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Greek colonisation

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Greek territories and colonies during the Archaic period (750–550 BC)

Greek colonisationrefers to the expansion ofArchaic Greeks,particularly during the8th–6th centuries BC,across theMediterranean Seaand theBlack Sea.

The Archaic expansion differed from theIron Age migrationsof theGreek Dark Ages,in that it consisted of organised direction (seeoikistes) away from the originatingmetropolisrather than the simplistic movement of tribes, which characterised the aforementioned earlier migrations. Many colonies, orapoikia(Greek:ἀποικία,transl.  "home away from home"), that were founded during this period eventually evolved into strongGreek city-states,functioning independently of theirmetropolis.

Motives[edit]

Illustration of an Archaic Greek ship on pottery,c. 520 BC

The reasons for the Greeks to establishcolonieswere strong economic growth with the consequentoverpopulationof the motherland,[1]and that the land of these Greek city states could not support a large city. The areas that the Greeks would try to colonise were hospitable and fertile.[2]

Characteristics[edit]

TheArgonautica,the myth thought to pertain to the bold nautical expeditions of this period

The founding of the colonies was consistently an organised enterprise by themetropolis(mother city), although in many cases it collaborated with other cities. The place to be colonised was selected in advance with the goal of offering business advantages, but also security from raiders. In order to create a feeling of security and confidence in the new colony, the choice of place was decided according to its usefulness.[3]The mission always included a leader nominated by the colonists. In the new cities, the colonists parceled out the land, including farms. The system of governance usually took a form similar to that of the metropolis.

Greek colonies were often established along coastlines, especially during the period of colonisation between the 8th and 6th centuries BC. Many Greek colonies were strategically positioned near coastlines to facilitate trade, communication, and access to maritime resources. These colonies played a crucial role in expanding Greek culture, trade networks, and influence throughout theMediterraneanandBlack Searegions. While some colonies were established inland for various reasons, coastal locations were generally more common due to the Greeks' strong connection to the sea.

History[edit]

Further information:Colonies in antiquity

The Greeks started colonising around the beginning of the 8th century BC when theEuboeansfoundedPithecusaein Southern Italy andOlynthusinChalcidice,Greece. Subsequently, they founded the colonies ofCumae,Zancle,RhegiumandNaxos.[3]

At the end of the 8th century, Euboea fell into decline with the outbreak of theLelantine Warbut colonial foundation continued by other Greeks such as the Ionians and Corinthians.[2]The Ionians started their first colonies around the 7th century in Southern Italy,Thraceand on theBlack Sea.TherafoundedCyreneandAndros,andSamosfounded multiple colonies in the Northern Aegean.[4]

Locations[edit]

Macedonia and Thrace[edit]

Ruins ofAbdera,a classical city ofThrace,in present-dayGreece

Numerous colonies were founded inNorthern Greece,chiefly in the region ofChalcidicebut also in the region ofThrace.

Chalcidice was settled by Euboeans, chiefly from Chalcis, who lent their name to these colonies. The most important settlements of the Euboeans in Chalcidice wereOlynthos(which was settled in collaboration with theAthenians),Torone,Mende,Sermyle,AphytisandCleonaein the peninsula ofAthos.Other important colonies in Chalcidice wereAcanthus,founded by colonists fromAndros[5]andPotidaea,a colony ofCorinth.Thasianswith the help of the AthenianCallistratus of Aphidnaefounded the city ofDatus. During thePeloponnesian War,the Athenians with theHagnon, son of Nikiasfounded the city of Ennea Hodoi (Ἐννέα ὁδοὶ), meaning nine roads, at the current location of the "Hill 133" north ofAmphipolisinSerres.[6]

Numerous other colonies were founded in the region of Thrace by the Ionians from the coast ofAsia Minor.Important colonies wereMaroneia,andAbdera.TheMilesiansalso foundedAbydosandCardiaon theHellespontandRhaedestusinPropontis.TheSamianscolonised the island ofSamothrace,becoming the source of its name. Finally, theParianscolonisedThasosunder the leadership of theoecistand father of the poetArchilochus,Telesicles.

In 340 BC, whileAlexander the Greatwas regent of Macedon, he founded the city ofAlexandropolis Maedicaafter defeating a local Thracian tribe.[7]

Magna Graecia: mainland Italy and Sicily[edit]

Main article:Magna Graecia
See also:ItaliotesandSiceliotes
Ancient Greek colonies and their dialect groupings inMagna Graecia
TheTemple of Concordia,Valle dei Templi,in present-dayItaly
Riace Bronzesexhibited in theNational Museum of Magna GraeciainReggio Calabria
Apulian potteryexhibited in theArchaeological Museum of Milan,380-370 BC
A Syracusantetradrachm(c. 415–405 BC), sportingArethusaand aquadriga

Magna Graecia[8]was the name given by theRomansto the coastal areas ofSouthern Italyin the present-dayItalian regionsofCalabria,Apulia,Basilicata,CampaniaandSicilywhich were extensively settled by Greeks.[9]

Greeks began to settle in southern Italy in the 8th century BC.[10]

The first great migratory wave directed towards the western Mediterranean was that of theEuboeansaimed at the Gulf of Naples who, afterPithecusae(on the isle ofIschia), the oldest Greek settlement in Italy, foundedCumaenearby, their first colony on the mainland, and then in the Strait of Messina,Zanclein Sicily, and nearby on the opposite coast,Rhegium.[11]

The second wave was of theAchaeanswho concentrated initially on the Ionian coast (Metapontion,Poseidonia,Sybaris,Kroton),[12][13]shortly before 720BC.[14]At an unknown date between the 8th and 6th centuries BC the Athenians, of Ionian lineage, foundedScylletium(near today'sCatanzaro).[15]

In Sicily the Euboeans later foundedNaxos,which became the base for the founding of the cities ofLeontini,TauromenionandCatania.They were accompanied by small numbers ofDoriansand Ionians; the Athenians had notably refused to take part in the colonisation.[16]The strongest of the Sicilian colonies wasSyracuse,an 8th-century BC colony of the Corinthians.

Refugees fromSpartafoundedTarantowhich evolved into one of the most powerful cities in the area.MegarafoundedMegara HyblaeaandSelinous;PhocaeafoundedElea;RhodesfoundedGelatogether with theCretansandLiparitogether withCnidus;theLocriansfoundedEpizephyrean Locris.[3]According to legend,Lagariawhich was betweenThuriiand the riverSinni Riverwas founded byPhocians.

Evidence of frequent contact between the Greek settlers and the indigenous peoples comes fromTimpone Della Mottawhich shows influence of Greek style inOneotroianpottery.[17]

Many cities in the region became in turnmetropoleisfor new colonies such as the Syracusans, who founded the city ofCamarinain the south of Sicily; or the Zancleans, who led the founding of the colony ofHimera.Likewise, Naxos, which founded many colonies whileSybarisfounded the colony ofPoseidonia.Gelafounded its own colony,Acragas.[18]

With colonisation,Greek culturewas exported to Italy with its dialects of theAncient Greek language,its religious rites, and its traditions of the independentpolis.An originalHellenic civilizationsoon developed, and later interacted with the nativeItaliccivilisations. One of the most important cultural transplants was theChalcidean/Cumaeanvariety of theGreek alphabetwhich was adopted by theEtruscans;theOld Italic alphabetsubsequently evolved into theLatin alphabet,which became the most widely used alphabet in the world.

City Year (BC) of foundation - by author[19]
Thucydides Eusebius Jerome Others
Cumae Κύμη - - 1050(?) -
Metapontum Μεταπόντιον - 773(?) - -
Zancle Ζάγκλη - 757/756 - 756
Naxos Νάξος 734 735 741 -
Syracuse Συρακκούσες 733 733 738/737 733
Lentini Λεοντῖνοι 728 - - -
Catania Κατάνη 728 733 737/736 -
Megara Μέγαρα 727 - - -
Reggio Ερυθρά / Ρήγιον - - - c. 730
Milazzo Μύλαι - 715(?) 716(?) -
Sybaris Σύβαρις - 708-707 709-708 721/720
Crotone Κρότων - 709 - 709/708
Taranto Τάρας - - 706 -
Locri Λοκροί Ἐπιζεφύριοι - 673 679 c. 700
Poseidonia Ποσειδωνία - - - 700(?)
Gela Γέλα 688 688 691/690 -
Caulonia Καυλωνία - - - c. 675
Acre 663 - - -
Casmene Κασμέναι 643 - - -
Selinunte Σελινούς 627 757(?) 650/649 650
Himera Ιμέρα - - - 648
Lipari Μελιγουνίς - 627(?) 629(?) 580/576
Camarina Καμάρινα 598 598/597 601/600 598/596
Agrigento Ακράγας 580 - - 580/576

Ionian Sea, Adriatic Sea, and Illyria[edit]

Greek Colonies on the Adriatic coast

The region of theIonian Seaand that ofIllyriawere colonised strictly byCorinth.The Corinthians founded important overseas colonies on the sea lanes to Southern Italy and the west which succeeded in making them the foremost emporia of the western side of the Mediterranean. Important colonies of Corinth includedLeucada,Astacus,Anactoreum,Actium,Ambracia,andCorcyra- all in modern-day western Greece.

TheSyracusansalso founded important colonies inIllyria,which evolved into important cities,ApolloniaandEpidamnus,in present-day Albania. The fact that about the 6th century BC the citizens of Epidamnus constructed a Doric-style treasury atOlympiaconfirms that the city was among the richest of theAncient Greek world.An ancient account describes Epidamnos as 'a great power and very populated' city.[20]Nymphaeumwas another Greek colony in Illyria.[21]TheAbantesofEuboeafounded the city ofThronion at the Illyria.[22]

Further west, colonists from the Greek city-stateParosin 385 BC founded the colony Pharos on the island of Hvar in the Adriatic, on the site of the present-dayStari Gradin Croatia.[4]In the early 4th century BC the Greek tyrant of SyracusDionysius Ifounded the colony Issa on the modern-day island ofVis,and traders from Issa then went on to foundemporiain Tragurion (Trogir) and Epetion (Stobreč) on the Illyrian mainland in 3rd century BC.

In 1877 a Greek inscription was discovered inLumbardaon the eastern tip of the island ofKorčulain modern-dayCroatiawhich talks about the founding of another Greek settlement there in the 3rd or 4th century BC, by colonists from Issa. The artifact is known asLumbarda Psephisma.[23]Evidence of coinage on the Illyrian coast used for trade between the Illyrians and the Greeks can be dated to around the 4th century BC and minted in Adriatic colonies such asIssaand Pharos.[24]

Black Sea and Propontis[edit]

See also:Greeks in pre-Roman Crimea,Pontic Greeks,andGreek colonies in Thrace and Dacia
Greek colonies along theBlack Sea,marked by their corresponding centuries

Although the Greeks had at one point called the Black Sea shore "inhospitable", according to ancient sources they eventually created 70 to 90 colonies.[25]The colonization of the Black Sea was led by the Megarans and some of the Ionian cities such asMiletus,PhocaeaandTeos.The majority of colonies in the region of the Black Sea andPropontiswere founded in the 7th century BC.

The first phase (2nd half of the 7th c. BC)[edit]

In the area of Propontis, the Megarans founded the cities ofAstacus in Bithynia,ChalcedoniaandByzantiumwhich occupied a privileged position. Miletus foundedCyzicusand the PhocaeansLampsacus.[26]

On the western shore of the Black Sea the Megarans founded the cities ofSelymbriaand a little later,Nesebar.A little farther north in today'sRomaniathe Milesians founded the cities ofHistria,ArgameandApollonia.

In the south of the Black Sea the most important colony wasSinopewhich according to prevailing opinion was founded by Miletus some time around the middle of the 7th century BC.[26]Sinope was founded with a series of other colonies in the Pontic region:Trebizond,Cerasus,Cytorus,Cotyora,Cromne,Pteria,Tium,et al.

Further north from theDanube deltathe Greeks colonised the islet, probably then a peninsula, of Barythmenis (modernBerezan) which evolved into the colony ofBorysthenesin the next century.

The second phase (6th c. BC)[edit]

The most important colony founded on the southern shore of the Black Sea was a Megaran and Boeotian foundation:Heraclea Ponticain 560-550 BC.[27]

On the north shore of the Black Sea Miletus was the first to start withPontic OlbiaandPanticapaeum(modernKerch). In about 560 BC the Milesians foundedOdessain the region of modernUkraine.[26]On theCrimeanpeninsula (the Greeks then called it Tauric Chersonese or "Peninsula of the Bulls" ) they founded likewise the cities ofSympheropolis,NymphaeumandHermonassa.On theSea of Azov(Lake Maiotis to the ancients) they foundedTanais(in Rostov), Tyritace, Myrmeceum, Cecrine andPhanagoria,the last being a colony of theTeians.

On the eastern shore, which was known in ancient times asColchis,today inGeorgiaand the autonomous region ofAbkhazia,the Greeks founded the cities ofPhasisand Dioscouris. The latter was calledSebastopolisby the Romans and Byzantines and is known today asSukhumi.

Heraclea Pontica foundedCallatison the southern coast of Romania at the end of the 6th c. BC.[28]

Later Colonies[edit]

Only a few colonies were founded during the Greek Classical period which includedMesembria(modern Nessebar) by the Megareans in 493 BC.[29][30]Heraclea Pontica foundedChersonesus Tauricain Crimea at the end of the 5th or early 4th c. BC.

The ancient Greek settlement calledManitraof the 4th-3rd centuries BC near the town of Baherove in Crimea[31]was discovered in 2018.

Wider Mediterranean[edit]

Legendary Greek kingOdysseuson the island ofsirens;theOdysseytypifies the particulars of the age.

The Greek colonies expanded as far as theIberian PeninsulaandNorth Africa.

Africa[edit]

In North Africa, on the peninsula ofKyrenaika,colonists from Thera foundedKyrene,which evolved into a very powerful city in the region.[3]Other colonies in Kyrenaika later includedBarca,Euesperides(modernBenghazi),Taucheira,andApollonia.

By the middle of the 7th century, the lone Greek colony inEgypthad been founded,Naukratis.[32]ThepharaohPsammitecus Igave a trade concession to Milesian merchants for one establishment on the banks of theNile,founding a trading post which evolved into a prosperous city by the time of thePersian expedition to Egypt in 525 B.C.

2023 archaeological findings inThonis-Heracleionat Egypt, suggested that Greeks, who were already allowed to trade in the city, "had started to take root" there as early as during theTwenty-sixth Dynasty of Egyptand that likely Greek mercenaries were employed to defend the city.[33]

Similar to the emporion established in the Nile Delta it is possible there was a Greek trading colony established by the Euboians along the Syrian coast on the mouth of theOrontesriver at the siteAl-Minain the early 8th century BC. The Greek colony ofPosideionon the promontory Ras al-Bassit was colonised just to the south of the Orontes estuary later in the 7th century BC.[34]

Diodorus SiculusmentionsMeschela(Μεσχέλα), a city on the northern coast of Africa, founded by the Greeks after theTrojan War.[35][36]

Rest of the Mediterranean[edit]

See also:Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul

On the north side of the Mediterranean, the Phokaians foundedMassaliaon the coast ofGaul.Massalia became the base for a series of further foundations farther away in the region of Spain. Phokaia also foundedAlaliainCorsicaandOlbiainSardinia.The Phokaians arrived next on the coast of the Iberian peninsula. As related by Herodotus, a local king summoned the Phokaians to found a colony in the region and rendered meaningful aid in the fortification of the city. The Phokaians foundedEmpuriesin this region and later the even more distantHemeroskopeion.

List of Greek colonies before Alexander the Great (pre-336 BC)[edit]

ModernAlbania[edit]

AL1.NymphaeumAL2.EpidamnosAL3.ApolloniaAL4.AulonAL5.ChimaraAL6.BouthrotonAL7.OricumAL8.Thronion

ModernBulgaria[edit]

*Pseudo-Scymnuswrites that some say that the city of Bizone belongs to the barbarians, while others to be a Greek colony ofMesembria.

BUL1.MesembriaBUL2.OdessosBUL3.Apollonia/AntheiaBUL4.AgathopolisBUL5.KavarnaBUL6.PomorieBUL7.NaulochosBUL8.KrounoiBUL9.PistirosBUL10.AnchialosBUL11.Bizone* BUL12.DeveltosBUL13.Heraclea SinticaBUL14.Beroe

ModernCroatia[edit]

C1.SalonaC2.TragyrionC3.AspálathosC4.EpidaurusC5.IssaC6.DimosC7.PharosC8.Kórkyra MélainaC9.EpidaurumC10.NaronaC11.Lumbarda

ModernCyprus[edit]

CY1.ChytriCY2.KyreniaCY3.Golgi[37][38]

ModernEgypt[edit]

E1.Naucratis

ModernFrance[edit]

F1.AgdeF2.MassaliaF3.Tauroentium/Tauroeis[39]F4.OlbiaF5.NicaeaF6.MonoikosF7.AntipolisF8.AlaliaF9.RhodanousiaF10.AthenopolisF11. Pergantium[40][41]

ModernGeorgia/Abkhazia[edit]

* Abkhazia is recognised only by Russia and asmall number of other countries.

G1.BathysG2.TrigliteG3.PityusG4.DioscuriasG5.PhasisG6.Gyenos

ModernGreece[edit]

GR1.PotidaeaGR2.StageiraGR3.AcanthusGR4.MendeGR5.AmbraciaGR6.CorcyraGR7.MaroneiaGR8.KrinidesGR9.OlynthusGR10.AbderaGR11.ThermaGR12.ArethusaGR13.LeucasGR14.EionGR15.SaneGR16.AmphipolisGR17.ArgilusGR18.SaneGR19.AkanthosGR20.AstacusGR21.GalepsusGR22.OesymeGR23.PhagresGR24.DatusGR25.StrymeGR26.PistyrusGR27.RhaecelusGR28.DicaeaGR29.MethoniGR30.Heraclea in TrachisGR31.Heraclea in AcarnaniaGR32.AnactoriumGR33.SaleGR34.DrysGR35.ToroniGR36.AmorgosGR37.ActiumGR38.ScabalaGR39.PhilippiGR40.ColonidesGR41.OliarusGR42.PotidaeaGR43.TheraGR44.MyrcinusGR45.TarpheGR46.Sollium[42]

ModernItaly[edit]

I1.OlbiaI2.AdriaI3.AnconaI4.ParthenopeI5.CumaeI6.ProcidaI7.DicaearchiaI8.NeapolisI9.PoseidoniaI10.MetapontumI11.SybarisI12.ThuriiI13.TarasI14.SirisI15.CrotonaI16.GallipoliI17.EleaI18.MessinaI19.Kale AkteI20.SyracuseI21.DidymeI22.HycesiaI23.PhoenicusaI24.TherassíaI25.Lipara/MeligounisI26.Epizepherean LocrisI27.RhegiumI28.LentiniI29.SelinountasI30.Megara HyblaeaI31.NaxosI32.Tauromenium[43]I33.AcragasI34.HimeraI35.GelaI36.CataniaI37.Leontini[44]I38.EreikousaI39.EuonymosI40.KamarinaI41.MedmaI42.HipponionI43.Heraclea MinoaI44.CauloniaI45.TrotilonI46.PyxousI47.MylaeI48.LaüsI49.TerinaI50.RhegionI51.TindariI52.MacallaI53.TemesaI54.MetaurosI55.KrimisaI56.ChoneI57.SaturoI58.Heraclea Lucania,SirisI59.Scylletium* I60.AgathyrnumI61.AdranonI62.AkrillaiI63.CasmenaeI64.AkraiI65.EngyonI66.ThapsosI67.PithekoussaiI68.CastelmezzanoI69.LicataI70.OrtygiaI71.LagariaI72.Hydrus[45][46]I73.Mactorium[47][48]I74.Helorus[49]

ModernLibya[edit]

L1.BarceL2.CyreneL3.BalagraeL4.TaucheiraL5.PtolemaisL6.EuesperidesL7.AntipyrgusL8.ApolloniaL9.CinypsL10.Menelai Portus

ModernMontenegro[edit]

M1.Bouthoe

ModernNorth Macedonia[edit]

* Some historians believe that it was near the modernResen(North Macedonia) while others believe that it was near the modernVranje(Serbia).

MA1.Damastion* MA2.Heraclea Lyncestis

ModernPalestine(Gaza Strip)[edit]

ModernRomania[edit]

RO1.TomisRO2.Histria/IstrosRO3.AegyssusRO4.StratonisRO5.AxiopolisRO6.Kallatis

ModernRussia[edit]

RU1.TanaisRU2.KepoiRU3.PhanagoriaRU4.BataRU5.GorgippiaRU6.HermonassaRU7.KorokondameRU8.TaganrogRU9.TyrambaRU10. Patraeus RU11.Toricos

ModernSerbia[edit]

* Some historians believe that it was near the modernResen(North Macedonia) while others believe that it was near the modernVranje(Serbia).

SE1.Damastion*

ModernSpain[edit]

S1.Portus IllicitanusS2.Akra LeukeS3.AlonisS4.HemeroscopeumS5.ZakynthosS6.SalaurisS7.RhodeS8.EmporionS9.KalathousaS10.MainakeS11.Menestheus's LiminS12.KypselaS13.Helike

ModernSyria[edit]

SY1.Posidium

ModernTurkey[edit]

TR1.SelymbriaTR2.Heraclea PonticaTR3.CiusTR4.EphesusTR5.Dios HieronTR6.IasosTR7.MyndusTR8.SelgeTR9.PrieneTR10.HalicarnassusTR11.MiletusTR12.TrallesTR13.PhaselisTR14.AspendosTR15.SideTR16.SillyonTR17.ZephyrionTR18.KelenderisTR19.MallusTR20.AmosTR21.ByzantiumTR22.AmaseiaTR23.AmastrisTR24.AinosTR25.BergeTR26.PerinthosTR27.CardiaTR28.ChalcedonTR29.NicomediaTR30.AbydosTR31.SestosTR32.LampsacusTR33.PanormosTR34.CyzicusTR35.IlionTR36.SigeionTR37.SinopeTR38.TireboluTR39.AmisosTR40.TripolisTR41.CotyoraTR42.PolemonionTR43.PharnakiaTR44.KerasousTR45.TrapezousTR46.ThemiscyraTR47.Astacus in BithyniaTR48.AssosTR49.PitaneTR50.PhocaeaTR51.SmyrnaTR52.PergamonTR53.TeosTR55.ColophonTR56.PataraTR57.CanaeTR58.BargyliaTR59.MadytusTR60.ElaeusTR61.TieionTR62.Apamea Myrlea[52]TR63.KlazomenaiTR64.NotionTR65.ParionTR66.Heraion TeichosTR67.BisantheTR68.ErythraeTR69.PriapusTR70.AlopeconnesusTR71.LimnaeTR73.CrithoteTR74.PactyaTR75.PerinthusTR76.TiumTR77.TeichiussaTR78.TriopiumTR79.PlaciaTR80.ScylaceTR81.ArisbaTR82.ApolloniaTR83.Apollonia ad RhyndacumTR84.MyrinaTR85.PythopolisTR86.CytorusTR87.ArmeneTR88.KolonaiTR89.Paesus[53]TR90.ScepsisTR91.MyusTR92.MallusTR93.MopsusTR94.CaryandaTR95.AthenaeTR96.SyrnaTR97.CymeTR98.MarathesiumTR99.ChrysopolisTR100.NeonteichosTR101.ArtaceTR102.SemystraTR103.CobrysTR104.CypasisTR105.KydoniesTR106.CoryphasTR107.Heraclea (Aeolis)TR108.GargaraTR109.Lamponeia[54]TR110.ElaeaTR111.MariandynTR112.ClarosTR113.KnidosTR114.Prusias ad HypiumTR115.DardanusTR116.PygelaTR117.TemnosTR118.GryneiumTR119.AigaiTR120.RhoiteionTR121.CadremaTR122.Daminon TeichosTR123.Hydrela[55][56]TR124.AthymbraTR125.Carussa[57]TR126.Termera[58]TR127.Hamaxitus[59]

ModernUkraine[edit]

* According toHerodotus,Geloniwere originally Greeks who settle away from the coastal emporia among the Budini and their language evolved into half Greek and half Scythian.[60][61]Pavel Jozef Šafárikwrote that they might be Greeks among the Slavs and Fins (Μιξέλληνες - half Greeks half barbarians).[62]

U1.Borysthenes[63]U2.TyrasU3.OlbiaU4.Nikonion[64][65]U5.OdessaU6.PanticapaeumU7.NymphaionU8.TyritakeU9.TheodosiaU10.ChersonesusU11.CharaxU11.MyrmekionU12.KerkinitisU13.KimmerikonU14.Kalos LimenU15.YalitaU16.AkraU17.Manitra[31]U18.Gelonus*

Greek colonies of theMediterranean SeaandBlack Seaand their metropolitan cities depicted with red labels, whilePhoeniciancolonies are depicted with yellow labels

Notes[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^"Magna Grecia"(in Italian).Retrieved9 July2023.
  2. ^abDescœudres, Jean‐Paul (4 February 2013)."Greek colonization movement, 8th–6th centuries".The Encyclopedia of Global Human Migration.doi:10.1002/9781444351071.wbeghm260.
  3. ^abcdNikolaos Papahatzis; et al. (1971).Ιστορία του ελληνικού έθνους[History of the Greek Nation]. Vol. 2. Ekdotike Athenon.
  4. ^abLombardo, Mario (June 2012)."Greek colonization: small and large islands".Mediterranean Historical Review.27(1): 73–85.doi:10.1080/09518967.2012.669150.ISSN0951-8967.
  5. ^Eleni Triakoupoulou-Salakidou (June 1997)."Ακάνθος-Εριίσσος-Ιερίσσος"[Acanthus-Erissus-Hierissus](PDF).Αρχαιολογία και Τέχνες (Archaeology & Art)(in Greek). Vol. 63.
  6. ^Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War, 4.102
  7. ^Plutarch, Alexander, 9
  8. ^UK:/ˌmæɡnəˈɡriːsiə,-ˈɡriːʃə/MAG-nəGREE-see-ə, -⁠GREE-shə,US:/-ˈɡreɪʃə/-⁠GRAY-shə,Latin:[ˈmaŋnaˈɡrae̯ki.a];lit. 'Great[er] Greece';Ancient Greek:Μεγάλη Ἑλλάς,romanized:Megálē Hellás,IPA:[meɡálɛːhellás],with the same meaning;Italian:Magna Grecia,IPA:[ˈmaɲɲaˈɡrɛːtʃa].
  9. ^Henry Fanshawe Tozer (30 October 2014).A History of Ancient Geography.Cambridge University Press. p. 43.ISBN978-1-108-07875-7.
  10. ^Luca Cerchiai; Lorena Jannelli; Fausto Longo (2004).The Greek Cities of Magna Graecia and Sicily.Getty Publications. p. 7.ISBN978-0-89236-751-1.
  11. ^STEFANIA DE VIDO 'Capitani coraggiosi'. Gli Eubei nel Mediterraneo C. Bearzot, F. Landucci, in Tra il mare e il continente: l'isola d'Eubea (2013) ISBN 978-88-343-2634-3
  12. ^Strabo 6.1.12
  13. ^Herodotus 8.47
  14. ^"MAGNA GRECIA"(in Italian).Retrieved7 July2023.
  15. ^Strabo,Geographica,6.1.10
  16. ^Strabo(1903). "6.2.2".Geographica.Translated byW. Falconer.inPerseus Project6.2
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Further reading[edit]

  • Zuchtriegel, Gabriel (2020).Colonization and Subalternity in Classical Greece: Experience of the Nonelite Population.Cambridge University Press; Reprint edition.ISBN978-1108409223.
  • Lucas, Jason; Murray, Carrie Ann; Owen, Sara (2019).Greek Colonization in Local Context: Case Studies Exploring the Dynamics among Locals and Colonizers.University of Cambridge Museum of Classical Archaeology Monographs. Oxbow Books.ISBN978-1789251326.
  • Tsetskhladze, Gocha R.; Atasoy, Sümer; Temür, Akın; Yiğitpaşa, Davut (2019).Settlements and Necropoleis of the Black Sea and Its Hinterland in Antiquity: Select Papers from the Third International Conference 'The Black Sea in Antiquity and Tekkeköy: An Ancient Settlement on the Southern Black Sea Coast', 27-29 October 2017, Tekkeköy, Samsun.Archaeopress.doi:10.2307/j.ctvwh8bw7.S2CID241412939.
  • Bosher, Kathryn (2016).Theater outside Athens: Drama in Greek Sicily and South Italy.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1107527508.
  • Irad, Malkin (2013).A Small Greek World: Networks in the Ancient Mediterranean.Oxford University Press; Reprint edition.ISBN978-0199315727.
  • Tsetskhladze, Gocha (2011).The Black Sea, Greece, Anatolia and Europe in the First Millennium BC.Peeters Publishers.ISBN978-9042923249.
  • Rhodes, P. J. (2010).A History of the Classical Greek World: 478 - 323 BC.Wiley-Blackwell.ISBN978-1405192866.
  • Dietler, Michael; López-Ruiz, Carolina (2009).Colonial Encounters in Ancient Iberia: Phoenician, Greek, and Indigenous Relations.University Of Chicago Press.ISBN978-0226148472.
  • Tsetskhladze, Gocha (2008).Greek Colonisation: An Account Of Greek Colonies and Other Settlements Overseas: Volume 2.Brill Academic Publishers.ISBN978-9004155763.
  • Tsetskhladze, Gocha (2006).Greek Colonisation: An Account Of Greek Colonies and Other Settlements Overseas: Volume 1.Brill Academic Publishers.ISBN978-9004122048.
  • Kirigin, Branko (2006).Pharos. The Parian Settlement in Dalmatia: A study of a Greek colony in the Adriatic.British Archaeological Reports.ISBN978-1841719917.
  • Hall, Jonathan M. (2006).A History of the Archaic Greek World: ca. 1200-479 BCE.Wiley-Blackwel.ISBN978-0631226680.
  • Cerchiai, Luca; Janelli, Lorena; Longo, Fausto; Edward Smith, Mark (2004).The Greek Cities of Magna Graecia and Sicily.J. Paul Getty Museum.ISBN978-0892367511.
  • Tsetskhladze, Gocha (2004).The Archaeology of Greek Colonisation: Essays Dedicated to Sir John Boardman.Oxford University School of Archaeology; 2nd Revised edition.ISBN978-0947816612.
  • Tsetskhladze, Gocha; Snodgrass, A. M. (2002).Greek Settlements in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea.British Archaeological Reports.ISBN978-1841714424.
  • Graham (2001).Collected Papers on Greek Colonization.Brill Academic Publishers.ISBN978-9004116344.
  • Dominguez, Adolfo; Sanchez, Carmen (2001).Greek Pottery from the Iberian Peninsula: Archaic and Classical Periods.Brill Academic Publishers.ISBN978-9004116047.
  • Boardman, John; Solovyov, Sergei; Tsetskhladze, Gocha (2001).Northern Pontic Antiquities in the State Hermitage Museum.Brill Academic Publishers.ISBN978-9004121461.
  • Boardman, John (1999).The Greeks Overseas: Their Early Colonies and Trade.Thames & Hudson.ISBN978-0500281093.
  • Tsetskhladze, Gocha R. (1998).The Greek Colonisation of the Black Sea Area.Franz Steiner Verlag.ISBN978-3515073028.
  • Isaac, Benjamin H. (1997).The Greek Settlements in Thrace Until the Macedonian Conquest.Studies of the Dutch Archaeological and Historical Society, Vol 10. Brill Academic Pub.ISBN978-9004069213.
  • Treister, M Yu (1997).The Role of Metals in Ancient Greek History.Brill.ISBN978-9004104730.
  • Cohen, Getzel M. (1996).The Hellenistic Settlements in Europe, the Islands, and Asia Minor.Hellenistic Culture and Society. University of California Press.ISBN978-0520083295.
  • Irad, Malkin (1987).Religion and Colonization in Ancient Greece.Brill Academic Publishers.ISBN978-9004071193.
  • Sealey, Raphæl (1976).A History of the Greek City States, 700-338 B. C.University of California Press.ISBN978-0520031777.

External links[edit]

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Greek_colonisation&oldid=1230049807"