Greeks

For other uses, seeGreeks (disambiguation).

"Grecian" redirects here. For other uses, seeGrecian (disambiguation).

Greeks
Hellenes

Έλληνες
Total population
c. 14–17 million
Regions with significant populations
Greece9,903,268 (2011 census) Cyprus659,115–721,000 (2011 census)
United States	1,279,000–3,000,000a(2016 estimate)
Germany	449,000b(2021 estimate)
Australia	424,744 (2021 census)
United Kingdom	290,000–345,000 (2011 estimate)
Canada	271,405c(2016 census)
South Africa	138,000 (2011 estimate)
Italy	110,000–200,000d(2013 estimate)
Egypt	110,000
Chile	100,000
Ukraine	91,000 (2011 estimate)
Russia	85,640 (2010 census)
Brazil	50,000e
France	35,000 (2013 estimate)
Belgium	35,000 (2011 estimate)
Netherlands	28,856 (2021)
Uruguay	25,000–28,000 (2011 census)
Turkey	4,000–49,143f
Argentina	20,000–30,000 (2013 estimate)
Sweden	24,736 (2012 census)
Albania	23,485 (2023 census)
Bulgaria	1,356 (2011 census)up to 28,500 (estimate)
Georgia	15,000 (2011 estimate)
Czech Republic	12,000
Switzerland	11,000 (2015 estimate)
Romania	10,000 (2013 estimate)
Uzbekistan	9,500 (2000 estimate)
Kazakhstan	8,846 (2011 estimate)
New Zealand	est. 2,478 to 10,000, possibly up to 50,000
Austria	5,261
Hungary	4,454 (2016 census)
Languages
Greek
Religion
PrimarilyGreek Orthodox Church
aIncludes those of ancestral descent. bIncludes people with "cultural roots". cThose whose stated ethnic origins included "Greek" among others. The number of those whose stated ethnic origin issolely"Greek" is 145,250. An additional 3,395 Cypriots of undeclared ethnicity live in Canada. dApprox. 60,000Griko peopleand 30,000 post WW2 migrants. e"Including descendants". fIncludingGreek Muslims.

TheGreeksorHellenes(/ˈhɛliːnz/;Greek:Έλληνες,Éllines[ˈelines]) are anethnic groupandnationnative toGreece,Cyprus,southern Albania,Anatolia,parts ofItalyandEgypt,and to a lesser extent, other countries surrounding theEastern MediterraneanandBlack Sea.They also form a significantdiaspora(omogenia), with many Greek communities established around the world.

Greek colonies and communities have been historically established on the shores of theMediterranean SeaandBlack Sea,but the Greek people themselves have always been centered on theAegeanandIonianseas, where theGreek languagehas been spoken since theBronze Age.Until the early 20th century, Greeks were distributed between theGreek peninsula,the western coast ofAsia Minor,the Black Sea coast,Cappadociain central Anatolia,Egypt,theBalkans,Cyprus, andConstantinople.Many of these regions coincided to a large extent with the borders of theByzantine Empireof the late 11th century and the Eastern Mediterranean areas of ancientGreek colonization.The cultural centers of the Greeks have includedAthens,Thessalonica,Alexandria,Smyrna,andConstantinopleat various periods.

In recent times, most ethnic Greeks live within the borders of the modern Greek state or in Cyprus. TheGreek genocideandpopulation exchange between Greece and Turkeynearly ended the three millennia-old Greek presence in Asia Minor. Other longstanding Greek populations can be found from southern Italy to the Caucasus and southernRussiaandUkraineand in theGreek diasporacommunities in a number of other countries. Today, most Greeks are officially registered as members of theGreek Orthodox Church.

Greeks have greatly influenced and contributed to culture, visual arts, exploration, theatre, literature, philosophy, ethics, politics, architecture, music, mathematics,medicine, science, technology, commerce, cuisine and sports. TheGreek languageis the oldest recorded living languageand its vocabulary has been the basis of many languages, includingEnglishas well asinternational scientific nomenclature.Greek was by far the most widely spokenlingua francain the Mediterranean world since the fourth century BC and theNew Testamentof theChristian Biblewas also originally written in Greek.

History

Further information:History of Greece

Proto-Greek area of settlement (2200/2100–1900 BC) suggested by Katona (2000), Sakelariou (2016, 1980, 1975) and Phylaktopoulos (1975)

Mycenaeanfuneral maskknown as "Mask of Agamemnon",16th century BC

The Greeks speak theGreek language,which forms its own unique branch within theIndo-Europeanfamily of languages, theHellenic.They are part of a group of classical ethnicities, described byAnthony D. Smithas an "archetypal diaspora people".

Origins

Further information:Proto-Greek language,List of Ancient Greek tribes,andAncient Greek religion

The Proto-Greeks probably arrived at the area now called Greece, in the southern tip of theBalkan peninsula,at the end of the 3rd millennium BC between 2200 and 1900 BC.The sequence of migrations into the Greek mainland during the2nd millennium BChas to be reconstructed on the basis of theancient Greek dialects,as they presented themselves centuries later and are therefore subject to some uncertainties. There were at least two migrations, the first being theIoniansandAchaeans,which resulted inMycenaean Greeceby the 16th century BC,and the second, theDorian invasion,around the 11th century BC, displacing theArcadocypriot dialects,which descended from the Mycenaean period. Both migrations occur at incisive periods, the Mycenaean at the transition to theLate Bronze Ageand the Doric at theBronze Age collapse.

Mycenaean

Main article:Mycenaean Greece

Inc.1600 BC, the Mycenaean Greeks borrowed from theMinoan civilizationits syllabic writing system (Linear A) and developed their ownsyllabic scriptknown asLinear B,providing the first and oldest written evidence ofGreek.The Mycenaeans quickly penetrated theAegean Seaand, by the 15th century BC, had reachedRhodes,Crete,Cyprusand the shores ofAsia Minor.

Around 1200 BC, theDorians,another Greek-speaking people, followed fromEpirus.Older historical research often proposedDorian invasioncaused the collapse of theMycenaean civilization,but this narrative has been abandoned in all contemporary research. It is likely that one of the factors which contributed to the Mycenaean palatial collapse was linked to raids by groups known in historiography as the "Sea Peoples"who sailed into the eastern Mediterranean around 1180 BC.TheDorian invasionwas followed by a poorly attested period of migrations, appropriately called theGreek Dark Ages,but by 800 BC the landscape ofArchaicandClassical Greecewas discernible.

The Greeks of classical antiquity idealized their Mycenaean ancestors and the Mycenaean period as a glorious era of heroes, closeness of the gods and material wealth.TheHomeric Epics(i.e.IliadandOdyssey) were especially and generally accepted as part of the Greek past and it was not until the time ofEuhemerismthat scholars began to question Homer's historicity.As part of the Mycenaean heritage that survived, the names of the gods and goddesses of Mycenaean Greece (e.g.Zeus,PoseidonandHades) became major figures of theOlympian Pantheonof later antiquity.

Classical

Main article:Classical Greece

The three great philosophers of the classical era:Socrates,PlatoandAristotle

Theethnogenesisof the Greek nation is linked to the development of Pan-Hellenism in the 8th century BC.According to some scholars, the foundational event was theOlympic Gamesin 776 BC, when the idea of a common Hellenism among the Greek tribes was first translated into a shared cultural experience and Hellenism was primarily a matter of common culture.The works ofHomer(i.e.IliadandOdyssey) andHesiod(i.e.Theogony) were written in the 8th century BC, becoming the basis of the national religion, ethos, history and mythology.TheOracle of Apollo at Delphiwas established in this period.

Theclassical periodof Greek civilization covers a time spanning from the early 5th century BC to thedeath of Alexander the Great,in 323 BC (some authors prefer to split this period into "Classical", from the end of theGreco-Persian Warsto the end of the Peloponnesian War, and "Fourth Century", up to the death of Alexander). It is so named because it set the standards by which Greek civilization would be judged in later eras.The Classical period is also described as the "Golden Age" of Greek civilization, and its art, philosophy, architecture and literature would be instrumental in the formation and development of Western culture.

While the Greeks of the classical era understood themselves to belong to a common Hellenicgenos,their first loyalty was to their city and they saw nothing incongruous about warring, often brutally, with other Greekcity-states.ThePeloponnesian War,the large scale civil war between the two most powerful Greek city-statesAthensandSpartaandtheirallies,left both greatly weakened.

Alexander the Great,whose conquests led to theHellenistic Age

Most of the feuding Greek city-states were, in some scholars' opinions, united by force under the banner ofPhilip's andAlexander the Great's Pan-Hellenic ideals, though others might generally opt, rather, for an explanation of "Macedonianconquest for the sake of conquest "or at least conquest for the sake of riches, glory and power and view the" ideal "as useful propaganda directed towards the city-states.

In any case, Alexander's toppling of theAchaemenid Empire,after his victories at the battles of theGranicus,IssusandGaugamela,and his advance as far as modern-dayPakistanandTajikistan,provided an important outlet for Greek culture, via the creation of colonies and trade routes along the way.While the Alexandrian empire did not survive its creator's death intact, the cultural implications of the spread of Hellenism across much of theMiddle EastandAsiawere to prove long lived as Greek became thelingua franca,a position it retained even inRoman times.Many Greeks settled inHellenisticcities likeAlexandria,AntiochandSeleucia.

Hellenistic

Main articles:Hellenistic periodandHellenistic Greece

The Hellenistic realms c. 300 BC as divided by theDiadochi;the Μacedonian Kingdom ofCassander(green), thePtolemaic Kingdom(dark blue), theSeleucid Empire(yellow), the areas controlled byLysimachus(orange) andEpirus(red)

Bust ofCleopatra VII(Altes Museum,Berlin), the last ruler of a Hellenistic kingdom (apart from theIndo-Greek Kingdom)

TheHellenistic civilizationwas the next period of Greek civilization, the beginnings of which are usually placed at Alexander's death.ThisHellenistic age,so called because it saw the partialHellenizationof many non-Greek cultures, extending all the way into India andBactria,both of which maintained Greek cultures and governments for centuries.The end is often placed around conquest ofEgyptby Rome in 30 BC,although the Indo-Greek kingdoms lasted for a few more decades.

This age saw the Greeks move towards larger cities and a reduction in the importance of the city-state. These larger cities were parts of the still largerKingdoms of the Diadochi.Greeks, however, remained aware of their past, chiefly through the study of the works of Homer and the classical authors.An important factor in maintaining Greek identity was contact withbarbarian(non-Greek) peoples, which was deepened in the new cosmopolitan environment of the multi-ethnic Hellenistic kingdoms.This led to a strong desire among Greeks to organize the transmission of the Hellenicpaideiato the next generation.Greek science, technology and mathematics are generally considered to have reached their peak during the Hellenistic period.

In theIndo-GreekandGreco-Bactriankingdoms,Greco-Buddhismwas spreading and Greek missionaries would play an important role in propagating it toChina.Further east, the Greeks ofAlexandria Eschatebecame known to theChinese peopleas theDayuan.

Roman Empire

Further information:Roman GreeceandGreco-Roman world

Between 168 BC and 30 BC, the entire Greek world was conquered by Rome, and almost all of the world's Greek speakers lived as citizens or subjects of the Roman Empire. Despite their military superiority, the Romans admired and becameheavily influencedby the achievements of Greek culture, henceHorace's famous statement:Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit( "Greece, although captured, took its wild conqueror captive" ).In the centuries following the Roman conquest of the Greek world, the Greek and Roman cultures merged into a singleGreco-Romanculture.

In the religious sphere, this was a period of profound change. The spiritual revolution that took place, saw a waning of the old Greek religion, whose decline beginning in the 3rd century BC continued with the introduction of new religious movements from the East.The cults of deities likeIsisandMithrawere introduced into the Greek world.Greek-speaking communities of the Hellenized East were instrumental in the spread of early Christianity in the 2nd and 3rd centuries,and Christianity's early leaders and writers (notablySaint Paul) were generally Greek-speaking,though none were from Greece proper. However, Greece itself had a tendency to cling to paganism and was not one of the influential centers of early Christianity: in fact, some ancient Greek religious practices remained in vogue until the end of the 4th century,with some areas such as the southeastern Peloponnese remaining pagan until well into the mid-Byzantine 10th century AD.The region ofTsakoniaremained pagan until the ninth century and as such its inhabitants were referred to asHellenes,in the sense of being pagan, by their Christianized Greek brethren in mainstream Byzantine society.

While ethnic distinctions still existed in theRoman Empire,they became secondary to religious considerations, and the renewed empire used Christianity as a tool to support its cohesion and promote a robust Roman national identity.From the early centuries of theCommon Era,the Greeks self-identified as Romans (Greek:ῬωμαῖοιRhōmaîoi).By that time, the nameHellenesdenoted pagans but was revived as an ethnonym in the 11th century.

Middle Ages

See also:Byzantine empire,Byzantine Greece,Byzantine Greeks,Fourth Crusade,andFrankokratia

Scenes of marriage and family life inConstantinople

EmperorBasil II(11th century) is credited with reviving theByzantine Empire.

Gemistos Plethon,one of the most renowned philosophers of the late Byzantine era, a chief pioneer of the revival of Greek scholarship in Western Europe

During most of the Middle Ages, the Byzantine Greeks self-identified asRhōmaîoi(Ῥωμαῖοι,"Romans", meaningcitizensof theRoman Empire), a term which in theGreek languagehad become synonymous with Christian Greeks.The Latinizing termGraikoí(Γραικοί, "Greeks" ) was also used,though its use was less common, and nonexistent in official Byzantine political correspondence, prior to the Fourth Crusade of 1204.TheEastern Roman Empire(today conventionally named theByzantine Empire,a name not used during its own time) became increasingly influenced by Greek culture after the 7th century when EmperorHeraclius(r. 610–641 AD) decided to make Greek the empire's official language.Although theCatholic Churchrecognized the Eastern Empire's claim to the Roman legacy for several centuries, afterPope Leo IIIcrownedCharlemagne,king of theFranks,as the "Roman Emperor"on 25 December 800, an act which eventually led to the formation of theHoly Roman Empire,the Latin West started to favour the Franks and began to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire largely as theEmpire of the Greeks(Imperium Graecorum).While this Latin term for the ancientHellenescould be used neutrally, its use by Westerners from the 9th century onwards in order to challenge Byzantine claims toancient Romanheritage rendered it a derogatoryexonymfor the Byzantines who barely used it, mostly in contexts relating to the West, such as texts relating to theCouncil of Florence,to present the Western viewpoint.Additionally, among the Germanic and the Slavic peoples, theRhōmaîoiwere just called Greeks.

There are three schools of thought regarding this Byzantine Roman identity in contemporaryByzantine scholarship:The first considers "Romanity" the mode of self-identification of the subjects of a multi-ethnic empire at least up to the 12th century, where the average subject identified as Roman; a perennialist approach, which views Romanity as the medieval expression of a continuously existing Greek nation; while a third view considers the eastern Roman identity as a pre-modern national identity.The Byzantine Greeks' essential values were drawn from both Christianity and the Homeric tradition of ancient Greece.

A distinct Greek identity re-emerged in the 11th century in educated circles and became more forceful after the fall of Constantinople to the Crusaders of theFourth Crusadein 1204.In theEmpire of Nicaea,a small circle of the elite used the term "Hellene" as a term of self-identification.For example, in a letter toPope Gregory IX,the Nicaean emperorJohn III Doukas Vatatzes(r. 1221–1254) claimed to have received the gift of royalty from Constantine the Great, and put emphasis on his "Hellenic" descent, exalting the wisdom of the Greek people.After the Byzantines recaptured Constantinople, however, in 1261,Rhomaioibecame again dominant as a term for self-description and there are few traces ofHellene(Έλληνας), such as in the writings ofGeorge Gemistos Plethon,who abandoned Christianity and in whose writings culminated the secular tendency in the interest in the classical past.However, it was the combination ofOrthodox Christianitywith a specifically Greek identity that shaped the Greeks' notion of themselves in the empire's twilight years.In the twilight years of the Byzantine Empire, prominent Byzantine personalities proposed referring to the Byzantine Emperor as the "Emperor of the Hellenes".These largely rhetorical expressions of Hellenic identity were confined within intellectual circles, but were continued byByzantine intellectuals who participatedin theItalian Renaissance.

The interest in the Classical Greek heritage was complemented by a renewed emphasis onGreek Orthodoxidentity, which was reinforced in the late Medieval and Ottoman Greeks' links with their fellow Orthodox Christians in theRussian Empire.These were further strengthened following the fall of theEmpire of Trebizondin 1461, after which and until the secondRusso-Turkish War of 1828–29hundreds of thousands ofPontic Greeksfled or migrated from thePontic AlpsandArmenian Highlandsto southern Russia and the RussianSouth Caucasus(see alsoGreeks in Russia,Greeks in Armenia,Greeks in Georgia,andCaucasian Greeks).

TheseByzantine Greekswere largely responsible for the preservation of the literature of the classical era.Byzantine grammarianswere those principally responsible for carrying, in person and in writing, ancient Greek grammatical and literary studies to the West during the 15th century, giving theItalian Renaissancea major boost.TheAristotelianphilosophical tradition was nearly unbroken in the Greek world for almost two thousand years, until theFall of Constantinoplein 1453.

To theSlavicworld, the Byzantine Greeks contributed by the dissemination of literacy and Christianity. The most notable example of the later was the work of the two Byzantine Greek brothers, the monksSaints Cyril and Methodiusfrom the port city ofThessalonica,capital of thetheme of Thessalonica,who are credited today with formalizing thefirst Slavic alphabet.

Ottoman Empire

Main articles:Ottoman GreeksandPhanariotes

The Byzantine scholar and cardinalBasilios Bessarion(1395/1403–1472) played a key role in transmitting classical knowledge to Western Europe, contributing to the Renaissance.

Following theFall of Constantinopleon 29 May 1453, many Greeks sought better employment and education opportunities by leaving for theWest,particularlyItaly,Central Europe,GermanyandRussia.Greeks are greatly credited for the European cultural revolution, later called the Renaissance. In Greek-inhabited territory itself, Greeks came to play a leading role in theOttoman Empire,due in part to the fact that the central hub of the empire, politically, culturally, and socially, was based onWestern ThraceandGreek Macedonia,both inNorthern Greece,and of course was centred on the mainly Greek-populated, former Byzantine capital,Constantinople.As a direct consequence of this situation, Greek-speakers came to play a hugely important role in the Ottoman trading and diplomatic establishment, as well as in the church. Added to this, in the first half of the Ottoman period men of Greek origin made up a significant proportion of the Ottoman army, navy, and state bureaucracy, having been levied as adolescents (along with especiallyAlbaniansandSerbs) into Ottoman service through thedevshirme.Many Ottomans of Greek (or Albanian or Serb) origin were therefore to be found within the Ottoman forces which governed the provinces, from Ottoman Egypt, to Ottomans occupiedYemenandAlgeria,frequently as provincial governors.

For those that remained under theOttoman Empire'smillet system,religion was the defining characteristic of national groups (milletler), so theexonym"Greeks" (Rumlarfrom the name Rhomaioi) was applied by the Ottomans to all members of theOrthodox Church,regardless of their language or ethnic origin.TheGreekspeakers were the only ethnic group to actually call themselvesRomioi,(as opposed to being so named by others) and, at least those educated, considered their ethnicity (genos) to be Hellenic.There were, however, many Greeks who escaped the second-class status of Christians inherent in the Ottomanmilletsystem, according to which Muslims were explicitly awarded senior status and preferential treatment. These Greeks either emigrated, particularly to their fellow Orthodox Christian protector, theRussian Empire,or simply converted to Islam, often only very superficially and whilst remainingcrypto-Christian.The most notable examples of large-scale conversion to Turkish Islam among those today defined asGreek Muslims—excluding those who had to convert as a matter of course on being recruited through thedevshirme—were to be found inCrete(Cretan Turks),Greek Macedonia(for example among theVallahadesof westernMacedonia), and amongPontic Greeksin thePontic AlpsandArmenian Highlands.Several Ottoman sultans and princes were also of part Greek origin, with mothers who were either Greek concubines or princesses from Byzantine noble families, one famous example being sultanSelim the Grim(r. 1517–1520), whose motherGülbahar Hatunwas aPontic Greek.

Adamantios Korais,leading figure of theModern Greek Enlightenment

The roots of Greek success in the Ottoman Empire can be traced to the Greek tradition of education and commerce exemplified in thePhanariotes.It was the wealth of the extensive merchant class that provided the material basis for the intellectual revival that was the prominent feature of Greek life in the half century and more leading to the outbreak of theGreek War of Independencein 1821.Not coincidentally, on the eve of 1821, the three most important centres of Greek learning were situated inChios,SmyrnaandAivali,all three major centres of Greek commerce.Greek success was also favoured by Greek domination in the leadership of theEastern Orthodoxchurch.

Modern

See also:Modern Greek EnlightenmentandGreek War of Independence

The movement of the Greek enlightenment, the Greek expression of theAge of Enlightenment,contributed not only in the promotion of education, culture and printing among the Greeks, but also in the case of independence from theOttomans,and the restoration of the term "Hellene".Adamantios Korais,probably the most important intellectual of the movement, advocated the use of the term "Hellene" (Έλληνας) or "Graikos" (Γραικός) in the place ofRomiós,that was seen negatively by him.

The relationship between ethnic Greek identity andGreek Orthodoxreligion continued after the creation of the modern Greek nation-state in 1830. According to the second article of the firstGreek constitutionof 1822, a Greek was defined as any native Christian resident of theKingdom of Greece,a clause removed by 1840.A century later, when theTreaty of Lausannewas signed between Greece and Turkey in 1923, the two countries agreed to use religion as the determinant for ethnic identity for the purposes of population exchange, although most of the Greeks displaced (over a million of the total 1.5 million) had already been driven out by the time the agreement was signed.TheGreek genocide,in particular the harsh removal of Pontian Greeks from the southern shore area of the Black Sea, contemporaneous with and following the failed GreekAsia Minor Campaign,was part of this process ofTurkificationof the Ottoman Empire and the placement of its economy and trade, then largely in Greek hands under ethnic Turkish control.

Identity

The cover ofHermes o Logios,a Greek literary publication of the late 18th and early 19th centuries inViennawith major contribution to theModern Greek Enlightenment

The terms used to define Greekness have varied throughout history but were never limited or completely identified with membership to a Greek state.Herodotusgave a famous account of what defined Greek (Hellenic) ethnic identity in his day, enumerating

1. shareddescent(ὅμαιμον,hómaimon,'of the same blood')
2. sharedlanguage(ὁμόγλωσσον,homóglōsson,'speaking the same tongue')
3. sharedsanctuariesandsacrifices(θεῶν ἱδρύματά τε κοινὰ καὶ θυσίαι,theôn hidrúmatá te koinà kaì thusíai,'common foundations, common sacrifices to gods')
4. sharedcustoms(ἤθεα ὁμότροπα,ḗthea homótropa,'customs of like fashion').

By Western standards, the termGreekshas traditionally referred to any native speakers of theGreek language,whetherMycenaean,Byzantineormodern Greek.Byzantine Greeksself-identified asRomaioi( "Romans" ),Graikoi( "Greeks" ) andChristianoi( "Christians" ) since they were the political heirs ofimperial Rome,the descendants of theirclassical Greek forebearsand followers of theApostles;during the mid-to-late Byzantine period (11th–13th century), a growing number of Byzantine Greek intellectuals deemed themselvesHellenesalthough for most Greek-speakers, "Hellene" still meant pagan.On the eve of theFall of ConstantinopletheLast Emperorurged his soldiers to remember that they were the descendants of Greeks and Romans.

Before the establishment of the modern Greek nation-state, the link between ancient and modern Greeks was emphasized by the scholars of Greek Enlightenment especially by Rigas Feraios. In his "Political Constitution", he addresses to the nation as "the people descendant of the Greeks".Themodern Greek statewas created in 1829, when the Greeks liberated a part of their historic homelands,Peloponnese,from theOttoman Empire.The largeGreek diasporaand merchant class were instrumental in transmitting the ideas of westernromantic nationalismandphilhellenism,which together with the conception of Hellenism, formulated during the last centuries of theByzantine Empire,formed the basis of theDiafotismosand the current conception of Hellenism.

The Greeks today are a nation in the meaning of anethnos,defined by possessingGreek cultureand having a Greekmother tongue,not by citizenship, race, and religion or by being subjects of any particular state.In ancient and medieval times and to some extent today the Greek term wasgenos,which also indicates a common ancestry.

Names

Main articles:Achaeans (Homer)andNames of the Greeks

Map showing the major regions of mainland ancient Greece, and adjacent "barbarian" lands

Greeks and Greek-speakers have used different names to refer to themselves collectively. The termAchaeans(Ἀχαιοί) is one of thecollective namesfor the Greeks inHomer'sIliadandOdyssey(the Homeric "long-haired Achaeans" would have been a part of theMycenaean civilizationthat dominated Greece fromc.1600 BC until 1100 BC). The other common names areDanaans(Δαναοί) andArgives(Ἀργεῖοι) whilePanhellenes(Πανέλληνες) andHellenes(Ἕλληνες) bothappear only oncein theIliad;all of these terms were used, synonymously, to denote a common Greek identity.In the historical period, Herodotus identified theAchaeansof the northernPeloponneseas descendants of the earlier, Homeric Achaeans.

Homerrefers to the "Hellenes" (/ˈhɛliːnz/) as a relatively small tribe settled in ThessalicPhthia,with its warriors under the command ofAchilleus.TheParian Chroniclesays that Phthia was the homeland of the Hellenes and that this name was given to those previously called Greeks (Γραικοί).InGreek mythology,Hellen,the patriarch of the Hellenes who ruled around Phthia, was the son ofPyrrhaandDeucalion,the only survivors after theGreat Deluge.The Greek philosopherAristotlenames ancientHellasas an area inEpirusbetweenDodonaand theAchelousriver, the location of the Great Deluge ofDeucalion,a land occupied by theSelloiand the "Greeks" who later came to be known as "Hellenes".In the Homeric tradition, the Selloi were the priests of Dodonian Zeus.

In theHesiodicCatalogue of Women,Graecusis presented as the son of Zeus andPandora II,sister ofHellenthe patriarch of the Hellenes.According to theParian Chronicle,whenDeucalionbecame king of Phthia, theGraikoi(Γραικοί) were named Hellenes.Aristotlenotes in hisMeteorologicathat the Hellenes were related to the Graikoi.

Etymology

The English namesGreeceandGreekare derived, via the LatinGraeciaandGraecus,from the name of theGraeci(Γραικοί,Graikoí;singularΓραικός,Graikós), who were among the firstancient Greek tribesto settlesouthern Italy(the so-called "Magna Graecia"). The term is possibly derived from theProto-Indo-Europeanroot*ǵerh₂-,"to grow old",more specifically fromGraea(ancient city), said byAristotleto be the oldest in Greece, and the source of colonists for theNaplesarea.

Continuity

Alexander the Great inByzantine Emperor's clothes, by a manuscript depicting scenes from his life (between 1204 and 1453)

The most obvious link between modern and ancient Greeks is their language, which has a documented tradition from at least the 14th century BC to the present day, albeit with a break during theGreek Dark Agesfrom which written records are absent (11th- 8th cent. BC, though theCypriot syllabarywas in use during this period).Scholars compare its continuity of tradition toChinesealone.Since its inception, Hellenism was primarily a matter of common culture and the national continuity of the Greek world is a lot more certain than its demographic.Yet, Hellenism also embodied an ancestral dimension through aspects of Athenian literature that developed and influenced ideas of descent based on autochthony.During the later years of the Eastern Roman Empire, areas such asIoniaandConstantinopleexperienced a Hellenic revival in language, philosophy, and literature and on classical models of thought and scholarship.This revival provided a powerful impetus to the sense of cultural affinity with ancient Greece and its classical heritage.Throughout their history, the Greeks have retained their language andalphabet,certain values and cultural traditions, customs, a sense of religious and cultural difference and exclusion (the wordbarbarianwas used by 12th-century historianAnna Komneneto describe non-Greek speakers),a sense of Greek identity and common sense of ethnicity despite the undeniable socio-political changes of the past two millennia.In recent anthropological studies, both ancient and modern Greek osteological samples were analyzed demonstrating a bio-genetic affinity and continuity shared between both groups.There is also a direct genetic link between ancient Greeks and modern Greeks.

Demographics

Main articles:Demographics of GreeceandDemographics of Cyprus

Today, Greeks are the majority ethnic group in theHellenic Republic,where they constitute 93% of the country's population,and theRepublic of Cypruswhere they make up 78% of the island's population (excluding Turkish settlers in the occupied part of the country).Greek populations have not traditionally exhibited high rates of growth; a large percentage of Greek population growth since Greece's foundation in 1832 was attributed to annexation of new territories, as well as the influx of 1.5 million Greek refugees after the1923 population exchangebetween Greece and Turkey.About 80% of the population of Greece is urban, with 28% concentrated in the city of Athens.

Greeks from Cyprus have a similar history of emigration, usually to the English-speaking world because of the island's colonization by theBritish Empire.Waves ofemigrationfollowed theTurkish invasion of Cyprusin 1974, while the population decreased between mid-1974 and 1977 as a result of emigration, war losses, and a temporary decline in fertility.After theethnic cleansingof a third of the Greek population of the island in 1974,there was also an increase in the number of Greek Cypriots leaving, especially for the Middle East, which contributed to a decrease in population that tapered off in the 1990s.Today more than two-thirds of the Greek population in Cyprus is urban.

Around 1990, most Western estimates of the number of ethnic Greeks in Albania were around 200,000 but in the 1990s, a majority of them migrated to Greece.The Greek minority ofTurkey,which numbered upwards of 200,000 people after the 1923 exchange, has now dwindled to a few thousand, after the 1955Constantinople Pogromand other state sponsored violence and discrimination.This effectively ended, though not entirely, the three-thousand-year-old presence of Hellenism in Asia Minor.There are smaller Greek minorities in the rest of the Balkan countries, theLevantand theBlack Seastates, remnants of the OldGreek Diaspora(pre-19th century).

Diaspora

Main article:Greek diaspora

Greek diaspora (20th century)

The total number of Greeks living outside Greece and Cyprus today is a contentious issue. Where census figures are available, they show around three million Greeks outside Greece and Cyprus. Estimates provided by theSAE – World Council of Hellenes Abroadput the figure at around seven million worldwide.According to George Prevelakis ofSorbonne University,the number is closer to just below five million.Integration, intermarriage, and loss of the Greek language influence the self-identification of the Greek diaspora (omogenia). Important centres includeNew York City,Chicago,Boston,Los Angeles,Sydney,Melbourne,London,TorontoMontreal,Vancouver,Auckland,andSao Paulo.In 2010, the Hellenic Parliament introduced a law that allowed members of the diaspora to vote in Greek elections;this law was repealed in early 2014.

Ancient

See also:Colonies in antiquity

Greek colonization in antiquity

In ancient times, the trading and colonizing activities of the Greek tribes and city states spread the Greek culture, religion and language around the Mediterranean and Black Sea basins, especially inSouthern Italy(the so-called "Magna Graecia"), Spain, thesouth of Franceand theBlack sea coasts.Under Alexander the Great's empire and successor states, Greek and Hellenizing ruling classes were established in theMiddle East,Indiaand inEgypt.TheHellenistic periodis characterized by a new wave of Greek colonization that established Greek cities and kingdoms inAsiaandAfrica.Under the Roman Empire, easier movement of people spread Greeks across the Empire and in the eastern territories, Greek became thelingua francarather thanLatin.The modern-dayGriko communityof southern Italy, numbering about 60,000,may represent a living remnant of the ancient Greek populations of Italy.

Modern

Distribution of ethnic groups in 1918, National Geographic

PoetConstantine P. Cavafy,a native ofAlexandria,Egypt

During and after theGreek War of Independence,Greeks of the diaspora were important in establishing the fledgling state, raising funds and awareness abroad.Greek merchant families already had contacts in other countries and during the disturbances many set up home around the Mediterranean (notably Marseilles inFrance,Livorno inItaly,Alexandria inEgypt),Russia(OdesaandSaint Petersburg), andBritain(London and Liverpool) from where they traded, typically in textiles and grain.Businesses frequently comprised the extended family, and with them they brought schools teaching Greek and theGreek Orthodox Church.

As markets changed and they became more established, some families grew their operations to becomeshippers,financed through the local Greek community, notably with the aid of theRalliorVagliano Brothers.With economic success, the Diaspora expanded further across theLevant,North Africa, India and the USA.

In the 20th century, many Greeks left their traditional homelands for economic reasons resulting in large migrations from Greece and Cyprus to theUnited States,Great Britain,Australia,Canada,Germany,andSouth Africa,especially after theSecond World War(1939–1945), theGreek Civil War(1946–1949), and theTurkish Invasion of Cyprusin 1974.

While official figures remain scarce, polls and anecdotal evidence point to renewed Greek emigration as a result of theGreek financial crisis.According to data published by theFederal Statistical Office of Germanyin 2011, 23,800 Greeks emigrated to Germany, a significant increase over the previous year. By comparison, about 9,000 Greeks emigrated to Germany in 2009 and 12,000 in 2010.

Culture

Main article:Culture of Greece

Greek culturehas evolved over thousands of years, with its beginning in the Mycenaean civilization, continuing through the classical era, the Hellenistic period, the Roman and Byzantine periods and was profoundly affected by Christianity, which it in turn influenced and shaped.Ottoman Greekshad to endure through several centuries of adversity that culminated ingenocidein the 20th century.TheDiafotismosis credited with revitalizing Greek culture and giving birth to the synthesis of ancient and medieval elements that characterize it today.

Language

Main articles:Greek languageandGreek language question

Early Greek alphabet, c. 8th century BC

A Greek speaker

Most Greeks speak theGreek language,anindependent branchof theIndo-European languages,with its closest relations possibly beingArmenian(seeGraeco-Armenian) or theIndo-Iranian languages(seeGraeco-Aryan).It has the longest documented history of any living language andGreek literaturehas a continuous history of over 2,500 years.The oldest inscriptions in Greek are in theLinear Bscript, dated as far back as 1450 BC.Following theGreek Dark Ages,from which written records are absent, theGreek alphabetappears in the 9th–8th century BC. The Greek alphabet derived from thePhoenician alphabet,and in turn became the parent alphabet of theLatin,Cyrillic,and several other alphabets. The earliest Greek literary works are theHomeric epics,variously dated from the 8th to the 6th century BC. Notable scientific and mathematical works includeEuclid's Elements,Ptolemy'sAlmagest,and others. TheNew Testamentwas originally written inKoine Greek.

Greek demonstrates several linguistic features that are shared with otherBalkan languages,such asAlbanian,BulgarianandEastern Romance languages(seeBalkan sprachbund), and has absorbed many foreign words, primarily of Western European andTurkishorigin.Because of the movements ofPhilhellenismand theDiafotismosin the 19th century, which emphasized the modern Greeks' ancient heritage, these foreign influences were excluded from official use via the creation ofKatharevousa,a somewhat artificial form of Greek purged of all foreign influence and words, as the official language of the Greek state. In 1976, however, theHellenic Parliamentvoted to make the spokenDimotikithe official language, making Katharevousa obsolete.

Modern Greekhas, in addition to Standard Modern Greek or Dimotiki, a widevariety of dialectsof varying levels of mutual intelligibility, includingCypriot,Pontic,Cappadocian,GrikoandTsakonian(the only surviving representative of ancientDoric Greek).Yevanicis the language of theRomaniotes,and survives in small communities in Greece, New York and Israel. In addition to Greek, many Greek citizens in Greece and the diaspora are bilingual in other languages such as English,Arvanitika/Albanian,Aromanian,Megleno-Romanian,Macedonian Slavic,Russianand Turkish.

Religion

Main articles:Religion in ancient GreeceandGreek Orthodox Church

Christ PantocratormosaicinHagia Sophia,Istanbul

Most Greeks areChristians,belonging to theGreek Orthodox Church.During the first centuries afterJesus Christ,theNew Testamentwas originally written inKoine Greek,which remains theliturgical languageof the Greek Orthodox Church, and most of the early Christians and Church Fathers were Greek-speaking.There are small groups of ethnic Greeks adhering to otherChristiandenominations likeRoman Catholics,Greek Catholics,Greek Evangelicals,Pentecostals,Mormons,and groups adhering to other religions includingRomaniotandSephardic Jews,Greek MuslimsandJehovah's Witnesses.About 2,000 Greeks are members ofHellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionismcongregations.

Greek-speaking Muslims live mainly outside Greece in the contemporary era. There are both Christian and Muslim Greek-speaking communities inLebanonandSyria,while in thePontusregion ofTurkeythere is a large community of indeterminate size who were spared from thepopulation exchangebecause of their religious affiliation.

Arts

Further information:Greek art,Music of Greece,Ancient Greek architecture,Ancient Greek theatre,Modern Greek theatre,Cinema of Greece,Modern Greek architecture,andModern Greek literature

See also:Greco-Buddhist art

Renowned Greek sopranoMaria Callas

Greek art has a long and varied history. Greeks have contributed to the visual, literary and performing arts.In the West,classical Greek artwas influential in shaping theRomanand later the modernWestern artistic heritage.Following theRenaissanceinEurope,the humanist aesthetic and the high technical standards of Greek art inspired generations of European artists.Well into the 19th century, the classical tradition derived from Greece played an important role in the art of the Western world.In the East,Alexander the Great's conquests initiated several centuries of exchange between Greek,Central AsianandIndiancultures, resulting inIndo-GreekandGreco-Buddhist art,whose influence reached as far asJapan.

Byzantine Greek art,which grew from the Hellenisticclassical artand adapted the pagan motifs in the service of Christianity, provided a stimulus to the art of many nations.Its influences can be traced fromVenicein the West toKazakhstanin the East.In turn, Greek art was influenced by eastern civilizations (i.e.Egypt,Persia,etc.) during various periods of its history.

Notable modern Greek artists include the majorRenaissancepainterDominikos Theotokopoulos(El Greco),Nikolaos Gyzis,Nikiphoros Lytras,Konstantinos Volanakis,Theodoros Vryzakis,Georgios Jakobides,Thalia Flora-Karavia,Yannis Tsarouchis,Nikos Engonopoulos,Périclès Pantazis,Theophilos,Kostas Andreou,Jannis Kounellis,sculptors such asLeonidas Drosis,Georgios Bonanos,Yannoulis Chalepas,Athanasios Apartis,Konstantinos DimitriadisandJoannis Avramidis,conductorDimitri Mitropoulos,sopranoMaria Callas,composers such asMikis Theodorakis,Nikos Skalkottas,Nikolaos Mantzaros,Spyridon Samaras,Manolis Kalomiris,Iannis Xenakis,Manos Hatzidakis,Manos Loïzos,YanniandVangelis,the masters ofrebetikoMarkos VamvakarisandVassilis Tsitsanis,and singers such asGiorgos Dalaras,Haris Alexiou,Sotiria Bellou,Nana Mouskouri,Vicky LeandrosandDemis Roussos.Poets such asAndreas Kalvos,Athanasios Christopoulos,Kostis Palamas,the writer ofHymn to LibertyDionysios Solomos,Angelos Sikelianos,Kostas Karyotakis,Maria Polydouri,Yannis Ritsos,Kostas Varnalis,Nikos Kavvadias,Andreas EmbirikosandKiki Dimoula.Constantine P. CavafyandNobel laureatesGiorgos SeferisandOdysseas Elytisare among the most important poets of the 20th century. Novel is also represented byAlexandros Papadiamantis,Emmanuel Rhoides,Ion Dragoumis,Nikos Kazantzakis,Penelope Delta,Stratis Myrivilis,Vassilis VassilikosandPetros Markaris,while notable playwrights include theCretan RenaissancepoetsGeorgios ChortatzisandVincenzos Cornaros,such asGregorios XenopoulosandIakovos Kambanellis.

Eleftherios Venizeloswas the leading political figure of 20th century Greece.

Notable cinema or theatre actors includeMarika Kotopouli,Melina Mercouri,Ellie Lambeti,Academy AwardwinnerKatina Paxinou,Alexis Minotis,Dimitris Horn,Thanasis Veggos,Manos KatrakisandIrene Papas.Alekos Sakellarios,Karolos Koun,Vasilis Georgiadis,Kostas Gavras,Michael Cacoyannis,Giannis Dalianidis,Nikos KoundourosandTheo Angelopoulosare among the most important directors.

Among the most significant modern-era architects areStamatios Kleanthis,Lysandros Kaftanzoglou,Anastasios Metaxas,Panagis Kalkos,Anastasios Orlandos,the naturalized GreekErnst Ziller,Dimitris Pikionisand urban plannersStamatis VoulgarisandGeorge Candilis.

Science

See also:Ancient Greek philosophy,Greek mathematics,Ancient Greek medicine,Byzantine science,Greek scholars in the Renaissance,andList of Greek inventions and discoveries

Aristarchus of Samoswas the first known individual to propose aheliocentric system,in the 3rd century BC.

The Greeks of the Classical and Hellenistic eras made seminal contributions to science and philosophy, laying the foundations of several western scientific traditions, such asastronomy,geography,historiography,mathematics,medicine,philosophyandpolitical science.The scholarly tradition of the Greek academies was maintained during Roman times with several academic institutions inConstantinople,Antioch,Alexandriaand other centers of Greek learning, while Byzantine science was essentially a continuation of classical science.Greeks have a long tradition of valuing and investing inpaideia(education).Paideiawas one of the highest societal values in the Greek and Hellenistic world while the first European institution described as a university was founded in 5th century Constantinople and operated in various incarnations until thecity's fallto the Ottomans in 1453.TheUniversity of Constantinoplewas Christian Europe's first secular institution of higher learning since no theological subjects were taught,and considering the original meaning of the world university as a corporation of students, the world's first university as well.

As of 2007, Greece had the eighth highest percentage of tertiary enrollment in the world (with the percentages for female students being higher than for male) while Greeks of the Diaspora are equally active in the field of education.Hundreds of thousands of Greek students attend western universities every year while the faculty lists of leading Western universities contain a striking number of Greek names.Notable Greek scientists of modern times include: physicianGeorgios Papanicolaou(pioneer incytopathology,inventor of thePap test); mathematicianConstantin Carathéodory(acclaimed contributor to real and complex analysis and the calculus of variations); archaeologistsManolis Andronikos(unearthed the tomb ofPhilip II),Valerios Stais(recognised theAntikythera mechanism),Spyridon Marinatos(specialised inMycenaeansites) andIoannis Svoronos;chemistsLeonidas Zervas(ofBergmann-Zervas synthesisandZ-groupdiscovery fame),K. C. Nicolaou(first total synthesis oftaxol) andPanayotis Katsoyannis(first chemical synthesis ofinsulin); computer scientistsMichael DertouzosandNicholas Negroponte(known for their early work with theWorld Wide Web),John Argyris(co-creator of theFEM),Joseph Sifakis(2007Turing Award),Christos Papadimitriou(2002Knuth Prize) andMihalis Yannakakis(2005Knuth Prize); physicist-mathematicianDemetrios Christodoulou(renowned for work onMinkowski spacetime) and physicistsAchilles Papapetrou(known for solutions ofgeneral relativity),Dimitri Nanopoulos(extensive work on particle physics and cosmology), andJohn Iliopoulos(2007Dirac Prizefor work on thecharm quark); astronomerEugenios Antoniadis;biologistFotis Kafatos(contributor tocDNAcloning technology); botanistTheodoros Orphanides;economistXenophon Zolotas(held various senior posts in international organisations such as theIMF); IndologistDimitrios Galanos;linguistYiannis Psycharis(promoter ofDemotic Greek); historiansConstantine Paparrigopoulos(founder of modern Greek historiography) andHelene Glykatzi Ahrweiler(excelled inByzantine studies); and political scientistsNicos Poulantzas(a leadingStructural Marxist) andCornelius Castoriadis(philosopher of history and ontologist, social critic, economist, psychoanalyst).

Significant engineers and automobile designers includeNikolas Tombazis,Alec IssigonisandAndreas Zapatinas.

Symbols

See also:Flag of Greece

The national flag of Greece is commonly used as a symbol for Greeks worldwide.

The flag of theGreek Orthodox Churchis based on the coat of arms of thePalaiologoi,the last dynasty of theByzantine Empire.

The most widely used symbol is theflag of Greece,which features nine equal horizontal stripes of blue alternating with white representing the nine syllables of the Greek national mottoEleftheria i Thanatos(Freedom or Death), which was the motto of theGreek War of Independence.The blue square in the upper hoist-side corner bears a white cross, which representsGreek Orthodoxy.The Greek flag is widely used by theGreek Cypriots,althoughCyprushas officially adopted a neutral flag to ease ethnic tensions with theTurkish Cypriotminority (seeflag of Cyprus).

The pre-1978 (and first) flag of Greece, which features aGreek cross(crux immissa quadrata) on a blue background, is widely used as an alternative to the official flag, and they are often flown together. Thenational emblem of Greecefeatures a blueescutcheonwith a white cross surrounded by two laurel branches. A common design involves the current flag of Greece and the pre-1978 flag of Greece with crossed flagpoles and the national emblem placed in front.

Another highly recognizable and popular Greek symbol is thedouble-headed eagle,the imperial emblem of the last dynasty of the Eastern Roman Empire and a common symbol inAsia Minorand, later,Eastern Europe.It is not part of the modern Greek flag or coat-of-arms, although it is officially the insignia of theGreek Armyand the flag of theChurch of Greece.It had been incorporated in the Greek coat of arms between 1925 and 1926.

Politics

See also:Politics in Greece

Classical Athensis considered the birthplace ofDemocracy.The term appeared in the 5th century BC to denote the political systems then existing inGreek city-states,notably Athens, to mean "rule of the people", in contrast toaristocracy(ἀριστοκρατία,aristokratía), meaning "rule by an excellent elite", and tooligarchy.While theoretically these definitions are in opposition, in practice the distinction has been blurred historically.Led byCleisthenes,Athenians established what is generally held as the first democracy in 508–507 BC,which took gradually the form of adirect democracy.The democratic form of government declined during the Hellenistic and Roman eras, only to be revived as an interest in Western Europe during theearly modern period.

The European enlightenment and the democratic, liberal and nationalistic ideas of theFrench Revolutionwas a crucial factor to the outbreak of theGreek War of Independenceand the establishment of the modern Greek state.

Notable modern Greek politicians includeIoannis Kapodistrias,founder of theFirst Hellenic Republic,reformistCharilaos Trikoupis,Eleftherios Venizelos,who marked the shape of modern Greece, social democratsGeorgios PapandreouandAlexandros Papanastasiou,Konstantinos Karamanlis,founder of theThird Hellenic Republic,and socialistAndreas Papandreou.

Surnames and personal names

See also:Greek nameandAncient Greek personal names

Greek surnames began to appear in the 9th and 10th century, at first among ruling families, eventually supplanting the ancient tradition of using the father's name as disambiguator.Nevertheless, Greek surnames are most commonly patronymics,such those ending in the suffix-opoulosor-ides,while others derive from trade professions, physical characteristics, or a location such as a town, village, or monastery.Commonly, Greek male surnames end in -s, which is the common ending for Greek masculineproper nounsin thenominative case.Occasionally (especially in Cyprus), some surnames end in-ou,indicating thegenitive caseof a patronymic name.Many surnames end in suffixes that are associated with a particular region, such as-akis(Crete),-easor-akos(Mani Peninsula),-atos(island ofCephalonia),-ellis(island ofLesbos) and so forth.In addition to a Greek origin, some surnames have Turkish or Latin/Italian origin, especially among Greeks fromAsia Minorand theIonian Islands,respectively.Female surnames end in a vowel and are usually the genitive form of the corresponding males surname, although this usage is not followed in the diaspora, where the male version of the surname is generally used.

With respect to personal names, the two main influences are Christianity and classical Hellenism; ancient Greek nomenclatures were never forgotten but have become more widely bestowed from the 18th century onwards.As in antiquity, children are customarily named after their grandparents, with the first born male child named after the paternal grandfather, the second male child after the maternal grandfather, and similarly for female children.Personal names are often familiarized by a diminutive suffix, such as-akisfor male names and-itsaor-oulafor female names.Greeks generally do not use middle names, instead using the genitive of the father's first name as a middle name. This usage has been passed on to theRussiansand otherEast Slavs(otchestvo).

Sea: exploring and commerce

Main article:Greek shipping

Aristotle Onassis,the best-known Greek shipping magnate worldwide

The traditional Greek homelands have been the Greek peninsula and the Aegean Sea,Southern Italy(the so called "Magna Graecia"), theBlack Sea,theIonian coastsofAsia Minorand the islands ofCyprusandSicily.In Plato'sPhaidon,Socrates remarks, "we (Greeks) live around a sea like frogs around a pond" when describing to his friends the Greek cities of the Aegean.This image is attested by the map of the Old Greek Diaspora, which corresponded to the Greek world until the creation of the Greek state in 1832. Theseaand trade were natural outlets for Greeks since the Greek peninsula is mostly rocky and does not offer good prospects for agriculture.

Notable Greek seafarers include people such asPytheas of Massaliawho sailed to Great Britain,Euthymeneswho sailed to Africa,Scylax of Caryandawho sailed to India, thenavarchof Alexander the GreatNearchus,Megasthenes,explorer of India, later the 6th century merchant and monkCosmas Indicopleustes(Cosmas who sailed to India), and the explorer of the Northwestern Passage Ioannis Fokas also known asJuan de Fuca.In later times, the Byzantine Greeks plied the sea-lanes of the Mediterranean and controlled trade until an embargo imposed by theByzantine emperoron trade with theCaliphateopened the door for the later Italian pre-eminence in trade.Panayotis Potagoswas another explorer of modern times who was the first to reach Mbomu andUele Riverfrom the north.

The Greek shipping tradition recovered during the late Ottoman rule (especially after theTreaty of Küçük Kaynarcaand during theNapoleonic Wars), when a substantial merchant middle class developed, which played an important part in the Greek War of Independence.Today, Greek shipping continues to prosper to the extent that Greece has one of the largest merchant fleets in the world, while many more ships under Greek ownership flyflags of convenience.The most notable shippingmagnateof the 20th century wasAristotle Onassis,others beingYiannis Latsis,Stavros G. Livanos,andStavros Niarchos.

Genetics

Further information:Mycenaean Greece § Genetic and anthropometric studies

See also:Genetic history of EuropeandRoopkund § Human skeletons

Admixture analysis ofautosomalSNPsof the Balkan region in a global context on the resolution level of 7 assumed ancestral populations: African (brown), South/West European (light blue), Asian (yellow), Middle Eastern (orange), South Asian (green), North/East European (dark blue) and Caucasian/Anatolian component (beige).

Factor correspondence analysis comparing different individuals from European ancestry groups

In theirarchaeogeneticstudy, Lazaridis et al. (2017) found that Minoans and Mycenaean Greeks were genetically highly similar, but not identical; modern Greeks resembled the Mycenaeans, but with some additional dilution of the early Neolithic ancestry. The results of the study support the idea of genetic continuity between these civilizations and modern Greeks, but not isolation in the history of populations of the Aegean, before and after the time of its earliest civilizations. Furthermore, proposed migrations byEgyptianorPhoeniciancolonists was not discernible in their data, thus "rejecting the hypothesis that the cultures of the Aegean were seeded by migrants from the old civilizations of these regions." TheF_STbetween the sampled Bronze Age populations and present-day West Eurasians was estimated, finding that Mycenaean Greeks and Minoans were least differentiated from the populations of modern Greece, Cyprus, Albania, and Italy.In a subsequent study, Lazaridis et al. (2022) concluded that around ~58.4–65.8% of the ancestry of the Mycenaeans came fromAnatolian Neolithic Farmers (ANF),while the remainder mainly came from ancient populations related to theCaucasus Hunter-Gatherers (CHG)(~20.1–22.7%) and thePre-Pottery Neolithic (PPN)culture in the Levant (~7–14%). The Mycenaeans had also inherited ~3.3–5.5% ancestry from a source related to theEastern European Hunter-Gatherers (EHG),introduced via a proximal source related to the inhabitants of the Eurasian steppe who are hypothesized to be theProto-Indo-Europeans,and ~0.9–2.3% from theIron Gates Hunter-Gatherersin the Balkans. Mycenaean elites were genetically the same as Mycenaean commoners in terms of their steppe ancestry, while some Mycenaeans lacked it altogether.

A genetic study by Clemente et al. (2021) found that in the Early Bronze Age, the populations of the Minoan,Helladic,andCycladiccivilizations in the Aegean, were genetically homogeneous. In contrast, the Aegean population during the Middle Bronze Age was more differentiated; probably due to gene flow from a Yamnaya-related population from thePontic–Caspian steppe.This is corroborated by sequenced genomes of Middle Bronze Age individuals from northern Greece, who had a much higher proportion of steppe-related ancestry; the timing of this gene flow was estimated at ~2,300 BCE, and is consistent with the dominant linguistic theories explaining the emergence of the Proto-Greek language. Present-day Greeks share ~90% of their ancestry with them, suggesting continuity between the two time periods. In the case of Mycenaean Greeks however, their steppe-related ancestry was diluted. The ancestry of the Mycenaeans could be explained via a 2-way admixture model of such MBA individuals in northern Greece, and either an EBA Aegean or MBA Minoan population; the difference between the two time periods could be explained by the general decline of the Mycenaean civilization.

Genetic studies using multipleautosomal,Y-DNA,andmtDNAmarkers, show that Greeks share similar backgrounds as the rest of the Europeans and especially Southern Europeans (Italiansand Balkan populations such asAlbanians,Slavic MacedoniansandRomanians). A study in 2008 showed that Greeks are genetically closest to Italians and Romaniansand another 2008 study showed that they are close to Italians, Albanians, Romanians andsouthern Balkan Slavssuch asSlavic MacedoniansandBulgarians.A 2003 study showed that Greeks cluster with other South European (mainly Italians) and North-European populations and are close to theBasques,and F_STdistances showed that they group with other European and Mediterranean populations,especially with Italians (−0.0001) and Tuscans (0.0005).A study in 2008 showed that Greek regional samples from the mainland cluster with those from the Balkans, principally Albanians whileCretanGreeks cluster with the central Mediterranean and Eastern Mediterranean samples.Studies using mitochondrial DNA gene markers (mtDNA) showed that Greeks group with other Mediterranean European populationsandprincipal component analysis(PCA) confirmed the low genetic distance between Greeks and Italiansand also revealed a cline of genes with highest frequencies in the Balkans and Southern Italy, spreading to lowest levels in Britain and the Basque country, whichCavalli-Sforza(1993) associates with "the Greek expansion, which reached its peak in historical times around 1000 and 500 BC but which certainly began earlier".Greeks also have a degree of Eastern-European-related ancestry which is observed in all Balkan peoples; it was acquired after 700 CE, coinciding with the arrival of Slavic-speaking peoples in the Balkans, but the proportion of this ancestry varies considerably between different studies and subregions.

Physical appearance

Greek warriors, details from paintedsarcophagusfound in Italy, 350–325 BC

A study from 2013 for prediction of hair and eye colour from DNA of the Greek people showed that the self-reported phenotype frequencies according to hair and eye colour categories was as follows: 119 individuals – hair colour, 11blond,45 dark blond/light brown, 49 dark brown, 3 brown red/auburn and 11 had black hair; eye colour, 13 withblue,15 with intermediate (green, heterochromia) and 91 had brown eye colour.

Another study from 2012 included 150 dental school students from theUniversity of Athens,and the results of the study showed that light hair colour (blonde/light ash brown) was predominant in 10.7% of the students. 36% had medium hair colour (light brown/medium darkest brown), 32% had darkest brown and 21% black (15.3 off black, 6% midnight black). In conclusion, the hair colour of young Greeks are mostly brown, ranging from light to dark brown with significant minorities having black and blonde hair. The same study also showed that the eye colour of the students was 14.6% blue/green, 28% medium (light brown) and 57.4% dark brown.

Timeline

The history of the Greek people is closely associated with the history of Greece, Cyprus, Southern Italy, Constantinople, Asia Minor and the Black Sea. During the Ottoman rule of Greece, a number of Greek enclaves around the Mediterranean were cut off from the core, notably in Southern Italy, the Caucasus, Syria and Egypt. By the early 20th century, over half of the overallGreek-speaking population was settled in Asia Minor (now Turkey), while later that century a huge wave of migration to the United States, Australia, Canada and elsewhere created the modern Greek diaspora.

Time	Events
c. 3rd millennium BC	Proto-Greektribes from around the Southern Balkans/Aegean are generally thought to have arrived in the Greek mainland.
16th century BC	Emergence of theAchaeansand formation of theMycenaean civilization,which produced the earliest textual evidence of the Greek language.
15th century BC	Knossosruled by a Mycenaean elite, who formed a hybrid Mycenaean-Minoan culture on Crete.
14th century BC	Mycenaean involvement inAsia Minorbegins.
11th century BC	The Mycenaean civilization ends with destructions of palaces and internal displacements. TheGreek Dark Agesbegin.Doriansmove into peninsular Greece.
9th century BC	Major colonization of Asia Minor andCyprusby the Greek tribes.
8th century BC	First major colonies established inSicilyand Southern Italy. The first Pan-Hellenic festival, the Olympic games, is held in 776 BC. The emergence of Pan-Hellenism marks theethnogenesisof the Greek nation.
6th century BC	Colonies established across the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea.
5th century BC	Defeat of the Persians and emergence of the Delian League inIonia,theBlack Seaand Aegean perimeter culminates inAthenian Empireand theClassical Age of Greece;ends with Athens defeat by Sparta at the close of thePeloponnesian War
4th century BC	Rise ofThebanpower and defeat of the Spartans;Rise of Macedon;Campaign ofAlexander the Great;Greek colonies established in newly founded cities ofPtolemaic Egyptand Asia.
2nd century BC	Conquest of Greece by theRoman Empire.Migrations of Greeks toRome.
4th century AD	Eastern Roman Empire.Migrations of Greeks throughout the Empire, mainly towardsConstantinople.
7th century	Slavicconquest of several parts of Greece, Greek migrations to Southern Italy, Roman emperors capture main Slavic bodies and transfer them toCappadocia.TheBosporusis re-populated byMacedonianandCypriot Greeks.
8th century	Roman dissolution of surviving Slavic settlements in Greece and full recovery of the Greek peninsula.
9th century	Retro-migrations of Greeks from all parts of the Empire (mainly from Southern Italy and Sicily) into parts of Greece that were depopulated by the Slavic Invasions (mainly western Peloponnesus and Thessaly).
13th century	Roman Empire dissolves, Constantinople taken by theFourth Crusade;becoming the capital of theLatin Empire.Liberated after a long struggle by the Empire of Nicaea, but fragments remain separated. Migrations between Asia Minor, Constantinople and mainland Greece take place.
15th century – 19th century	Conquest of Constantinople by theOttoman Empire.Greek diasporainto Europe begins. Ottoman settlements in Greece.PhanariotGreeks occupy high posts in Eastern European millets.

Time	Events
1830s	Creation of themodern Greek state.Emigration to theNew Worldbegins. Large-scale migrations from Constantinople and Asia Minor to Greece take place.
1913	European Ottoman lands partitioned; unorganized migrations of Greeks, Bulgarians and Turks towards their respective states.
1914–1923	Greek genocide;hundreds of thousands ofOttoman Greeksare estimated to have died during this period.
1919	Treaty of Neuilly;Greece and Bulgaria exchange populations, with some exceptions.
1922	The Destruction of Smyrna(modern-day Izmir) more than 40 thousand Greeks killed; end of significant Greek presence in Asia Minor.
1923	Treaty of Lausanne;Greece and Turkey agree to exchange populations with limited exceptions of the Greeks inConstantinople,Imbros,Tenedosand the Muslim minority ofWestern Thrace.1.5 million of Asia Minor and Pontic Greeks settle in Greece, and some 450 thousands of Muslims settle in Turkey.
1940s	Hundreds of thousands of Greeks die of starvation during theGreat Faminecaused by theAxis occupation.
1947	Communist Romaniabegins evictions of theGreek community;approx. 75,000 migrate.
1948	Greek Civil War:tens of thousands ofcommunistsand their families flee toEastern Blocnations. Thousands settle inTashkent.
1950s	Massive emigration of Greeks toWest Germany,theUnited States,Australia,Canada,and other countries.
1955	Istanbul pogromagainst the city's Greeks.Exodus of Greeksaccelerates; fewer than 2,000 remain today.
1958	LargeGreek communityinAlexandriafleesNasser'sArab socialistregime inEgypt.
1960s	Republic of Cypruscreated as asovereign stateunder Greek, Turkish and British protection. Economic emigration continues.
1974	Turkish invasion of Cyprus.Almost all Greeks living in northern Cyprus flee to the south or the United Kingdom.
1980s	Many civil war refugees allowed to return to Greece. Retro-migration of Greeks from Germany begins.
1990s	Dissolution of the Soviet Union.Approximately 340,000 ethnic Greeks migrate fromGeorgia,Armenia,southern Russia, and Albania to Greece.
early 2000s	Some statistics show the beginning of a trend of reverse migration of Greeks from the United States and Australia.
2010s	Over 200,000 people,particularly youngskilled individuals,emigrate to other EU states due to high unemployment (see alsoGreek government-debt crisis).

See also

• Antiochian Greeks
• Arvanites
• Cappadocian Greeks
• Caucasian Greeks
• Greek Cypriots
• Greek Diaspora
• Griko people
• Karamanlides
• Macedonians (Greeks)
• Maniots
• Greek Muslims
• Cretan Muslims
• Northern Epirotes
• Pelasgians
• Pontic Greeks
• Romaniotes
• Sarakatsani
• Tsakones
• Urums
• Lists
  • List of ancient Greeks
  • List of Greeks
  • List of Greek Americans

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• Voegelin, Eric; Moulakis, Athanasios (1997).History of Political Ideas: Hellenism, Rome, and Early Christianity.Columbia and London: University of Missouri Press.ISBN978-0-8262-1126-2.
• Vryonis, Speros (2005).The Mechanism of Catastrophe: The Turkish Pogrom of September 6–7, 1955, and the Destruction of the Greek Community of Istanbul.New York: Greekworks.com.ISBN978-0-9747660-3-4.
• Walsh, Susan; et al. (January 2013)."The HIrisPlex System for Simultaneous Prediction of Hair and Eye Colour from DNA".Forensic Science International: Genetics.7(1): 98–115.doi:10.1016/j.fsigen.2012.07.005.PMID22917817.Archivedfrom the original on 3 February 2017.Retrieved17 May2016.
• Wickham, Chris (2005).Framing the Early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean 400-800.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-926449-0.
• Withey, Lynne (1989) [1987].Voyages of Discovery: Captain Cook and the Exploration of the Pacific.Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-06564-2.
• Winford, Donald (2003).An Introduction to Contact Linguistics.Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.ISBN978-0-631-21251-5.
• Winstedt, Eric Otto (1909).The Christian Topography of Cosmas Indicopleustes.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Wood, Michael (2001) [1997].In the Footsteps of Alexander The Great: A Journey from Greece to Asia.Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-23192-4.
• Yotopoulos-Marangopoulos, Alice (2001)."Non-governmental Organizations and Human Rights in Today's World".In Sicilianos, Linos-Alexandre (ed.).The Marangopoulos Foundation for Human Rights: Twenty Years of Activity.Athens and Komotini: Ant. N. Sakkoulas Publishers. pp. 21–38.ISBN978-90-411-1672-7.
• Zoch, Paul (2000).Ancient Rome: An Introductory History.Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.ISBN978-0-8061-3287-7.
• Zuwiyya, David (2011).A Companion to Alexander Literature in the Middle Ages.Leiden and Boston: BRILL.ISBN978-90-04-18345-2.

Further reading

• Asatryan, G.S.; Arakelova, Viktoriia (2002).The Ethnic Minorities of Armenia.Yerevan: Caucasian Centre for Iranian Studies.ISBN978-99930-69-21-8.
• Beaton, Roderick (2021).The Greeks: a global history.New York: Basic Books.ISBN978-1-5416-1829-9.OCLC1237348138.
• Clackson, James (1995).The Linguistic Relationship Between Armenian and Greek.Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.ISBN978-0-631-19197-1.Archivedfrom the original on 26 March 2023.Retrieved21 May2016.
• Kenyon, Sherrilyn (2005).The Writer's Digest Character Naming Sourcebook.Cincinnati, OH: Writer's Digest Books.ISBN978-1-58297-295-4.
• Malatras, Christos (2011)."The Making of an Ethnic Group: The Romaioi in 12th–13th Century".In K. A. Dimadis (ed.).Ταυτότητες στον ελληνικό κόσμο (από το 1204 έως σήμερα. Δ΄ Ευρωπαϊκό Συνέδριο Νεοελληνικών Σπουδών, Γρανάδα, 9–12 Σεπτεμβρίου 2010. Πρακτικά.Vol. 3. Athens: European Association of Modern Greek Studies. pp. 419–430.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2021.Retrieved28 December2017.
• Mango, Cyril A.(2002).The Oxford History of Byzantium.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-814098-6.
• Renfrew, Colin (2003)."Time Depth, Convergence Theory, and Innovation in Proto-Indo-European: 'Old Europe' as a PIE Linguistic Area".In Bammesberger, Alfred; Vennemann, Theo (eds.).Languages in Prehistoric Europe.Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter GmBH. pp. 17–48.ISBN978-3-8253-1449-1.Archivedfrom the original on 26 March 2023.Retrieved17 May2020.

Mycenaean Greeks

• Dickinson, Oliver (1977).The Origins of Mycenaean Civilization.Götenberg: Paul Aströms Förlag.
• Dickinson, Oliver (December 1999). "Invasion, Migration and the Shaft Graves".Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies.43(1): 97–107.doi:10.1111/j.2041-5370.1999.tb00480.x.
• Dickinson, Oliver (2006).The Aegean from Bronze Age to Iron Age: Continuity and Change between the Twelfth and Eighth Centuries BC.New York, NY: Routledge.ISBN978-0-203-96836-9.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved4 May2016.
• Forsén, Jeannette (1992).The Twilight of the Early Helladics.Partille, Sweden: Paul Aströms Förlag.ISBN978-91-7081-031-2.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved16 May2016.
• Mylonas, George Emmanuel (1966).Mycenae and the Mycenaean Age.Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.ISBN9780691035239.
• Tandy, David W. (2001).Prehistory and History: Ethnicity, Class and Political Economy.Montréal, Québec, Canada: Black Rose Books.ISBN978-1-55164-188-1.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved4 May2016.

Classical Greeks

• Burkert, Walter (1987) [1985].Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical.Oxford and Malden: Blackwell Publishing.ISBN978-1-118-72499-6.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved4 May2016.
• Cartledge, Paul(2011).Ancient Greece: A Very Short Introduction.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-960134-9.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved4 May2016.
• Cartledge, Paul (2002).The Greeks: A Portrait of Self and Others.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-280388-7.
• Freeman, Charles (2014).Egypt, Greece and Rome: Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean(3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-965192-4.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved31 August2017.
• Finkelberg, Margalit (2006).Greeks and Pre-Greeks: Aegean Prehistory and Greek Heroic Tradition.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-139-44836-9.
• Hall, Jonathan M. (2002).Hellenicity: Between Ethnicity and Culture.Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.ISBN978-0-226-31329-0.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved4 May2016.
• Hall, Jonathan M. (2000).Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity.Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-78999-8.
• MacKendrick, Paul Lachlan (1981).The Greek Stones Speak: The Story of Archaeology in Greek Lands.New York and London: W.W. Norton and Company.ISBN978-0-393-30111-3.
• Malkin, Irad (1998).The Returns of Odysseus: Colonization and Ethnicity.Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-21185-8.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved16 May2016.
• Walbank, Frank W. (1985).Selected Papers: Studies in Greek and Roman History and Historiography.Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-30752-9.

Hellenistic Greeks

• Chamoux, François (2002).Hellenistic Civilization.Oxford:Blackwell Publishing.ISBN978-0-631-22241-5.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved16 May2016.
• Bilde, P.; Engberg-Pedersen, T.; Hannestad, L.; Zahle, J., eds. (1997).Conventional Values of the Hellenistic Greeks (Studies in Hellenistic Civilization 8).Aarhus: Aarhus University Press.ISBN978-87-7288-555-1.

Byzantine Greeks

• Ahrweiler, Hélène;Laiou, Angeliki E.(1998).Studies on the Internal Diaspora of the Byzantine Empire.Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection.ISBN978-0-88402-247-3.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved4 May2016.
• Ahrweiler, Hélène (1975).L'idéologie politique de l'Empire byzantin.Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved4 May2016.
• Harris, Jonathan (2007).Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium (Hambledon Continuum).London: Hambledon & London.ISBN978-1-84725-179-4.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved4 May2016.
• Kazhdan, Alexander Petrovich, ed. (1991).The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium.New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-504652-6.
• Runciman, Steven(1966).Byzantine Civilisation.London:Edward Arnold.ISBN978-1-56619-574-4.
• Toynbee, Arnold J. (1973).Constantine Porphyrogenitus and His World.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-215253-4.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved4 May2016.

Ottoman Greeks

• Davis, Jack E.; Zarinebaf, Fariba; Bennet, John (2005).A Historical and Economic Geography of Ottoman Greece: The Southwestern Morea in the 18th Century.Princeton, NJ: American School of Classical Studies at Athens.ISBN978-0-87661-534-8.
• Davis, Jack E.; Davies, Siriol (2007).Between Venice and Istanbul: Colonial Landscapes in Early Modern Greece.Princeton, NJ: American School of Classical Studies at Athens.ISBN978-0-87661-540-9.
• Gondicas, Dimitri; Issawi, Charles Philip (1999).Ottoman Greeks in the Age of Nationalism: Politics, Economy, and Society in the Nineteenth Century.Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press.ISBN978-0-87850-096-3.
• Lampe, John R.; Jackson, Marvin R. (1982).Balkan Economic History, 1550–1950: From Imperial Borderlands to Developing Nations.Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.ISBN978-0-253-30368-4.

Modern Greeks

• Frary, Lucien J. (2015).Russia and the Making of Modern Greek Identity, 1821-1844.Oxford University Press. p. 296.ISBN978-0-19-873377-5.
• Herzfeld, Michael (1982).Ours Once More: Folklore, Ideology, and the Making of Modern Greece.Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.ISBN978-0-292-76018-9.
• Holden, David (1972).Greece without Columns: The Making of the Modern Greeks.London: Faber and Faber.ISBN978-0-397-00779-0.
• Karakasidou, Anastasia N. (1997).Fields of Wheat, Hills of Blood: Passages to Nationhood in Greek Macedonia, 1870–1990.Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.ISBN978-0-226-42494-1.
• Mackridge, Peter; Yannakakis, Eleni (1997).Ourselves and Others: The Development of a Greek Macedonian Cultural Identity since 1912.Oxford, United Kingdom: Berg Publishers.ISBN978-1-85973-138-3.
• Mazower, Mark, ed. (2000).After The War Was Over: Reconstructing the Family, Nation and State in Greece, 1943–1960.Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0-691-05842-9.
• Toynbee, Arnold Joseph (1981).The Greeks and Their Heritages.Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-215256-5.
• Trudgill, Peter (2002).Sociolinguistic Variation and Change.Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press.ISBN978-0-7486-1515-5.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved12 May2016.
• Zacharia, Katerina (2008).Hellenisms: Culture, Identity, and Ethnicity from Antiquity to Modernity.Surrey, United Kingdom: Ashgate Publishing.ISBN978-0-7546-6525-0.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved12 May2016.

External links

Diaspora

• World Council of Hellenes Abroad (SAE),Umbrella Diaspora Organization

Religious

• Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople
• Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria
• Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch
• Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem
• Church of Cyprus
• Church of Greece

Academic

• Transnational Communities Programme at the University of OxfordArchived16 June 2009 at theWayback Machine,includes papers on theGreek Diaspora
• Greeks on Greekness:The Construction and Uses of the Greek Past among Greeks under the Roman Empire.
• TheModern Greek Studies Associationis a scholarly organization for modern Greek studies inNorth America,which publishes theJournal of Modern Greek Studies.
• Got Greek? Next Generation National Research Study
• Waterloo Institute for Hellenistic Studies

Trade organizations

• Hellenic Canadian Board of Trade
• Hellenic Canadian Lawyers Association
• Hellenic Canadian Congress of British Columbia
• Hellenic-American Chamber of Commerce
• Hellenic-Argentine Chamber of Industry and Commerce (C.I.C.H.A.)

Charitable organizations

• AHEPA–American Hellenic Educational Progressive Association
• Hellenic Heritage Foundation
• Hellenic Home for the Aged
• Hellenic Hope CenterArchived9 July 2013 at theWayback Machine
• Hellenic Scholarships