Gothic Revival architecture

"Neo-Gothic" redirects here. Not to be confused with theNew Gothiccontemporary art movement.

"Victorian Gothic" redirects here. Not to be confused withHigh Victorian Gothic.

Sint-Petrus-en-PauluskerkinOstend(Belgium), built between 1899 and 1908

Gothic Revival(also referred to asVictorian Gothicorneo-Gothic) is anarchitectural movementthat after a gradual build-up beginning in the second half of the 17th century became a widespread movement in the first half of the 19th century, mostly in England. Increasingly serious and learned admirers sought to revive medievalGothic architecture,intending to complement or even supersede theneoclassicalstyles prevalent at the time. Gothic Revival draws upon features of medieval examples, including decorative patterns,finials,lancet windows,andhood moulds.By the middle of the 19th century, Gothic Revival had become the pre-eminent architectural style in theWestern world,only to begin to fall out of fashion in the 1880s and early 1890s.

The Gothic Revival movement's roots are intertwined with philosophical movements associated withCatholicismand a re-awakening ofhigh churchorAnglo-Catholicbelief concerned by the growth of religious nonconformism. The "Anglo-Catholic" tradition of religious belief and style became known for its intrinsic appeal in the third quarter of the 19th century. Gothic Revival architecture varied considerably in its faithfulness to both the ornamental styles and construction principles of its medieval ideal, sometimes amounting to little more than pointed window frames and touches of neo-Gothic decoration on buildings otherwise created on wholly 19th-century plans, using contemporary materials and construction methods; most notably, this involved the use of iron and, after the 1880s, steel in ways never seen in medieval exemplars.

TheCathedral of St. John the Baptist,Savannah(Georgia,United States)

In parallel with the ascendancy of neo-Gothic styles in 19th century England, interest spread to the rest of Europe, Australia, Africa and the Americas; the 19th and early 20th centuries saw the construction of very large numbers of Gothic Revival structures worldwide. The influence ofRevivalismhad nevertheless peaked by the 1870s. New architectural movements, sometimes related, as in theArts and Crafts movement,and sometimes in outright opposition, such asModernism,gained ground, and by the 1930s the architecture of theVictorian erawas generally condemned or ignored.The later 20th century saw a revival of interest, manifested in the United Kingdom by the establishment of theVictorian Societyin 1958.

Roots

The rise ofevangelicalismin the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries saw in England a reaction in thehigh churchmovement which sought to emphasise the continuity between the established church and the pre-ReformationCatholic church.Architecture, in the form of the Gothic Revival, became one of the main weapons in the high church's armoury. The Gothic Revival was also paralleled and supported by "medievalism",which had its roots inantiquarianconcerns with survivals and curiosities. As "industrialisation"progressed, a reaction against machine production and the appearance of factories also grew. Proponents of the picturesque such asThomas CarlyleandAugustus Pugintook a critical view of industrial society and portrayed pre-industrial medieval society as a golden age. To Pugin, Gothic architecture was infused with the Christian values that had been supplanted byclassicismand were being destroyed byindustrialisation.

Gothic Revival also took on political connotations; with the "rational" and "radical" Neoclassical style being seen as associated withrepublicanismandliberalism(as evidenced by its use in the United States and to a lesser extent inRepublicanFrance), the more spiritual and traditional Gothic Revival became associated withmonarchismandconservatism,which was reflected by the choice of styles for the rebuilt government centres of the British parliament'sPalace of Westminsterin London, the CanadianParliament BuildingsinOttawaand theHungarian Parliament Buildingin Budapest.

In English literature, the architectural Gothic Revival and classicalRomanticismgave rise to theGothic novelgenre, beginning withThe Castle of Otranto(1764) byHorace Walpole,and inspired a 19th-century genre of medieval poetry that stems from the pseudo-bardic poetryof "Ossian".Poems such as"Idylls of the King"byAlfred, Lord Tennysonrecast specifically modern themes in medieval settings ofArthurianromance. InGerman literature,the Gothic Revival also had a grounding in literary fashions.

Survival and revival

Tom Tower,Oxford, bySir Christopher Wren1681–1682, to match the Tudor surroundings

Gothic architecturebegan at theBasilica of Saint Denisnear Paris, and theCathedral of Sensin 1140and ended with a last flourish in the early 16th century with buildings likeHenry VII's Chapelat Westminster.However, Gothic architecture did not die out completely in the 16th century but instead lingered in on-going cathedral-building projects; atOxfordandCambridgeUniversities, and in the construction of churches in increasingly isolated rural districts of England, France, Germany, thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealthand in Spain.

Britain and Ireland

St Columb's Cathedral,inDerry,may be considered 'Gothic Survival', as it was completed in 1633 in aPerpendicular Gothicstyle.Similarly, Gothic architecture survived in some urban settings during the later 17th century, as shown inOxfordandCambridge,where some additions and repairs to Gothic buildings were considered to be more in keeping with the style of the original structures than contemporaryBaroque.

In contrast,Dromore Cathedral,built in 1660/1661, immediately after the end ofthe Protectorate,revivedEarly Englishforms, demonstrating the restitution of the monarchy and claiming Ireland for the English crown.At the same time, the Great Hall ofLambeth Palace,that had been despoiled by thePuritans,was rebuilt in a mixture of Baroque and older Gothic forms, demonstrating the restitution of the Anglican Church.These two buildings can be said to herald the onset of Gothic Revival architecture, several decades before it became mainstream.Sir Christopher Wren'sTom TowerforChrist Church,University of Oxford,consciously set out to imitateCardinal Wolsey'sarchitectural style. Writing toDean Fellin 1681, he noted; "I resolved it ought to be Gothic to agree with the Founder's work", adding that to do otherwise would lead to "an unhandsome medley".Pevsnersuggests that he succeeded "to the extent that innocent visitors never notice the difference". It was followed in 1697–1704 by the rebuilding ofCollegiate Church of St MaryinWarwickas a stone-vaultedhall church,whereas the burnt church had been abasilicawith timbered roofs. Also inWarwickshire,in 1729/30, the nave and aisles of the church of St Nicholas atAlcesterwere rebuilt by Edward and Thomas Woodward, the exterior in Gothic forms but with aNeoclassicalinterior.At the same time, 1722–1746,Nicholas Hawksmooradded the west towers toWestminster Abbey,which made him a pioneer of Gothic Revival completions of medieval buildings,which from the late 19th century were increasingly disapproved of, although work in this style continued into the 20th century.Back in Oxford, the redecoration of the dining hall atUniversity Collegebetween 1766 and 1768 has been described as "the first major example of the Gothic Revival style in Oxford".

Continental Europe

Pilgrimage Church of Saint John of NepomukbyJan Santini Aichel(around 1720),Czech Republic,historicMoravia

Throughout France in the 16th and 17th centuries, churches such asSt-Eustache(1532–1640, façade 1754) in Paris andOrléans Cathedral(1601–1829) continued to be built following Gothic principles (structure of the buildings, application of tracery) with some little changes like the use of round arches instead of pointed arches and the application of some Classical details, until the arrival of Baroque architecture.

InBologna,in 1646, theBaroquearchitectCarlo RainaldiconstructedGothic vaults(completed 1658) for theBasilica of San Petronioin Bologna, which had been under construction since 1390; there, the Gothic context of the structure overrode considerations of the current architectural mode. Similarly, inSt. Salvator's CathedralofBruges,the timbered medieval vaults of nave and choir were replaced by "Gothic" stone vaults in 1635 resp. 1738/39.Guarino Guarini,a 17th-century Theatine monk active primarily inTurin,recognized the "Gothic order" as one of the primary systems of architecture and made use of it in his practice.

Even inCentral Europeof the late 17th and 18th centuries, where Baroque dominated, some architects used elements of the Gothic style. The most important example isJan Santini Aichel,whosePilgrimage Church of Saint John of NepomukinŽďár nad Sázavou,Czech Republic, represents a peculiar and creative synthesis of Baroque and Gothic.An example of another and less striking use of the Gothic style in the time is theBasilica of Our Lady of HungaryinMárianosztra,Hungary, whose choir (adjacent to a Baroque nave) was long considered authentically Gothic, because the 18th-century architect used medieval shapes to emphasize the continuity of the monastic community with its 14th-century founders.

Romantic challenges

During the mid-18th century rise ofRomanticism,an increased interest and awareness of theMiddle Agesamong influential connoisseurs created a more appreciative approach to selectedmedievalarts, beginning with church architecture, the tomb monuments of royal and noble personages, stained glass, and late Gothic illuminated manuscripts. Other Gothic arts, such as tapestries and metalwork, continued to be disregarded as barbaric and crude, however sentimental and nationalist associations with historical figures were as strong in this early revival as purely aesthetic concerns.

Strawberry Hill House,Twickenham,London; 1749 byHorace Walpole(1717–1797). "The seminal house of the Gothic Revival in England", it established the "Strawberry Hill Gothic" style

German Romanticists(including philosopher and writerGoetheand architectKarl Friedrich Schinkel), began to appreciate thepicturesquecharacter of ruins— "picturesque" becoming a new aesthetic quality—and those mellowing effects of time that the Japanese callwabi-sabiand thatHorace Walpoleindependently admired, mildly tongue-in-cheek, as "the true rust of the Barons' wars".The "Gothick" details of Walpole's Twickenham villa,Strawberry Hill Housebegun in 1749, appealed to therococotastes of the time,and were fairly quickly followed by James Talbot atLacock Abbey,Wiltshire.By the 1770s, thoroughly neoclassical architects such asRobert AdamandJames Wyattwere prepared to provide Gothic details in drawing-rooms, libraries and chapels and, for William Beckford atFonthillin Wiltshire, a complete romantic vision of a Gothic abbey.

Some of the earliest architectural examples of the revived are found in Scotland.Inveraray Castle,constructed from 1746 for theDuke of Argyll,with design input fromWilliam Adam,displays the incorporation of turrets.The architectural historian John Gifford writes that the castellations were the "symbolic assertion of the still quasi-feudal power [the duke] exercised over the inhabitants within his heritable jurisdictions".Most buildings were still largely in the establishedPalladianstyle, but some houses incorporated external features of the Scots baronial style. Robert Adam's houses in this style includeMellerstainandWedderburnin Berwickshire andSeton Castlein East Lothian,but it is most clearly seen atCulzean Castle,Ayrshire, remodelled by Adam from 1777.The eccentric landscape designerBatty Langleyeven attempted to "improve" Gothic forms by giving them classical proportions.

Basilica of Sainte Clotilde Sanctuary, Paris, France

A younger generation, taking Gothic architecture more seriously, provided the readership for John Britton's seriesArchitectural Antiquities of Great Britain,which began appearing in 1807.In 1817,Thomas Rickmanwrote anAttempt...to name and define the sequence of Gothic styles in English ecclesiastical architecture, "a text-book for the architectural student". Its long antique title is descriptive:Attempt to discriminate the styles of English architecture from the Conquest to the Reformation; preceded by a sketch of the Grecian and Roman orders, with notices of nearly five hundred English buildings.The categories he used wereNorman,Early English,Decorated,andPerpendicular.It went through numerous editions, was still being republished by 1881, and has been reissued in the 21st century.

The most common use for Gothic Revival architecture was in the building of churches. Major examples of Gothic cathedrals in the U.S. include the cathedrals ofSt. John the DivineandSt. Patrickin New York City and theWashington National Cathedralon Mount St. Alban in northwestWashington, D.C.One of the biggest churches in Gothic Revival style in Canada is theBasilica of Our Lady ImmaculateinGuelph, Ontario.

Gothic Revival architecture remained one of the most popular and long-lived of the manyrevival styles of architecture.Although it began to lose force and popularity after the third quarter of the 19th century in commercial, residential and industrial fields, some buildings such as churches, schools, colleges and universities were still constructed in the Gothic style, often known as "Collegiate Gothic", which remained popular in England, Canada and in the United States until well into the early to mid-20th century. Only when new materials, like steel and glass along with concern for function in everyday working life and saving space in the cities, meaning the need to build up instead of out, began to take hold did the Gothic Revival start to disappear from popular building requests.

Gothic Revival in the other decorative arts

Main article:Gothic Revival decorative arts

The study atAbbotsford,created forSir Walter Scottwhose novels popularised theMedievalperiod from which the Gothic Revival drew its inspiration

The revived Gothic style was not limited to architecture. Classical Gothic buildings of the 12th to 16th Centuries were a source of inspiration to 19th-century designers in numerous fields of work. Architectural elements such as pointed arches, steep-sloping roofs and fancy carvings like lace and lattice work were applied to a wide range of Gothic Revival objects. Some examples of Gothic Revival influence can be found in heraldic motifs in coats of arms, furniture with elaborate painted scenes like the whimsical Gothic detailing in English furniture is traceable as far back asLady Pomfret's house in Arlington Street, London (1740s),and Gothic fretwork in chairbacks and glazing patterns of bookcases is a familiar feature ofChippendale'sDirector(1754, 1762), where, for example, the three-part bookcase employs Gothic details with Rococo profusion, on a symmetrical form.Abbotsfordin theScottish Borders,rebuilt from 1816 bySir Walter Scottand paid for by the profits from his hugely successful, historical novels, exemplifies the "Regency Gothic" style.Gothic Revival also includes the reintroduction of medieval clothes and dances in historical re-enactments staged especially in the second part of the 19th century, although one of the first, theEglinton Tournamentof 1839, remains the most famous.

During theBourbon Restoration in France(1814–1830) and theLouis-Philippeperiod (1830–1848), Gothic Revival motifs start to appear, together with revivals of theRenaissanceand ofRococo.During these two periods, the vogue for medieval things led craftsmen to adopt Gothic decorative motifs in their work, such as bellturrets,lancet arches,trefoils,Gothic tracery androse windows.This style was also known as "Cathedral style" ( "À la catédrale" ).

By the mid-19th century, Gothic traceries and niches could be inexpensively re-created inwallpaper,and Gothic blind arcading could decorate a ceramic pitcher. Writing in 1857,J. G. Crace,an influential decorator from a family of influential interior designers, expressed his preference for the Gothic style: "In my opinion there is no quality of lightness, elegance, richness or beauty possessed by any other style... [or] in which the principles of sound construction can be so well carried out".The illustrated catalogue for theGreat Exhibitionof 1851 is replete with Gothic detail, from lacemaking and carpet designs to heavy machinery.Nikolaus Pevsner'svolume on the exhibits at the Great Exhibition,High Victorian Designpublished in 1951, was an important contribution to the academic study ofVictoriantaste and an early indicator of the later 20th century rehabilitation of Victorian architecture and the objects with which they decorated their buildings.

In 1847, eight thousand Britishcrowncoins were minted inproofcondition with the design using an ornate reverse in keeping with the revived style. Considered by collectors to be particularly beautiful, they are known as 'Gothic crowns'. The design was repeated in 1853, again in proof. A similar two shilling coin, the 'Gothicflorin' was minted for circulation from 1851 to 1887.

Romanticism and nationalism

Gothic façade of theParlement de Rouenin France, built between 1499 and 1508, which later inspired neo-Gothic revival in the 19th century

French neo-Gothic had its roots in the Frenchmedieval Gothic architecture,where it was created in the 12th century. Gothic architecture was sometimes known during the medieval period as the "Opus Francigenum", (the "French Art" ). French scholarAlexandre de Labordewrote in 1816 that "Gothic architecture has beauties of its own",which marked the beginning of the Gothic Revival in France. Starting in 1828, Alexandre Brogniart, the director of theSèvres porcelain manufactory,produced fired enamel paintings on large panes of plate glass, forKing Louis-Philippe'sChapelle royale de Dreux,an important early French commission in Gothic taste,preceded mainly by some Gothic features in a fewjardins paysagers.

Sainte-Clotilde Basilicacompleted in 1857, Paris

The French Gothic Revival was set on more sound intellectual footings by a pioneer,Arcisse de Caumont,who founded the Societé des Antiquaires de Normandie at a time whenantiquairestill meant a connoisseur of antiquities, and who published his great work on architecture in French Normandy in 1830.The following yearVictor Hugo's historical romance novelThe Hunchback of Notre-Dameappeared, in which the greatGothic cathedral of Pariswas at once a setting and a protagonist in a hugely popular work of fiction. Hugo intended his book to awaken a concern for the surviving Gothic architecture left in Europe, however, rather than to initiate a craze for neo-Gothic in contemporary life.In the same year thatNotre-Dame de Parisappeared, the new restoredBourbonmonarchy established an office in the Royal French Government of Inspector-General of Ancient Monuments, a post which was filled in 1833 byProsper Mérimée,who became the secretary of a new Commission des Monuments Historiques in 1837.This was the Commission that instructedEugène Viollet-le-Ducto report on the condition of theAbbey of Vézelayin 1840.Following this, Viollet le Duc set out to restore most of the symbolic buildings in France including Notre Dame de Paris,Vézelay,Carcassonne,Roquetaillade castle,Mont-Saint-Michel Abbeyon its peaked coastal island,Pierrefonds,and thePalais des PapesinAvignon.When France's first prominent neo-Gothic churchwas built, theBasilica of Saint-Clotilde,Paris, begun in 1846 and consecrated in 1857, the architect chosen was of German extraction,Franz Christian Gau,(1790–1853); the design was significantly modified by Gau's assistant,Théodore Ballu,in the later stages, to produce the pair offlèchesthat crown the west end.

The lifting of a ban on theconstruction of new Catholic churchesaround 1900 saw a resurgence of church building across Lithuania, such as St John the Apostle inŠvėkšna.

In Germany, there was a renewal of interest in the completion ofCologne Cathedral.Begun in 1248, it was still unfinished at the time of the revival. The 1820s "Romantic" movement brought a new appreciation of the building, and construction work began once more in 1842, marking a German return for Gothic architecture.St. Vitus CathedralinPrague,begun in 1344, was also completed in the mid-19th and early 20th centuries.The importance of the Cologne completion project in German-speaking lands has been explored by Michael J. Lewis,"The Politics of the German Gothic Revival: August Reichensperger".Reichensperger was himself in no doubt as to the cathedral's central position in Germanic culture; "Cologne Cathedral is German to the core, it is a national monument in the fullest sense of the word, and probably the most splendid monument to be handed down to us from the past".

Because ofRomantic nationalismin the early 19th century, the Germans, French and English all claimed the original Gothic architecture of the 12th century era as originating in their own country. The English boldly coined the term "Early English" for "Gothic", a term that implied Gothic architecture was an English creation. In his 1832 edition ofNotre Dame de Paris,author Victor Hugo said "Let us inspire in the nation, if it is possible, love for the national architecture", implying that "Gothic" is France's national heritage. In Germany, with the completion of Cologne Cathedral in the 1880s, at the time its summit was the world's tallest building, the cathedral was seen as the height of Gothic architecture.Other major completions of Gothic cathedrals were ofRegensburger Dom(with twinspirescompleted from 1869 to 1872),Ulm Münster(with a 161-meter tower from 1890)andSt. Vitus Cathedralin Prague (1844–1929).

Cologne Cathedral,finally completed in 1880 although construction began in 1248

In Belgium, a 15th-century church inOstendburned down in 1896. KingLeopold IIfunded its replacement, theSaint Peter's and Saint Paul's Church,a cathedral-scale design which drew inspiration from the neo-GothicVotive ChurchinViennaand Cologne Cathedral.InMechelen,the largely unfinished building drawn in 1526 as the seat of theGreat Council of The Netherlands,was not actually built until the early 20th century, although it closely followedRombout II Keldermans'sBrabantine Gothicdesign, and became the 'new' north wing of the City Hall.InFlorence,theDuomo's temporary façade erected for the Medici-House of Lorraine nuptials in 1588–1589, was dismantled, and the west end of the cathedral stood bare again until 1864, when a competition was held to design a new façade suitable toArnolfo di Cambio's original structure and the finecampanilenext to it. This competition was won byEmilio De Fabris,and so work on his polychrome design and panels ofmosaicwas begun in 1876 and completed by 1887, creating the Neo-Gothic western façade.

Eastern Europe also saw much Revival construction; in addition to theHungarian Parliament Buildingin Budapest,theBulgarian National Revivalsaw the introduction of Gothic Revival elements into its vernacular ecclesiastical and residential architecture. The largest project of the Slavine School is theLopushna Monasterycathedral (1850–1853), though later churches such asSaint George's Church, Gavril Genovodisplay more prominent vernacular Gothic Revival features.

The Canadian Parliament Buildings from the Ottawa River, including Gothic Revival library at rear,built between 1859 and 1876

In Scotland, while a similar Gothic style to that used further south in England was adopted by figures includingFrederick Thomas Pilkington(1832–1898)in secular architecture it was marked by the re-adoption of theScots baronialstyle.Important for the adoption of the style in the early 19th century was Abbotsford, which became a model for the modern revival of the baronial style.Common features borrowed from 16th- and 17th-century houses includedbattlementedgateways,crow-stepped gables,pointedturretsandmachicolations.The style was popular across Scotland and was applied to many relatively modest dwellings by architects such asWilliam Burn(1789–1870),David Bryce(1803–1876),Edward Blore(1787–1879),Edward Calvert(c. 1847–1914) andRobert Stodart Lorimer(1864–1929) and in urban contexts, including the building ofCockburn Streetin Edinburgh (from the 1850s) as well as the NationalWallace Monumentat Stirling (1859–1869).The reconstruction ofBalmoral Castleas a baronial palace and its adoption as a royal retreat from 1855 to 1858 confirmed the popularity of the style.

In the United States, the first "Gothic stile"church (as opposed to churches with Gothic elements) wasTrinity Church on the Green,New Haven, Connecticut. It was designed byIthiel Townbetween 1812 and 1814, while he was building hisFederalist-styleCenter Church, New Haven next to this radical new "Gothic-style" church. Its cornerstone was laid in 1814,and it was consecrated in 1816.It predatesSt Luke's Church, Chelsea,often said to be the first Gothic-revival church in London. Though built oftrap rockstone with arched windows and doors, parts of its tower and its battlements were wood. Gothic buildings were subsequently erected by Episcopal congregations in Connecticut at St John's in Salisbury (1823), St John's in Kent (1823–1826) and St Andrew's in Marble Dale (1821–1823).These were followed by Town's design forChrist Church Cathedral (Hartford, Connecticut)(1827), which incorporated Gothic elements such as buttresses into the fabric of the church.St. Paul's Episcopal Churchin Troy, New York, was constructed in 1827–1828 as an exact copy of Town's design for Trinity Church, New Haven, but using local stone; due to changes in the original, St. Paul's is closer to Town's original design than Trinity itself. In the 1830s, architects began to copy specific English Gothic and Gothic Revival Churches, and these "'mature Gothic Revival' buildings made the domestic Gothic style architecture which preceded it seem primitive and old-fashioned".

There are many examples ofGothic Revival architecture in Canada.The first major structure wasNotre-Dame BasilicainMontreal, Quebec,which was designed in 1824.The capital,Ottawa, Ontario,was predominantly a 19th-century creation in the Gothic Revival style. TheParliament Hillbuildings were the preeminent example, of which the original library survives today (after the rest was destroyed by fire in 1916).Their example was followed elsewhere in the city and outlying areas, showing how popular the Gothic Revival movement had become.Other examples of Canadian Gothic Revival architecture in Ottawa are theVictoria Memorial Museum,(1905–1908),theRoyal Canadian Mint,(1905–1908),and theConnaught Building,(1913–1916),all byDavid Ewart.

Gothic as a moral force

Pugin and "truth" in architecture

ThePalace of Westminster(1840–1876), designed byCharles Barry&Augustus Pugin

In the late 1820s,A. W. N. Pugin,still a teenager, was working for two highly visible employers, providing Gothic detailing for luxury goods.For the Royal furniture makers Morel and Seddon he provided designs for redecorations for the elderlyGeorge IVatWindsor Castlein a Gothic taste suited to the setting.For the royal silversmithsRundell Bridge and Co.,Pugin provided designs for silver from 1828, using the 14th-century Anglo-French Gothic vocabulary that he would continue to favour later in designs for the new Palace of Westminster.Between 1821 and 1838 Pugin and his father published a series of volumes ofarchitectural drawings,the first two entitled,Specimens of Gothic Architecture,and the following three,Examples of Gothic Architecture,that were to remain both in print and the standard references for Gothic Revivalists for at least the next century.

InContrasts: or, a Parallel between the Noble Edifices of the Middle Ages, and similar Buildings of the Present Day(1836), Pugin expressed his admiration not only for medieval art but for the whole medieval ethos, suggesting that Gothic architecture was the product of a purer society. InThe True Principles of Pointed or Christian Architecture(1841), he set out his "two great rules of design: 1st, that there should be no features about a building which are not necessary for convenience, construction or propriety; 2nd, that all ornament should consist of enrichment of the essential construction of the building". Urging modern craftsmen to seek to emulate the style of medieval workmanship as well as reproduce its methods, Pugin sought to reinstate Gothic as the true Christian architectural style.

Pugin's most notable project was theHouses of Parliamentin London, after its predecessor was largely destroyed in a fire in 1834.His part in the design consisted of two campaigns, 1836–1837 and again in 1844 and 1852, with the classicistCharles Barryas his nominal superior. Pugin provided the external decoration and the interiors, while Barry designed the symmetrical layout of the building, causing Pugin to remark, "All Grecian, Sir; Tudor details on a classic body".

Ruskin and Venetian Gothic

Main articles:Venetian Gothic architectureandHigh Victorian Gothic

Venetian Gothic inBaku,Azerbaijan

John Ruskinsupplemented Pugin's ideas in his two influential theoretical works,The Seven Lamps of Architecture(1849) andThe Stones of Venice(1853). Finding his architectural ideal inVenice,Ruskin proposed that Gothic buildings excelled above all other architecture because of the "sacrifice" of the stone-carvers in intricately decorating every stone. In this, he drew a contrast between the physical and spiritual satisfaction which a medieval craftsman derived from his work, and the lack of these satisfactions afforded to modern,industrialisedlabour.

By declaring theDoge's Palaceto be "the central building of the world", Ruskin argued the case for Gothic government buildings as Pugin had done for churches, though mostly only in theory. When his ideas were put into practice, Ruskin often disliked the result, although he supported many architects, such asThomas Newenham DeaneandBenjamin Woodward,and was reputed to have designed some of thecorbeldecorations for that pair'sOxford University Museum of Natural History.A major clash between the Gothic and Classical styles in relation to governmental offices occurred less than a decade after the publication ofThe Stones of Venice.A public competition for the construction of a newForeign OfficeinWhitehallsaw the decision to award first place to a Gothic design byGeorge Gilbert Scottoverturned by the Prime Minister,Lord Palmerston,who successfully demanded a building in theItalianatestyle.

Ecclesiology and funerary style

In England, theChurch of Englandwas undergoing a revival ofAnglo-Catholicandritualistideology in the form of theOxford Movement,and it became desirable to build large numbers of new churches to cater for the growing population, and cemeteries for their hygienic burials. This found ready exponents in the universities, where theecclesiological movementwas forming. Its proponents believed that Gothic was theonlystyle appropriate for a parish church, and favoured a particular era of Gothic architecture – the "decorated".TheCambridge Camden Society,through its journalThe Ecclesiologist,was so savagely critical of new church buildings that were below its exacting standards and its pronouncements were followed so avidly that it became the epicentre of the flood ofVictorian restorationthat affected most of the Anglican cathedrals and parish churches in England and Wales.

Exeter College, OxfordChapel

St Luke's Church, Chelsea,was a new-builtCommissioner's Churchof 1820–1824, partly built using a grant of £8,333 towards its construction with money voted byParliamentas a result of the Church Building Act of 1818.It is often said to be the first Gothic Revival church in London,and, asCharles Locke Eastlakeput it: "probably the only church of its time in which the main roof was groined throughout in stone".Nonetheless, the parish was firmlylow church,and the original arrangement, modified in the 1860s, was as a "preaching church" dominated by the pulpit, with a small altar and wooden galleries over the nave aisle.

The development of the privatemajor metropolitan cemeterieswas occurring at the same time as the movement;Sir William Titepioneered the first cemetery in the Gothic style atWest Norwoodin 1837, with chapels, gates, and decorative features in the Gothic manner, attracting the interest of contemporary architects such asGeorge Edmund Street,Barry, andWilliam Burges.The style was immediately hailed a success and universally replaced the previous preference for classical design.

Not every architect or client was swept away by this tide. Although Gothic Revival succeeded in becoming an increasingly familiar style of architecture, the attempt to associate it with the notion of high church superiority, as advocated by Pugin and the ecclesiological movement, was anathema to those with ecumenical or nonconformist principles.Alexander "Greek" Thomsonlaunched a famous attack; "We are told we should adopt [Gothic] because it is the Christian style, and this most impudent assertion has been accepted as sound doctrine even by earnest and intelligent Protestants; whereas it ought only to have force with those who believe that Christian truth attained its purest and most spiritual development at the period when this style of architecture constituted its corporeal form".Those rejecting the link between Gothic and Catholicism looked to adopt it solely for its aesthetic romantic qualities, to combine it with other styles, or look to northern EuropeanBrick Gothicfor a more plain appearance; or in some instances all three of these, as at the non-denominationalAbney Park Cemeteryin east London, designed byWilliam Hosking FSAin 1840.

Viollet-le-Duc and Iron Gothic

View ofCarcassonne

France had lagged slightly in entering the neo-Gothic scene, but produced a major figure in the revival inEugène Viollet-le-Duc.As well as a powerful and influential theorist, Viollet-le-Duc was a leading architect whose genius lay in restoration.He believed in restoring buildings to a state of completion that they would not have known even when they were first built, theories he applied to his restorations of the walled city ofCarcassonne,and toNotre-DameandSainte Chapellein Paris.In this respect he differed from his English counterpart Ruskin, as he often replaced the work of mediaeval stonemasons. His rational approach to Gothic stood in stark contrast to the revival's romanticist origins.Throughout his career he remained in a quandary as to whether iron and masonry should be combined in a building. Iron, in the form of iron anchors, had been used in the most ambitious buildings of medieval Gothic, especially but not only for tracery.

It had in fact been used in "Gothic" buildings since the earliest days of the revival. In some cases, cast iron enabled something like a perfection of medieval design. It was only with Ruskin and the archaeological Gothic's demand for historical truth that iron, whether it was visible or not, was deemed improper for a Gothic building. Ultimately, the utility of iron won out: "substituting a cast iron shaft for a granite, marble or stone column is not bad, but one must agree that it cannot be considered as an innovation, as the introduction of a new principle. Replacing a stone or woodenlintelby an ironbreastsummeris very good ".He strongly opposed illusion, however: reacting against the casing of a cast iron pillar in stone, he wrote; "il faut que la pierre paraisse bien être de la pierre; le fer, du fer; le bois, du bois" (stone must appear to be stone; iron, iron; wood, wood).

Cast-iron Gothic tracery supports a bridge byCalvert Vaux,inCentral Park,New York City

The arguments against modern construction materials began to collapse in the mid-19th century as great prefabricated structures such as the glass and ironCrystal Palaceand the glazed courtyard of theOxford University Museum of Natural Historywere erected, which appeared to embody Gothic principles.Between 1863 and 1872 Viollet-le-Duc published hisEntretiens sur l'architecture,a set of daring designs for buildings that combined iron and masonry.Though these projects were never realised, they influenced several generations of designers and architects, notablyAntoni Gaudíin Spain and, in England,Benjamin Bucknall,Viollet's foremost English follower and translator, whose masterpiece wasWoodchester Mansion.The flexibility and strength of cast-iron freed neo-Gothic designers to create new structural Gothic forms impossible in stone, as inCalvert Vaux's cast-iron Gothic bridge inCentral Park,New York dating from the 1860. Vaux enlisted openwork forms derived from Gothic blind-arcading and window tracery to express the spring and support of the arching bridge, in flexing forms that presageArt Nouveau.

Collegiate Gothic

Main article:Collegiate Gothic

Trinity College, Hartford:Burges's revised, three-quadrangle, masterplan

In the United States, Collegiate Gothic was a late and literal resurgence of the English Gothic Revival, adapted for American college and university campuses. The term "Collegiate Gothic" originated from American architectAlexander Jackson Davis's handwritten description of his own "English Collegiate Gothic Mansion" of 1853 for the Harrals of Bridgeport.By the 1890s, the movement was known as "Collegiate Gothic".

The firm ofCope & Stewardsonwas an early and important exponent, transforming the campuses ofBryn Mawr College,Princeton Universityand theUniversity of Pennsylvaniain the 1890s.In 1872,Abner Jackson,the President ofTrinity College, Connecticut,visited Britain, seeking models and an architect for a planned new campus for the college. William Burges was chosen and he drew up a four-quadrangled masterplan, in hisEarly Frenchstyle. Lavish illustrations were produced byAxel Haig.However, the estimated cost, at just under one million dollars, together with the sheer scale of the plans, thoroughly alarmed the College Trusteesand only one-sixth of the plan was executed, the presentLong Walk,withFrancis H. Kimballacting as local, supervising, architect, andFrederick Law Olmstedlaying out the grounds.Hitchcock considers the result, "perhaps the most satisfactory of all of [Burges's] works and the best example anywhere of Victorian Gothic collegiate architecture".

The movement continued into the 20th century, with Cope & Stewardson's campus forWashington University in St. Louis(1900–1909),Charles Donagh Maginnis's buildings atBoston College(1910s) (includingGasson Hall),Ralph Adams Cram's design for thePrinceton University Graduate College(1913),andJames Gamble Rogers' reconstruction of the campus ofYale University(1920s).Charles Klauder's Gothic Revival skyscraper on theUniversity of Pittsburgh's campus, theCathedral of Learning(1926) exhibited Gothic stylings both inside and out, while using modern technologies to make the building taller.

Vernacular adaptations and the revival in the Antipodes

Main article:Carpenter Gothic

Church of St Avila, Bodega, California

Carpenter Gothichouses and small churches became common in North America and other places in the late 19th century.These structures adapted Gothic elements such as pointed arches, steep gables, and towers to traditional Americanlight-frame construction.The invention of thescroll sawand mass-produced wood moldings allowed a few of these structures to mimic the floridfenestrationof the High Gothic. But, in most cases, Carpenter Gothic buildings were relatively unadorned, retaining only the basic elements of pointed-arch windows and steep gables. A well-known example of Carpenter Gothic is a house inEldon, Iowa,thatGrant Woodused for the background of his paintingAmerican Gothic.

New Zealand and Australia

Benjamin Mountfort,born in Britain, trained in Birmingham, and subsequently resident inCanterbury, New Zealandimported the Gothic Revival style to his adopted country and designed Gothic Revival churches in both wood and stone, notably in the city ofChristchurch.Frederick Thatcherdesigned wooden churches in the Gothic Revival style, for exampleOld St. Paul's, Wellington,contributing to what has been described as New Zealand's "one memorable contribution to world architecture".St Mary of the Angels, WellingtonbyFrederick de Jersey Clereis in the French Gothic style, and was the first Gothic design church built in ferro-concrete.The style also found favour in the southern New Zealand city ofDunedin,where the wealth brought in by theOtago Gold Rushof the 1860s allowed for substantial stone edifices to be constructed, using hard, darkbrecciastone and a local white limestone,Oamaru stone,among themMaxwell Bury'sUniversity of Otago Registry Buildingand theDunedin Law CourtsbyJohn Campbell.

Old St Paul's inWellington, New Zealand

Australia, in particular in Melbourne and Sydney, saw the construction of large numbers of Gothic Revival buildings.William Wardell(1823–1899) was among the country's most prolific architects; born and trained in England, after emigrating his most notable Australian designs includeSt Patrick's Cathedral, MelbourneandSt John's CollegeandSt Mary's Cathedralin Sydney. In common with many other 19th century architects, Wardell could deploy different styles at the command of his clients;Government House, MelbourneisItalianate.His banking house for theEnglish, Scottish and Australian Bankin Melbourne has been described as "the Australian masterpiece of neo-Gothic".This claim has also been made forEdmund Blacket'sMacLaurin Hallat theUniversity of Sydney,which sits in thequadrangle complexdescribed as "arguably the most important group of Gothic and Tudor Revival style architecture in Australia".

Global Gothic

Chhatrapati Shivaji TerminusinMumbai,India. A mixture of Romanesque, Gothic andIndian elements.

Henry-Russell Hitchcock,the architectural historian, noted the spread of the Gothic Revival in the 19th and early 20th centuries, "wherever English culture extended – as far as the West Coast of the United States and to the remotest Antipodes".TheBritish Empire,almost at its geographic peak at the height of the Gothic Revival, assisted or compelled this spread. The English-speakingdominions,Canada, Australia particularly the state of Victoria and New Zealand generally adopted British styles in toto (see above); other parts of the empire saw regional adaptations. India saw the construction of many such buildings, in styles termedIndo-Saracenicor Hindu-Gothic.Notable examples includeChhatrapati Shivaji Terminus(formerly Victoria Terminus)and theTaj Mahal Palace Hotel,both inMumbai.At the hill station ofShimla,thesummer capitalofBritish India,an attempt was made to recreate theHome countiesin the foothills of theHimalayas.Although Gothic Revival was the predominant architectural style, alternatives were also deployed;Rashtrapati Niwas,the former Viceregal Lodge, has been variously described asScottish Baronial Revival,Tudor RevivalandJacobethan.

Other examples in the east include the late 19th centuryChurch of the Saviour, Beijing,constructed on the orders of theGuangxu Emperorand designed by the Catholic missionary and architectAlphonse Favier;and theWat Niwet Thammaprawatin theBang Pa-In Royal PalaceinBangkok,by the ItalianJoachim Grassi.In Indonesia, (the former colony of theDutch East Indies), theJakarta Cathedralwas begun in 1891 and completed in 1901 by Dutch architect Antonius Dijkmans;while further north in the islands of the Philippines, theSan Sebastian Church,designed by architects Genaro Palacios andGustave Eiffel,was consecrated in 1891 in the still Spanish colony.Church building inSouth Africawas extensive, with little or no effort to adopt vernacular forms.Robert Gray,the firstbishopofCape Town,wrote; "I am sure we do not overestimate the importance of real Churches built after the fashion of our English churches". He oversaw the construction of some fifty such buildings between 1848 and his death in 1872.South Americasaw a later flourishing of the Revival, particularly in church architecture,for example theMetropolitan Cathedral of São Pauloin Brazil by the GermanMaximilian Emil Hehl,and theCathedral of La Platain Argentina.

20th and 21st centuries

Construction ofWashington National Cathedralbegan in 1907 and was completed in 1990.

The Gothic style dictated the use of structural members incompression,leading to tall, buttressed buildings with interior columns ofload-bearingmasonry and tall, narrow windows. But, by the start of the 20th century, technological developments such as thesteel frame,theincandescent light bulband theelevatormade this approach obsolete. Steel framing supplanted the non-ornamental functions ofrib vaultsandflying buttresses,providing wider open interiors with fewer columns interrupting the view.

Some architects persisted in using Neo-Gothic tracery as applied ornamentation to an iron skeleton underneath, for example inCass Gilbert's 1913Woolworth Buildingskyscraper in New York andRaymond Hood's 1922Tribune Towerin Chicago.TheTower Life Buildingin San Antonio, completed in 1929, is noted for the arrays of decorativegargoyleson its upper floors.But, over the first half of the century, Neo-Gothic was supplanted byModernism,although some modernist architects saw the Gothic tradition of architectural form entirely in terms of the "honest expression" of the technology of the day, and saw themselves as heirs to that tradition, with their use of rectangular frames and exposed iron girders.

Liverpool Cathedral,whose construction ran from 1903 to 1978

In spite of this, the Gothic Revival continued to exert its influence, simply because many of its more massive projects were still being built well into the second half of the 20th century, such asGiles Gilbert Scott'sLiverpool Cathedraland theWashington National Cathedral(1907–1990).Ralph Adams Crambecame a leading force in American Gothic, with his most ambitious project theCathedral of St. John the Divinein New York (claimed to be the largest cathedral in the world), as well as Collegiate Gothic buildings atPrinceton University.Cram said "the style hewn out and perfected by our ancestors [has] become ours by uncontested inheritance".

Though the number of new Gothic Revival buildings declined sharply after the 1930s, they continue to be built.St Edmundsbury Cathedral,the cathedral ofBury St EdmundsinSuffolk,was expanded and reconstructed in a neo-Gothic style between the late 1950s and 2005, and a commanding stone central tower was added.A new church in the Gothic style is planned for St. John Vianney Parish inFishers, Indiana.The Whittle Building atPeterhouse,University of Cambridge,opened in 2016, matches the neo-Gothic style of the rest of the courtyard in which it is situated.

Appreciation

By 1872, the Gothic Revival was mature enough in the United Kingdom thatCharles Locke Eastlake,an influential professor of design, could produceA History of the Gothic Revival.Kenneth Clark's,The Gothic Revival. An Essay,followed in 1928, in which he described the Revival as "the most widespread and influential artistic movement which England has ever produced."The architect and writerHarry Stuart Goodhart-Rendelcovered the subject of the Revival in an appreciative way in hisSlade Lecturesin 1934.But the conventional early 20th century view of the architecture of the Gothic Revival was strongly dismissive, critics writing of "the nineteenth century architectural tragedy",ridiculing "the uncompromising ugliness"of the era's buildings and attacking the "sadistic hatred of beauty" of its architects.The 1950s saw further signs of a recovery in the reputation of Revival architecture. John Steegman's study,Consort of Taste(re-issued in 1970 asVictorian Taste,with a foreword byNikolaus Pevsner), was published in 1950 and began a slow turn in the tide of opinion "towards a more serious and sympathetic assessment."In 1958, Henry-Russell Hitchcock published hisArchitecture: Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries,as part of thePelican History of Artseries edited by Nikolaus Pevsner. Hitchcock devoted substantial chapters to the Gothic Revival, noting that, while "there is no more typical nineteenth-century product than a Victorian Gothic church",the success of the Victorian Gothic saw its practitioners design mansions,castles,colleges,and parliaments.The same year saw the foundation of theVictorian Societyin England and, in 1963, the publication ofVictorian Architecture,an influential collection of essays edited by Peter Ferriday.By 2008, the fiftieth anniversary of the founding of the Victorian Society, the architecture of the Gothic Revival was more fully appreciated with some of its leading architects receiving scholarly attention and some of its best buildings, such asGeorge Gilbert Scott'sSt Pancras Station Hotel,being magnificently restored.The Society's 50th anniversary publication,Saving A Century,surveyed a half-century of losses and successes, reflected on the changing perceptions toward Victorian architecture and concluded with a chapter entitled "The Victorians Victorious".

Gallery

Europe

• 
  Hungarian Parliament Building,Budapest,Hungary: 1885–1904
• 
  Manchester Town Hall,England: 1868–1877
• 
  New Town Hall,Munich,Germany: 1867–1874
• 
  Co-cathedral,Osijek,Croatia: 1898
• 
  St Pancras railway station,London, England: 1863–1868
• 
  Rossio Station,Lisbon,Portugal: 1886–1887
• 
  Schwerin Castle,Germany: 1845–1857
• 
  Sturdza Palace,Iași County,Romania: 1880–1904
• 
  Vienna City Hall,Austria: 1872–1883
• 
  De Haar Castle,Utrecht,The Netherlands: 1892–1907

North America

• 
  Basilica of Our Lady Immaculate,Guelph,Ontario,Canada: 1876–1888
• 
  Centre Blockof theCanadian Parliament Buildings,Ottawa,Canada: 1916–1920
• 
  Cathedral of Santa Ana,El Salvador: 1906–1913
• 
  Rockefeller College,Princeton,USA: 1877
• 
  Templo Expiatorio del Santísimo Sacramento,Guadalajara, Jalisco,Mexico: 1897–1972
• 
  St. Patrick's Cathedral,New York, USA: 1858–1879

South America

• 
  Basilica of Our Lady of Luján,Buenos Aires Province,Argentina: 1890–1935
• 
  Basilica del Salvador,Santiago,Chile: 1913–1954
• 
  Capilla Cristo Pobre,Jauja,Peru: 1884–1925
• 
  Cathedral of São Pedro de Alcântara,Petrópolis,Brazil: 1884–1925
• 
  Castle of Fiscal Island,Rio de Janeiro,Brazil: 1881–1889
• 
  Las Lajas Sanctuary,Ipiales,Colombia:1916–1949
• 
  Church of Our Lady of Lourdes,Canela,Brazil: 1953–1987

Australia and New Zealand

• 
  University of Sydney Quadrangle,Sydney, Australia: 1854-1862
• 
  St Patrick's Cathedral, Melbourne,Australia: 1858-1939
• 
  ChristChurch Cathedral,New Zealand: 1864–1904
• 
  Auckland High Court,New Zealand: 1865–1867
• 
  St Mary's Cathedral, Sydney,Australia: 1868–1928
• 
  St Paul's Cathedral, Melbourne,Australia: 1880–1891
• 
  Otago Boys' High School,New Zealand: 1882–1885
• 
  Sacred Heart Cathedral, Bendigo,Australia: 1895–1901

Asia

• 
  Church of the Saviour,Baku,Azerbaijan: 1896–1899
• 
  Basilica of the Sacred Heart of Jesus,Pondicherry,India: 1902–1907
• 
  Jakarta Cathedral,Indonesia: 1891–1901
• 
  Basílica Menor de San Sebastián,Manila,Philippines: 1888–1891
• 
  Sacred Heart Cathedral,Guangzhou,China: 1861–1888
• 
  Government College University, Lahore,Pakistan: 1877

Decorative arts

• 
  Cup and saucer, produced by theSèvres porcelain factoryand decorated byPierre Huard,1827, porcelain,Cleveland Museum of Art,Cleveland,Ohio,US
• 
  Clock, unknown French maker,c. 1835–1840,gilt and patinated bronze,Museum of Decorative Arts,Paris
• 
  Pair of vases, byAlexandre-Évariste Fragonardand the Sèvres porcelain factory, manufactured in 1832, decorated in 1844, hard-paste porcelain,Metropolitan Museum of Art,New York City
• 
  Desk, byKimbel and Cabus,c. 1877,oak, nickel-plated brass and iron hardware, Metropolitan Museum of Art

See also

Sub-varieties of the Gothic Revival style

• Carpenter Gothic
• Collegiate Gothic
• Dissenting Gothic
• National Romantic Style
• Neo-Manueline
• Ruskinian Gothic
• Scottish Baronial
• Tudor Revival
• Black-and-White Revival

Locale

• Canada
• Poland
• List of Gothic Revival architecture

Sources

• Aldrich, Megan Brewster; Atterbury, Paul (1995).A.W.N. Pugin: Master of Gothic Revival.New Haven and London: Yale University Press.ISBN978-0-300-06656-2.
• Aldrich, Megan (2005).Gothic Revival.London: Phaidon Press.ISBN978-0-714-83631-7.
• Aldrich, Megan (2019). Megan Aldrich; Alexandrina Buchanan (eds.).Thomas Rickman and the Victorians.Studies in Victorian Architecture and Design. Vol. 7. London:The Victorian Society.ISBN978-0-901-65756-5.OCLC1088560920.
• Anstruther, Ian (1963).The Knight and the Umbrella: An Account of the Eglinton Tournament – 1839.London: Geoffrey Bles.OCLC249701828.
• Atterbury, Paul; Wainwright, Clive (1994).Pugin: A Gothic Passion.New Haven and London: Yale University Press.ISBN978-0-300-06656-2.OCLC750811794.
• Bartlett, Robert(2001).Medieval Panorama.Los Angeles: Getty Publications.ISBN978-0-892-36642-2.
• Beard, Geoffrey (1985).The National Trust Book of English Furniture.London: Viking.ISBN978-0-670-80141-1.OCLC924269530.
• Bradley, Simon (2007).St Pancras Station.London: Profile Books.ISBN978-1-861-97951-3.
• Brichta, Tomas (2014).Late Completion of Cologne and St-Vitus Cathedral(M.Arch). University of Edinburgh.hdl:1842/9814.
• Brooks, Alan;Pevsner, Nikolaus(2007).Worcestershire.The Buildings of England. Yale University Press.ISBN978-0-300-11298-6.
• Buggeln, Gretchen Townsend (2003).Temples of Grace: The Material Transformation of Connecticut's Churches.Hanover, US: New England University Publications.ISBN978-1-584-65322-6.
• Chadenet, Sylvie (2001).French Furniture: From Louis XIII to Art Deco.Boston, US: Little, Brown and Company.ISBN978-0-821-22683-4.
• Chalcraft, Anna; Viscardi, Judith (2007).Strawberry Hill: Horace Walpole's Gothic Castle.London: Frances Lincoln Ltd.ISBN978-0-711-22687-6.OCLC255611525.
• Charlesworth, Michael (2002).The Gothic Revival 1720–1870 – Literary Sources and Documents: Blood and Ghosts.Vol. 1. Robertsbridge, East Sussex: Helm Information.ISBN978-1-873-40367-9.OCLC491489502.
• Charlesworth, Michael (2002).The Gothic Revival 1720–1870 – Literary Sources and Documents: Gothic and National Architecture.Vol. 3. Robertsbridge, East Sussex: Helm Information.ISBN978-1-873-40367-9.OCLC491489502.
• Cherry, Bridget;Pevsner, Nikolaus(2002).London 4: North.The Buildings of England. New Haven, US and London:Yale University Press.ISBN9780300096538.
• Clark, Anthony E. (2019).China Gothic: The Bishop of Beijing and His Cathedral.Washington, US: University of Washington Press.ISBN978-0-295-74668-5.
• Clark, Kenneth(1983).The Gothic Revival: An Essay in the History of Taste.London: John Murray.ISBN978-0-719-53102-6.
• Cooke, Robert(1987).The Palace of Westminster.London: Burton Skira.ISBN978-2-882-49014-8.
• Cox, Oliver (8 November 2012)."An Oxford College and the Eighteenth-Century Gothic Revival"(PDF).Oxoniensia:117–136.Retrieved20 August2023.
• Crook, J. Mordaunt(2013).William Burges and the High Victorian Dream.London: Frances Lincoln.ISBN978-0-7112-3349-2.
• Cruft, Kitty; Dunbar, John; Fawcett, Richard (2006).Borders.The Buildings of Scotland. New Haven, US and London:Yale University Press.ISBN978-0-300-10702-9.OCLC1062076262.
• Curl, James Stevens (1990).Victorian Architecture.Newton Abbot, Devon and London: David & Charles.ISBN978-0-715-39144-0.
• Dixon, Roger; Muthesius, Stefan (1993).Victorian Architecture.London: Thames and Hudson.ISBN978-0-195-20048-5.
• Eastlake, Charles Locke(2012).A History Of The Gothic Revival.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-108-05191-0.
• Ferriday, Peter (1963).Victorian Architecture.London: Jonathan Cape.OCLC270335.
• Finnerty, Anne (2001).The Architecture of East Australia: An Architectural History in 432 Individual Presentations.Felbach, Germany: Edition Axel Menges.ISBN978-3-930-69890-5.
• Fulton, Gordon W. (2005)."Ewart, David".Dictionary of Canadian Biography(online ed.).University of Toronto Press.
• Furneaux Jordan, Robert(1979).A Concise History of Western Architecture.London: Thames & Hudson.OCLC757298161.
• Germann, Georg (1972).Gothic Revival in Europe and Britain: Sources, Influences and Ideas.London: Lund Humphries.ISBN978-0-853-31343-4.
• Gifford, John (1989).William Adam 1689–1748: A Life and Times of Scotland's Universal Architect.Edinburgh: Mainstream Publishing.ISBN978-1-851-58296-9.OCLC600401309.
• Glendenning, Miles; MacInnes, Ranald; MacKechnie, Aonghus (2002).A History of Scottish Architecture: from the Renaissance to the Present Day.Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.ISBN978-0-748-60741-9.
• Goodhart-Rendel, Harry Stuart(1989) [1953].English Architecture Since The Regency: An Interpretation.London: Century.ISBN978-0-712-61869-4.OCLC243386485.
• Graur, Neaga (1970).Stiluri în arta decorativă(in Romanian). Bucharest: Cerces.OCLC560131438.
• Hill, Rosemary (2007).God's Architect: Pugin and the Building of Romantic Britain.London: Allen Lane.ISBN978-0-713-99499-5.
• Hitchcock, Henry-Russell(1968) [1958].Architecture: Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries.Pelican History of Art.London:Penguin Books.OCLC851173836.
• Hobart, John Henry (1816).The Moral Efficacy and the Positive Benefits of the Ordinances of the Gospel: A Sermon Preached at the Consecration of Trinity Church, in the City of New Haven, on Wednesday, the 21st Day of February, A.D. 1816.Oliver Steele.
• Hull, Lise (2006).Britain's Medieval Castles.London: Praeger.ISBN978-0-275-98414-4.
• Jackson, Alvin (2011).The Two Unions: Ireland, Scotland, and the Survival of the United Kingdom, 1707–2007.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-199-59399-6.
• Jarvis, Samuel Farmar (1814).An Address, Delivered in the City of New-Haven: At the Laying of the Corner-stone of Trinity Church, May 17th, 1814.Oliver Steele.
• Lindfield, Peter (2016).Georgian Gothic: Medievalist Architecture, Furniture and Interiors, 1730–1840.London: Boydell & Brewer.ISBN978-1-783-27127-6.
• London, Christopher W. (2002).Bombay Gothic.Mumbai, India: India Book House.ISBN81-7508-329-8.
• Lowenthal, David(2015).The Past is a Foreign Country – Revisited.Cambridge, UK:Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-85142-8.
• Macaulay, James (1975).The Gothic Revival 1745–1845.Glasgow and London: Blackie.ISBN978-0-216-89892-9.
• Martin, Desmond (2012). "Bishop Robert Gray and Mrs Sophia Gray: Building Anglican Churches in South Africa, 1848–72". In G. A. Bremner (ed.).Ecclesiology Abroad: The British Empire and Beyond.Studies in Victorian Architecture and Design. Vol. 4. London:The Victorian Society.ISBN978-0-901-65753-4.OCLC825141174.
• Menin, Nicolas (1775).A description of the Coronation of the Kings and Queens of France.London: unknown.OCLC1064350166.
• Metcalf, Thomas R. (1989).An Imperial Vision: Indian Architecture and Britain's Raj.London: Faber & Faber.ISBN978-0-571-15419-7.OCLC835581414.
• Midant, Jean-Paul (2002).Viollet-le-Duc: The French Gothic Revival.Paris: L'Aventurine.ISBN978-2-914-19922-3.
• Morris, Jan(1986).Stones of Empire: The Buildings of the Raj.Oxford, UK:Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-192-82036-5.OCLC473765817.
• McWilliam, Colin (1978).Lothian.The Buildings of Scotland. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books.ISBN978-0-140-71066-3.OCLC185487752.
• Pevsner, Nikolaus(1951).High Victorian Design: A Study of the Exhibits of 1851.London: Architectural Press.OCLC875412662.
• Pevsner, Nikolaus(1969).Ruskin and Viollet-Le-Duc: Englishness and Frenchness in the Appreciation of Gothic Architecture.London: Thames and Hudson.OCLC264998275.
• Poppeliers, John; Chambers, S. Allen; Schwartz, Nancy (1979).What Style Is It.Washington: The Preservation Press.ISBN978-0-891-33065-3.
• Port, M. H. (2006).600 New Churches: The Church Building Commission 1818–1856.Reading, UK: Spire Books.ISBN978-1-904-96508-4.
• Rickman, Thomas (1848).An Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of Architecture in England: From the Conquest to the Reformation.London: J. H. Parker. p.47.doi:10.1017/CBO9781107338241.ISBN978-1-107-33824-1.
• Robson Scott, William Douglas (1965).The Literary Background of the Gothic Revival in Germany – A chapter in the history of taste.Oxford: Clarendon Press.OCLC504490694.
• Ruskin, John(1989) [1849].The Seven Lamps Of Architecture.New York:Dover Publications.ISBN978-0-486-26145-4.OCLC19886931.
• Sherwood, Jennifer;Pevsner, Nikolaus(1996).Oxfordshire.The Buildings of England. New Haven, US and London:Yale University Press.ISBN978-0-30009-6392.
• Stamp, Gavin(1995). C. Brooks (ed.).The Victorian kirk: Presbyterian architecture in nineteenth century Scotland.The Victorian Church: Architecture and Society. Manchester: Manchester University Press.ISBN0-7190-4020-5.
• — (1997).Caledonia Gothica: Pugin and the Gothic Revival in Scotland.Architectural Heritage. Edinburgh: Journal of the Architectural Heritage Society of Scotland.OCLC632385481.
• — (2011).Saving a Century: the Victorian Society, 1958–2008.London: Victorian Society.ISBN978-0-901-65740-4.OCLC1141858753.
• — (2015).Gothic For The Steam Age: An Illustrated Biography of George Gilbert Scott.London: Aurum Press.ISBN978-1-781-31124-0.OCLC1123924291.
• Stanton, Phoebe B. (1997).The Gothic Revival and American Church Architecture: An Episode in Taste, 1840–1856.Baltimore, US and London: Johns Hopkins University Press.ISBN978-0-801-85622-8.OCLC38338245.
• Steegman, John (1970).Victorian Taste – A study of the Arts and Architecture from 1830 to 1870.Cambridge: Nelson's University Paperbacks.ISBN978-0-262-69028-7.
• Sundt, Richard A. (2017). Timothy Brittain-Catlin; Jan De Maeyer; Martin Bressani (eds.).Gothic Revival Worldwide: A.W.N. Pugin's Global Influence.Leuven, Belgium: Leuven University Press.ISBN978-9-462-70091-8.
• Toker, Franklin(1991).The Church of Notre Dame in Montreal: An Architectural History.Montreal:McGill–Queen's University Press.ISBN978-0-773-50848-4.
• Turnor, Reginald (1950).Nineteenth Century Architecture in Britain.London: Batsford.OCLC520344.
• Tuleshkov, Nikolaĭ (2007).Славинските първомайстори (Master Builders from Slavine)(in Bulgarian). София: Арх & Арт.ISBN978-9-548-93140-3.OCLC264741060.
• Verey, David; Brooks, Alan (2002) [1970].Gloucestershire 2: The Vale and the Forest of Dean.The Buildings of England. New Haven, US and London: Yale University Press.ISBN9780300097337.
• Whyte, Ian; Whyte, Kathleen A (1991).The Changing Scottish Landscape, 1500–1800.London: Routledge.ISBN9780415029926.

Further reading

• Christian Amalvi,Le Goût du moyen âge(Paris: Plon), 1996. The first French monograph on French Gothic Revival.
• "Le Gothique retrouvé" avant Viollet-le-Duc.Exhibition, 1979. The first French exhibition concerned with French Neo-Gothic.
• Hunter-Stiebel, Penelope,Of Knights and Spires: Gothic Revival in France and Germany,1989.ISBN0-614-14120-6.
• Phoebe B Stanton,Pugin(New York: Viking Press, 1972, ©1971).ISBN0-670-58216-6.
• Summerson, Sir John,1948. "Viollet-le-Duc and the rational point of view", collected inHeavenly Mansions and other essays on Architecture.
• Sir Thomas G. Jackson,Modern Gothic Architecture(1873),Byzantine and Romanesque Architecture(1913), and the three-volumeGothic Architecture in France, England and Italy(1901).

External links

• Basilique Sainte-Clotilde, Paris
• Canada by Design: Parliament Hill, Ottawaat Library and Archives Canada
• Books, Research and Information
• Proyecto Documenta's entries for neo-Gothic elements at the Valparaíso's churches