAntoninus Liberalis28;Ovid,Fasti4.491–492 (pp. 224–225),Metamorphoses5.346 ff.(which has Typhon buried under all of Sicily, with his left and right hands underPelorusandPachynus,his feet underLilybaeus,and his head under Etna);Valerius Flaccus,Argonautica2.23 ff.Archived2016-09-09 at theWayback Machine;Manilius,Astronomica2.874–880 (pp. 150–151);Seneca,Hercules Furens46–62 (pp. 52–53),Thyestes808–809 (pp. 298–299)(where the Chorus asks if Typhon has thrown the mountain (presumably Etna) off "and stretched his limbs" );Apollodorus,1.6.3;Hyginus,Fabulae152;b scholia toIliad2.783 (Kirk, Raven, and Schofield.pp. 59–60 no. 52);Philostratus,Life of Apollonius of Tyana5.16 (pp. 498–501);Philostratus the Elder,Imagines2.17.5 (pp. 198–201);NonnusDionysiaca2.622–624 (I pp. 90–91)(buried under Sicily). Typhon was also said to be buried under the volcanic island ofIschiathe largest of thePhlegraean Islandsoff the coast ofNaples,seeLycophron,Alexandra688–693 (pp. 550–551);Virgil,Aeneid9.715–716(calling the island "Inarime" );Strabo,5.4.9(calling the island "Pithecussae" ); Ridgway, David,pp. 35–36;Silius Italicus,Punica8.540–541 (I pp. 432–422);Claudian,Rape of Proserpine3.183–184 (pp. 358–359).
  160. ^Callimachus,Hymn 4 (to Delos)141–146 (pp. 96–97);Mineur.p. 153.
  161. ^Philostratus,On Heroes8.15–16 (p. 14);Claudian,Rape of Proserpine3.183–184 (pp. 358–359).
  162. ^Silius Italicus,Punica12.143–151 (II pp. 156–159),which also has the TitanIapetusburied under Inarime.
  163. ^Apollodorus,1.6.2.
  164. ^Cassius Dio66.22–23.
  165. ^Vian and Moore 1988, pp. 268–269.
  166. ^Juríková, Erika (2017-06-11)."Antiquitates Romanae - Ancient History Textbook of the Jesuit Trnava University".Historica Olomucensia.52:71–85.doi:10.5507/ho.2017.003.ISSN1803-9561.
  167. ^Apollodorus,1.6.2.
  168. ^Apollodorus,1.6.1.
  169. ^Pindar,Isthmian6.30–35,Nemean4.24–30.
  170. ^Gantz, p. 420.
  171. ^Brinkmann, N8 p. 94.
  172. ^Queyrel, p. 52.
  173. ^Sudas.v.Ἀρισταῖος,Αἰτναῖος κάνθαρος
  174. ^Gantz, p. 451; Beazley,p. 39;Richards,pp. 287,383;Schefold,p. 57;Beazley Archive310147;LIMC9257 (Gigantes 105),image 13 of 14).
  175. ^Barber 1991 p.381.
  176. ^Parker 2011,p. 201;Parker 2006, p. 255; Connelly, p. 47; Scheid,pp. 18–19,p. 178 n. 48.Pausanias,1.35.6tells of Asterius, a son of Anax the "son of Earth", buried on the island of Asterius, near the Island of Lade, off the coast ofMiletus,having bones ten cubits in length, see also Pausanius7.2.5.
  177. ^Brinkmann p. 128 n. 194.
  178. ^Robertson, Noel,p. 42,pp. 43–44;Yasumura, pp. 50, 173 n. 44; Janko, pp. 191–192 (14.250–61).
  179. ^For Heracles' expedition to Kos seeHomer,Iliad14.250–256;Pindar,Isthmian6.31–35,Nemean4.24–30;Apollodorus,2.7.1.For the Meropes as Giants see Yasumura, p. 50; Janko, p. 191;Philostratus,On Heroes8.14 (pp. 13–14).
  180. ^Robertson, Noel,p. 42.
  181. ^Apollodorus,1.6.2.
  182. ^Euripides,Ion987–997.
  183. ^Apollodorus,1.6.2.
  184. ^Ptolemy Hephaestion, New History Book 6"Thetis burned in a secret place the children she had by Peleus; six were born; when she had Achilles, Peleus noticed and tore him from the flames with only a burnt foot and confided him to Chiron. The latter exhumed the body of the giant Damysos who was buried at Pallene -- Damysos was the fastest of all the giants -- removed the 'astragale' and incorporated it into Achilles' foot using 'ingredients'. This 'astragale' fell when Achilles was pursued by Apollo and it was thus that Achilles, fallen, was killed. It is said, on the other hand, that he was called Podarkes by the Poet, because, it is said, Thetis gave the newborn child the wings of Arce and Podarkes means that his feet had the wings of Arce."
  185. ^Gantz, pp. 450–451; Arafat, p. 16; Beazley14590,LIMC52 (Gigantes 170),image 4 of 4.
  186. ^Euripides,Ion205–218.
  187. ^Apollodorus,1.6.2.
  188. ^Virgil,Aeneid3.578 ff.(with Conington'snote to 3.578);Claudian,Rape of Proserpine1.153–159 (pp. 304–305),2.151–162 (pp. 328–331),3.186–187 (pp. 358–359)
  189. ^Philostratus the Elder,Imagines2.17.5 (pp. 198–201).
  190. ^Gantz, 450–451.
  191. ^Apollodorus,1.6.2.
  192. ^Gantz, p. 451; Akropolis 2134 (Beazley Archive9922,LIMC26166 (Gigantes 106)); Getty 81.AE.211 (Beazley Archive10047,LIMC10415 (Gigantes 171)); Louvre E732 (Beazley Archive14590,LIMC52 (Gigantes 170)).
  193. ^Moore 1985,p. 34.
  194. ^Gantz, pp. 451–452; Brinkmann, N7 p. 94;LIMC5020 (Gigantes 2).
  195. ^Schefold,p. 52,Beazley Archive1409;Gantz p. 450 notes that the pinax might represent Ares encounter with the Aloadae inIliad5.
  196. ^Beazley Archive220533:detail showing Ephialtes with shield and spearv.Apollo with sword and bow;Cook,p. 56,Plate VI.
  197. ^Beazley Archive202916;LIMC11561 (Gigantes 361);Cook,pp. 14–18,p. 17 fig. 5.
  198. ^Arafat, pp.16, 183, 184; Akropolis 2.211 (Beazley Archive200125;LIMCGigantes 299Archived2016-10-07 at theWayback Machine); British Museum E 47 (Beazley Archive203256;LIMC4663 (Gigantes 301)).
  199. ^Homer,Odyssey7.54 ff..
  200. ^Gantz, pp. 16, 57; Hard,p. 88;Scholia onHomer'sIliad14.295.
  201. ^Gantz, p. 451; Akropolis 2134 (Beazley Archive9922,LIMC26166 (Gigantes 106)).
  202. ^Propertius,Elegies3.9.47–48 (pp. 266–267);Keith,p. 135;Heyworth,pp. 325–326.
  203. ^Apollodorus,1.6.2.
  204. ^Apollodorus,1.6.2.
  205. ^Frazer 1921, note 1 to Apollodorus 1.6.2,p. 46:"Γρατίωνα probably corrupt. Various emendations have been suggested, as Αἰγαίωνα (Heyne, M. Mayer,op.cit.pp. 201sq.), Εὐρυτίωνα, Ῥαίωνα (Hercher). "
  206. ^Moore 1985,p. 31;Beazley,p. 39;Akropolis 607 (Beazley Archive310147,LIMC9257 (Gigantes 105)); Getty 81.AE.211 (Beazley Archive10047,LIMC10415 (Gigantes 171)).
  207. ^Pausanias,8.32.5,8.36.2.
  208. ^Apollodorus,1.6.2.
  209. ^Apollodorus,1.6.2 n. 6;Homer,Iliad2.5.844 ff.;Hesiod,Shield of Heracles226 ff..
  210. ^Photius,BibliothecaCodex 190.
  211. ^Pollitt 1986,p. 105;Pergamon Altar image viewerArchived2013-11-26 at theWayback Machine.See also Akropolis 1632 (Beazley Archive15673,LIMC4867 (Gigantes 110)).
  212. ^Apollodorus,1.6.2.
  213. ^Euripides,Ion205–218;Stewart, pp. 86–87.
  214. ^Apollonius of Rhodes,Argonautica3.1225–7 (pp. 276–277);Claudian,Gigantomachia85–91 (pp. 286–287).
  215. ^Beazley,p. 39;Beazley Archive310147;LIMC9257 (Gigantes 105),image 1 of 14.
  216. ^Silius Italicus,Punica12.143–151 (II pp. 156–159).
  217. ^Siphnian Treasury: Brinkmann, N14 pp. 98, 124–125; Vulci cup: Arafat, p. 16; Beazley Archive220533:detail showing Mimon and Ares;Cook,p. 56,Plate VI.
  218. ^Giuliani, Luca. Schefold, Karl.Gods and Heroes in Late Archaic Greek Art.Cambridge University Press. Dec. 3, 1992. pgs. 57-59.
  219. ^Beazley Archive220533;Arafat, pp. 24, 25, 186; Cook, p. 56,Plate VI;LIMC10641 (Gigantes 318),image 3 of 4;PerseusBerlin F 2531 (Vase)
  220. ^Apollodorus,1.6.2.
  221. ^Claudian,Gigantomachia91–103 (pp. 286–289).
  222. ^Claudian,Gigantomachia75–84 (pp. 286–287).
  223. ^Rahner, pp.203–204;Eustathius,Ad Odysseam 10.305 (Zucker and Le Feuvre:"Alexander of Paphos reports the following tale: Picoloos, one of the Giants, by fleeing from the war led against Zeus, reached Circe’s island and tried to chase her away. Her father Helios killed him, protecting his daughter with his shield;");Ptolemy Hephaestion,New HistoryBook 4 (Photius,Bibliotheca190.32:"The plant moly of which Homer speaks; this plant had, it is said, grown from the blood of the giant killed in the isle of Circe; it has a white flower; the ally of Circe who killed the giant was Helios; the combat was hard (mâlos) from which the name of this plant."
  224. ^Apollodorus,1.6.2.
  225. ^Getty 81.AE.211 (Moore 1985,pp. 30–31,Beazley Archive10047,LIMC10415 (Gigantes 171)); Louvre E732 (Gantz, p. 451, Beazley Archive14590,LIMC52 (Gigantes 170),image 4 of 4).
  226. ^Apollodorus,1.6.2.Compare withAristophanes,The Birds1249 ff.:"a single Porphyrion gave him [Zeus] enough to do."
  227. ^Pindar,Pythian8.12–18.
  228. ^Beazley Archive220533:detail showing Zeusv.Porphyrion;Cook,p. 56,Plate VI.
  229. ^Brinkmann, N22 p.103, which finds traces of "rion"; Stewart, plate 196.
  230. ^Parada, s.v. Thoas 5; Grant, pp.519–520;Smith,s.v. Thoon;Apollodorus,1.6.2.Frazer translates Apollodorus 1.6.2Θόωναas "Thoas". Citing only Apollodorus 1.6.2, Parada names the Giant "Thoas" (Θόας), and Smith names the Giant "Thoon (Θόων)". Grant, citing no sources, names the Giant "Thoas", but says "he was also called Thoon".

References

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