Gobi Desert

"Gobi" redirects here. For other uses, seeGobi (disambiguation).

Gobi Desert
Length	1,500 km (930 mi)
Width	800 km (500 mi)
Area	1,295,000 km2(500,000 sq mi)
Naming
Native name	Qua bích ( sa mạc )(Chinese) Говь (ᠭᠣᠪᠢ)(Mongolian)
Geography
Countries	China Mongolia
State	Ömnögovi Sükhbaatar
Region	Inner Mongolia
Coordinates	42.59°N 103.43°E/42.59; 103.43

Gobi Desert
Chinese name
Chinese	Qua bích
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Gēbì Bopomofo ㄍㄜ ㄅㄧˋ Gwoyeu Romatzyh Gebih Wade–Giles Ko-pi4 IPA [kɤ́.pî] other Mandarin Xiao'erjing قْبِ
Mongolian name
Mongolian Cyrillic	Говь
Mongolian script	ᠭᠣᠪᠢ
Transcriptions SASM/GNC Gowĭ

TheGobi Desert(Mongolian:Говь,ᠭᠣᠪᠢ,/ˈɡoʊbi/;Chinese:Qua bích;pinyin:gēbì) is a large, colddesertandgrasslandregion located innorthern Chinaand southernMongolia.It is thesixth largest desert in the world.The name of the desert comes from the Mongolian word Gobi, used to refer to all of the waterless regions in theMongolian Plateau;in Chinese, Gobi is used to refer to rocky,semi-desertssuch as the Gobi itself rather than sandy deserts.

Geography

The Gobi measures 1,600 km (1,000 mi) from southwest to northeast and 800 km (500 mi) from north to south. The desert is widest in the west, along the line joining theLake Bostenand theLop Nor(87°–89° east).Its area is approximately 1,295,000 square kilometres (500,000 sq mi).
Gobi includes the long stretch of desert extending from the foot of thePamirs(77° east) to theGreater KhinganMountains, 116–118° east, on the border ofManchuria;and from the foothills of the Altay,Sayan,andYablonoimountain rangeson the north to theKunlun,Altyn-Tagh,andQilianmountain ranges, which form the northern edges of theTibetan Plateau,on the south.

A relatively large area on the east side of the Greater Khingan range, between the upper waters of theSonghua(Sungari) and the upper waters of the Liao-ho, is reckoned to belong to the Gobi by conventional usage. Somegeographersandecologistsprefer to regard the western area of the Gobi region (as defined above): thebasin of the TariminXinjiangand the desert basin of Lop Nor and Hami (Kumul), as forming a separate and independent desert, called theTaklamakan Desert.

Much of the Gobi is not sandy, instead resembling exposed bare rock.

Climate

Sand dunes inInner MongoliaAutonomous Region, China

Flaming Cliffsin Mongolia

Sacredovooin the Gobi Desert

Thesand dunesofKhongoryn Els,Gurvansaikhan NP,Mongolia

Remnants of theGreat Wall of Chinain the Gobi Desert

The Gobi is overall a cold desert, with frost and occasionally snow occurring on itsdunes.Besides being quite far north, it is also located on a plateau roughly 910–1,520 m (2,990–4,990 ft) above sea level, which contributes to its low temperatures. An average of about 194 mm (7.6 in) of rain falls annually in the Gobi. Additional moisture reaches parts of the Gobi in winter as snow is blown by the wind from theSiberianSteppes. These winds may cause the Gobi to reach −40 °C (−40 °F) in winter to 45 °C (113 °F) in summer.

However, theclimateof the Gobi is one of great extremes,with rapid changes of temperatureof as much as 35 °C (63 °F) in 24-hour spans.

Temperature

	(1190 m)	Ulaanbaatar(1150 m)
Annual mean	−2.5 °C (27.5 °F)	−0.4 °C (31.3 °F)
January mean	−26.5 °C (−15.7 °F)	−21.6 °C (−6.9 °F)
July mean	17.5 °C (63.5 °F)	18.2 °C (64.8 °F)
Extremes	−47 to 34 °C (−53 to 93 °F)	−42.2 to 39.0 °C (−44.0 to 102.2 °F)

In southern Mongolia, the temperature has been recorded as low as −32.8 °C (−27.0 °F). In contrast, inAlxa,Inner Mongolia, it rises as high as 37 °C (99 °F) in July.

Average winter minimums are a frigid −21 °C (−6 °F), while summertime maximums are a warm 27 °C (81 °F). Most of theprecipitationfalls during the summer.

Although the southeastmonsoonsreach the southeast parts of the Gobi, the area throughout this region is generally characterized by extreme dryness, especially during the winter, when theSiberian anticycloneis at its strongest. The southern and central parts of the Gobi Desert have variable plant growth due to thismonsoonactivity. The more northern areas of the Gobi are very cold and dry, making it unable to support much plant growth; this cold and dry weather is attributed to Siberian-Mongolian high pressure cells.Hence, the icydustandsnowstormsof spring and early summerplus early January (winter).

Conservation, ecology, and economy

The Gobi Desert is the source of many important fossil finds, including the firstdinosaur eggs,twenty-six of which, averaging 23 centimetres (9 in) in length, were uncovered in 1923.

Archeologists and paleontologists have done excavations in theNemegt Basinin the northwestern part of the Gobi Desert (in Mongolia), which is noted for its fossil treasures, includingearly mammals,dinosaur eggs,and prehistoricstone implements,some 100,000 years old.

Despite the harsh conditions, these deserts and the surrounding regions sustain many animals species, some are even unique, includingblack-tailed gazelles,marbled polecats,wild Bactrian camels,Mongolian wild assandsandplovers.They are occasionally visited bysnow leopards,Gobi bears,andwolves.Lizardsare especially well-adapted to the climate of the Gobi Desert, with approximately 30 species distributed across its southern Mongolian border.The most common vegetation in the Gobi desert are shrubs adapted to drought.These shrubs includedgray sparrow's saltwort(Salsola passerina),gray sagebrush,and low grasses such asneedle grassandbridlegrass.Due to livestock grazing, the amount of shrubs in the desert has decreased.Several large nature reserves have been established in the Gobi, includingGobi Gurvansaikhan National Park,Great Gobi AandGreat Gobi B Strictly Protected Area.

The area is vulnerable to trampling bylivestockand off-road vehicles (effects from human intervention are greater in the eastern Gobi Desert, where rainfall is heavier and may sustain livestock). In Mongolia, grasslands have been degraded by goats, which are raised by nomadic herders as source ofcashmere wool.

Large copper deposits are being mined byRio Tinto Group.The mine was and remains controversial. There was significant opposition in Mongolia's parliament to the terms under which the mine will proceed, and some are calling for the terms to be renegotiated. Specifically, the contention revolves primarily around the question of whether negotiations were fair (Rio Tinto is far better resourced) and whether Rio Tinto will pay adequate taxes on the revenues it derives from the mine (an agreement was reached whereby the operation will be exempt fromwindfall tax).

Desertification

The Gobi Desert is expanding throughdesertification,most rapidly on the southern edge into China, which is seeing 3,600 km²(1,390 sq mi) of grassland overtaken every year. Dust storms increased in frequency between 1996 and 2016, causing further damage to China's agriculture economy. However, in some areas desertification has been slowed or reversed.

The northern and eastern boundaries between desert and grassland are constantly changing. This is mostly due to the climate conditions before the growing season, which influence the rate ofevapotranspirationand subsequent plant growth.

The expansion of the Gobi is attributed mostly to human activities, locally driven bydeforestation,overgrazing,and depletion of water resources, as well as toclimate change.

China has tried various plans to slow the expansion of the desert, which have met with some success.TheThree-North Shelter Forest Program(or "Green Great Wall" ) is a Chinese governmenttree-plantingproject begun in 1978 and set to continue through 2050. The goal of the program is to reverse desertification by plantingaspenand other fast-growing trees on some 36.5 million hectares across some 551 counties in 12 provinces of northern China.

Ecoregions

The Gobi, broadly defined, can be divided into five distinct dryecoregions,based on variations in climate and topography:

• Eastern Gobi desert steppe,the easternmost of the Gobi ecoregions, covering an area of 281,800 km²(108,804 sq mi). It extends from theInner MongolianPlateauin China northward into Mongolia. It includes theYin Mountainsand many low-lying areas with salt pans and small ponds. It is bounded by theMongolian-Manchurian grasslandto the north, the Yellow River Plain to the southeast, and the Alashan Plateau semi-desert to the southeast and east.
• Alashan Plateau semi-desert,lies west and southwest of the Eastern Gobi desert steppe. It consists of the desert basins and low mountains lying between the Gobi Altai range on the north, theHelan Mountainsto the southeast, and theQilian Mountainsand northeastern portion of the Tibetan Plateau on the southwest.
• Gobi Lakes Valley desert steppe,ecoregion lies north of Alashan Plateau semi-desert, between the Gobi Altai range to the south and theKhangai Mountainsto the north.
• Dzungarian Basinsemi-desert,includes the desert basin lying between the Altai mountains on the north and theTian Shanrange on the south. It includes the northern portion of China's Xinjiang province and extends into the southeastern corner of Mongolia. The Alashan Plateau semi-desert lies to the east, and theEmin Valley steppeto the west, on the China-Kazakhstanborder.
• Tian Shan range,separates the Dzungarian Basin semi-desert from theTaklamakan Desert,which is a low, sandy desert basin surrounded by the high mountain ranges of the Tibetan Plateau to the south and thePamirsto the west. The Taklamakan Desert ecoregion includes theDesert of Lop.

Eastern Gobi desert steppe

Main article:Eastern Gobi desert steppe

Bactrian camelsin theBayankhongor Provinceof Mongolia

A Khulan (Mongolian wild ass) on a hill in the eastern Gobi ofMongoliaat sunset

The surface is extremely diversified, although there are no great differences in vertical elevation. BetweenUlaanbaatar(48°00′N107°00′E) and the small lake of Iren-dubasu-nor (43°45′N111°50′E), the surface is greatly eroded. Broad flat depressions and basins are separated by groups of flat-topped mountains of relatively low elevation 150 to 180 m (490 to 590 ft), through which archaic rocks crop out as crags and isolated rugged masses. The floors of the depressions lie mostly between 900 and 1,000 m (3,000 and 3,300 ft) above sea-level. Further south, between Iren-dutiasu-nor and theYellow River,comes a region of broad tablelands alternating with flat plains, the latter ranging at altitudes of 1000–1100 m and the former at 1,070 to 1,200 m (3,510 to 3,940 ft). The slopes of the plateaus are more or less steep and are sometimes penetrated by "bays" of the lowlands.

As the border-range of the Hyangan is approached, the country steadily rises up to 1,370 m (4,490 ft) and then to 1,630 m (5,350 ft). Here small lakes frequently fill the depressions, though the water in them is generally salty or brackish. Both here and for 320 km (199 mi) south of Ulaanbaatar, streams are frequent and grass grows more or less abundantly. Through all the central parts, until the bordering mountains are reached, trees and shrubs are utterly absent. Clay and sand are the predominant formations; the watercourses, especially in the north, being frequently excavated 2 to 3 m (6 ft 7 in to 9 ft 10 in) deep. In many places in the flat, dry valleys or depressions farther south, beds ofloess,5 to 6 m (16 to 20 ft) thick, are exposed. West of the route from Ulaanbaatar toKalgan,the country presents approximately the same general features, except that the mountains are not so irregularly scattered in groups but have more strongly defined strikes, mostly east to west, west-north-west to east-south-east, and west-south-west to east-north-east.

The altitudes are higher, those of the lowlands ranging from 1,000 to 1,700 m (3,300 to 5,600 ft), and those of the ranges from 200 to 500 m (660 to 1,640 ft) higher, though in a few cases they reach altitudes of 2,400 m (7,900 ft). The elevations do not form continuous chains, but make up a congeries of short ridges and groups rising from a common base and intersected by a labyrinth of ravines, gullies, glens, and basins. But thetablelands,built up of the horizontal red deposits of the Han-gai (Obruchev's Gobi formation) which are characteristic of the southern parts of eastern Mongolia, are absent here or occur only in one locality, near the Shara-muren river. They are greatly intersected by gullies or dry watercourses. Water is scarce, with no streams, no lakes, no wells, and precipitation falls seldom. The prevailing winds blow from the west and northwest, and the pall of dust overhangs the country as in theTaklamakanand thedesert of Lop.Characteristic of the flora are wild garlic,Kalidium gracile,wormwood,saxaul,Nitrariaschoberi,Caragana,Ephedra,saltwort and thegrassLasiagrostissplendens.The taana wild onionAlliumpolyrrhizumis the mainbrowseeaten by many herd animals, and Mongolians claim that this is essential in producing the proper, hazelnut-like notes of camelairag(fermented milk).

The vast desert is crisscrossed by several trade routes, some of which have been in use for thousands of years. Among the most important are those fromKalgan(at the Great Wall) to Ulaanbaatar (960 km (597 mi)); fromJiuquan(inGansu) to Hami 670 km (416 mi); from Hami to Beijing (2,000 km (1,243 mi)); fromHohhotto Hami and Barkul; and fromLanzhou(in Gansu) to Hami.

Alashan Plateau semi-desert

Main article:Alashan Plateau semi-desert

Alxa Left Banner,Inner Mongolia,China

The southwestern portion of the Gobi (known also as theXitaoor the "Little Gobi" ) encompasses the distance between the great northern loop of theYellow Riverto the east, theEjin Riverto the west, and theQilian Mountainsand narrow rocky chain of Longshou, 3,200 to 3,500 m (10,500 to 11,500 ft) in altitude, to the southwest. TheOrdos Desert,which covers the northeastern portion of the Ordos Plateau (also near the great northern loop of the Yellow River) is part of this ecoregion within the middle basin of three great depressions into which Potanin divides the Gobi.

"Topographically," saysNikolai Przhevalsky,"it is a perfectly level plain, which in all probability once formed the bed of a huge lake or inland sea." He concludes this based on the level area of the region as a whole, the hard saline clay and the sand-strewn surface and, lastly, the salt lakes which occupy its lowest parts. For hundreds of kilometers, nothing can be seen but bare sands; in some places, they continue so far without a break that the Mongols call themTengger(i.e. sky). These vast expanses are absolutely waterless, nor do any oases relieve the unbroken stretches of yellow sand, which alternate with equally vast areas of saline clay or, nearer the foot of the mountains, with barren shingle. Although on the whole a level country with a general altitude of 1,000 to 1,500 m (3,300 to 4,900 ft), this section, like most other parts of the Gobi, is crowned by a network of hills and broken ranges of at least 300 m in elevation. The vegetation is confined to a few varieties of bushes and a dozen kinds of grasses and herbs, the most conspicuous being saxaul (Haloxylon ammondendron) andAgriophyllum gobicum.The others include pricklyconvolvulus,field wormwood (Artemisia campestris),acacia,Inula ammophila,Sophora flavescens,Convolvulus ammanii,PeganumandAstragalusspecies, but all dwarfed, deformed and starved. The fauna consists of little but antelope, wolf, fox, hare, hedgehog, marten, numerous lizards and a few birds, e.g. the sandgrouse, lark, stonechat, sparrow, crane,Mongolian ground jay(Podoces hendersoni),horned lark(Eremophila alpestris), andcrested lark(Galerida cristata).

Dzungarian Basin semi-desert

The structure here is that of the mightyT'ien Shan,or Heavenly Mountains, running from west to east. It divides the northern one-third ofSinkiangfrom the southern two-thirds. On the northern side, rivers formed from the snow and glaciers of the high mountains break through barren foothill ranges and flow out into an immense, hollow plain. Here the rivers begin to straggle and fan out, and form great marshes with dense reed-beds. Westerners call this terrain the Dzungarian desert. The Chinese also call it a desert, but the Mongols call it a 'gobi'—that is, a land of thin herbage, more suitable for camels than for cows, but capable also, if herds are kept small and moved frequently, of sustaining horses, sheep, and goats. The herbage comprises a high proportion of woody, fragrant plants. Gobi mutton is the most aromatic in the world.

The Yulduz valley or valley of the Haidag-gol (43°N83°E–43°N86°E) is a mini desert enclosed by two prominent members of the Shanashen Trahen Osh mountain range, namely the chucis and the kracenard pine rallies, running perpendicular and far from one another. As they proceed south, they transcend and transpose, sweeping back on east and west respectively, withLake Bostenin between. These two ranges mark the northern and the southern edges respectively of a great swelling, which extends eastward for nearly twenty degrees of longitude. On its northern side, the Chol-tagh descends steeply, and its foot is fringed by a string of deep depressions, ranging fromLukchun(130 m (427 ft) below sea level) toHami(850 m (2,789 ft) above sea-level). To the south of the Kuruk-tagh lie the desert ofLop Nur,theKum-taghdesert, and the valley of theBulunzir-gol.To this great swelling, which arches up between the two border-ranges of the Chol-tagh and Kuruk-tagh, theMongolsgive the name ofGhashuun-Gobior "Salt Desert". It is some 130 to 160 km (81 to 99 mi) across from north to south, and is traversed by a number of minor parallel ranges, ridges and chains of hills. Down its middle runs a broad stony valley, 40 to 80 km (25 to 50 mi) wide, at an elevation of 900 to 1,370 m (2,950 to 4,490 ft). The Chol-tagh, which reaches an average altitude of 1,800 m (5,900 ft), is absolutely sterile, and its northern foot rests upon a narrow belt of barren sand, which leads down to the depressions mentioned above.

The Kuruk-tagh is the greatly disintegrated, denuded and wasted relic of a mountain range which used to be of incomparably greater magnitude. In the west, between Lake Bosten and theTarim,it consists of two, possibly of three, principal ranges, which, although broken in continuity, run generally parallel to one another, and embrace between them numerous minor chains of heights. These minor ranges, together with the principal ranges, divide the region into a series of long; narrow valleys, mostly parallel to one another and to the enclosing mountain chains, which descend like terraced steps, on the one side towards the depression of Lukchun and on the other towards the desert of Lop.

In many cases these latitudinal valleys are barred transversely by ridges or spurs, generally elevations en masse of the bottom of the valley. Where such elevations exist, there is generally found, on the east side of the transverse ridge, a cauldron-shaped depression, which some time or other has been the bottom of a former lake, but is now nearly a dry salt-basin. The surface configuration is in fact markedly similar to that which occurs in the inter-mount latitudinal valleys of theKunlun Mountains.Thehydrographyof the Ghashiun-Gobi and the Kuruk-tagh is determined by the aforementioned arrangements of the latitudinal valleys. Most of the principal streams, instead of flowing straight down these valleys, cross them diagonally and only turn west after they have cut their way through one or more of the transverse barrier ranges.

To the highest range on the great swellingGrigory Grum-Grshimailogives the name ofTuge-tau,its altitude being 2,700 m (8,858 ft) above the level of the sea and some 1,200 m (3,937 ft) above the crown of the swelling itself. This range he considers to belong to theCholtaghsystem, whereasSven Hedinwould assign it to the Kuruk-tagh. This last, which is pretty certainly identical with the range ofKharateken-ula(also known as theKyzyl-sanghir,Sinir,andSingher Mountains), that overlooks the southern shore of the Lake Bosten, though parted from it by the drift-sand desert ofAk-bel-kum(White Pass Sands), has at first a west-northwest to east-southeast strike, but it gradually curves round like a scimitar towards the east-northeast and at the same time gradually decreases in elevation.

At 91° east, where the principal range of the Kuruk-tagh system wheels to the east-northeast, four of its subsidiary ranges terminate, or rather die away somewhat suddenly, on the brink of a long narrow depression (in which Sven Hedin sees a northeast bay of the former great Central Asian lake of Lop-nor), having over against them the écheloned terminals of similar subordinate ranges of thePe-shan(Boy-san) system (see below). The Kuruk-tagh is throughout a relatively low, but almost completely barren range, being entirely destitute of animal life, save for hares, antelopes and wild camels, which frequent its few small, widely scattered oases. The vegetation, which is confined to these same areas, is of the scantiest and is mainly confined to bushes ofsaxaul(Haloxylon),anabasis,reeds (kamish),tamarisks,poplars,andEphedra.

History

Prehistory

There is little information about early habitation of the Gobi desert.

Lisa Janz has proposed a system of nomenclature for early Gobi desert habitation. They are Oasis I, Oasis II, Oasis III.

Oasis I is equivalent to theMesolithicfrom 13500cal BPto 8000 cal BP. During this time people began usingoases.It is characterized by:

• micro blades
• smallmilling stones
• small tools
• plain, low fired,potterywith high organic content.

Oasis II is equivalent to theNeolithicfrom 8000 cal BP to 5000 cal BP. People used the oases extensively. It was characterized by:

• micro blades
• milling stones
• chipped macro tools
• adzes
• axes
• high qualitycryptocrystallines
• honeycomb imprinted, corded, string paddled, low and high fired pottery with a sand and gravel mixture.

Starting around 8000 cal BP there was a warm wet phase in the Gobi desert.By 7500 cal BP lake levels in the Western Gobi reached their peak. Around this time there was meadowsteppevegetation around lakes. InUlaan Nuurthere may have beenshrubbyriparianwoodlands.

Oasis III is equivalent to theBronze Agefrom 5000 cal BP to 3000 cal BP. It is characterized by:

• micro blades
• chipped micro tools
• bifacially flakesarrowheads
• blades
• knives
• grinding stones
• copperslag
• high qualitychalcedony
• bonebeads,
• clayspindle whorls
• plain, string paddled, moulded rim, painted, geometrically incised, high and low fired pottery with mixture of sand, gravel,mica,shells, and fiber.

Bronze Ageherderburials have been found in the Gobi desert, as well asKarasukbronzeknives, and Mongoliandeer stones.Between 5000 cal BP and 4500 cal BP there was a period ofdesertification.Due to the increasingariditybetween 3500 cal BP and 3000 cal BP there was a decline in human habitation in the Gobi desert.Prehistoric petroglyphs have been found in Southern Mongolia in 1997.

European and American exploration

The Gobi had a long history of human habitation, mostly by nomadic peoples. The name of Gobi means desert in Mongolian. The region was inhabited mostly byMongols,Uyghurs,andKazakhs.

The Gobi Desert as a whole was known only very imperfectly to outsiders, as information was confined to observations by individual travelers engaging in their respective itineraries across the desert. Among the European and American explorers who contributed to the understanding of the Gobi, the most important were the following:

• Jean-François Gerbillon(1688–1698)
• Eberhard Isbrand Ides(1692–1694)
• Lorenz Lange(1727–1728 and 1736)
• Fuss andAlexander G. von Bunge(1830–1831)
• Hermann Fritsche(1868–1873)
• PavlinovandZ.L. Matusovski(1870)
• Ney Elias(1872–1873)
• Nikolai Przhevalsky(1870–1872 and 1876–1877)
• Zosnovsky(1875)
• Mikhail V. Pevtsov(1878)
• Grigory Potanin(1877 and 1884–1886)
• Béla SzéchenyiandLajos Lóczy(1879–1880)
• The brothersGrigory Grum-Grshimailo(1889–1890) and M. Y. Grigory Grum-Grshimailo
• Pyotr Kuzmich Kozlov(1893–1894 and 1899–1900)
• Vsevolod I. Roborovsky(1894)
• Vladimir Obruchev(1894–1896)
• Karl Josef FuttererandDr. Holderer(1896)
• Charles-Etienne Bonin(1896 and 1899)
• Sven Hedin(1897 and 1900–1901)
• K. Bogdanovich(1898)
• Ladyghin(1899–1900) andKatsnakov(1899–1900)
• Jacques Bouly de Lesdainand Martha Mailey, 1902
• Roy Chapman Andrewsfrom theAmerican Museum of Natural Historywho led several palaeontological expeditions to the Gobi Desert in the 1920s
• Zofia Kielan-Jaworowskawho led Polish-Mongolian palaeontological expeditions in the 1960s.

See also

• Asian Dust
• Geography of Mongolia
• Geography of China
• Green Wall of China
• List of deserts by area
• Mongolian death worm(olgoi khorkhoi), said to inhabit the Gobi in Mongolia

General references

• Owen Lattimore.(1973) "Return to China's Northern Frontier".The Geographical Journal,Vol. 139, No. 2 (June 1973), pp. 233–242.

Further reading

• Bealby, John Thomas (1911)."Gobi".Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 12 (11th ed.). pp. 165–169.
• Cable, Mildred and French, Francesca (1943).The Gobi Desert.Landsborough Publications, London,OCLC 411792.
• Man, John (1997).Gobi: Tracking the Desert.Yale University Press, New Haven,ISBN0-300-07609-6.
• Price, Julius M. (1857–1924).From the Arctic Ocean to the Yellow Sea(1892). The narrative of a journey, in 1890 and 1891, across Siberia, Mongolia, the Gobi desert, and north China. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
• Stewart, Stanley (2001).In the Empire of Genghis Khan: A Journey Among Nomads.HarperCollins Publishers, London,ISBN0-00-653027-3.
• Thayer, Helen (2007).Walking the Gobi: 1,600 Mile-trek Across a Desert of Hope and Despair.Mountaineer Books, Seattle, WA,ISBN978-1-59485-064-6.
• Younghusband, Francis (1904).The Heart of a Continent.John Murray.

External links

• Map, from "China the Beautiful"(archived 13 May 2008)