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GreenMalachitemineral mixed with blueAzurite
Verdigrispigment

Green pigmentsare the materials used to create the green colors seen in painting and the other arts. Most come from minerals, particularly those containing compounds ofcopper.Green pigments reflect the green portions of the spectrum of visible light, and absorb the others. Important green pigments in art history includeMalachiteandVerdigris,found in tomb paintings in Ancient Egypt, and theGreen earthpigments popular in the Middle Ages.[1]More recent greens, such asCobalt Green,are largely synthetic, made in laboratories and factories.

Major Green pigments

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Verdigris

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Verdigrisor Vert-de-Gris, is a blue-green, copper-based pigment. Its name comes from the natural pigments that form a patina on copper, bronze, and brass as it ages.[2]The most famous example is the green patina that formed on theStatue of Libertyin New York Harbor. In the Middle Ages, the patina was made by attaching copper strips to a wooden block with acetic acid, then burying the sealed block indung.It would be dug up a few weeks later, the verdigris scraped off. Another method was to put copper plates in clay pots filled with distilled wine. The verdigris which formed was scraped off each week.[3]

In the 19th century and earlier, the pigment was also made by hanging copper plates over hotvinegarin a sealed pot until a green crust formed on the copper.[3]Today it is usually made by treatingCopper(II) hydroxidewithacetic acid.[4]

The pigment was used by the Romans, particularly in the murals atPompeii.[5] The pigment had its weaknesses; it sometimes suffered from humidity and heat, and when mixed with other colors, sometimes altered them. Verdigris was particularly unstable when used to color an oil paint. It was sometimes mixed withlead white,giving it better opacity.Leonardo da Vinci,in hisTreatise on Painting,advised artists to avoid it. Nonetheless, it was widely used in miniature painting, in Safavid art and the art of Mongolia. In the late 19th century, it was almost entirely replaced by the syntheticChrome green.[6]

Paolo Veroneseused verdigris with lead white and some yellow inThe Adoration of the Magi,at the National Gallery in London. The color has largely retained its particular brilliance.[7]

  • Statue of Liberty, with verdigris patina
    Statue of Liberty,with verdigrispatina
  • Verdigris pigment
    Verdigrispigment
  • Nativity Mistica Botticelli (1500). The verdigris green glaze of the angels' costumes, painted over gold leaf, has degraded and darkened with time.
    Nativity Mistica
    Botticelli(1500).
    The verdigris green glaze of the angels' costumes, painted over gold leaf, has degraded and darkened with time.
  • Adoration of the Magi Veronese (1573). Verdigris with lead white
    Adoration of the Magi
    Veronese(1573). Verdigris with lead white
  • The Tempest Giorgione (1508) Venetian painters made extensive use of verdigris.
    The Tempest
    Giorgione(1508)
    Venetian painters made extensive use of verdigris.
  • Book of Lindisfarne (c. 715), Illuminated manuscript, British Library
    Book of Lindisfarne
    (c. 715), Illuminated manuscript,
    British Library

Malachite

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Large deposits ofmalachitewere mined by the Egyptians in the eastern desert and the west of Sinai. [8]Cleopatrais recorded to have used malachite to color her eyelids. It was mixed with egg or with the sap of theacaciaplant, and used to paint papyrus manuscripts and the walls of tombs.[9]

It was also widely used in China from antiquity, first in painting landscapes, and then, from the 5th century BC until the 3rd century AD, to make green inks, when the official palette of colors, under the influence ofConfucianism,was reduced to blues made with azurite, and greens made with malachite.[10]

Artists in India imported malachite fromTurkestanfor murals, and monks in Tibet ground it coarsely to preserve the intensity of the color in manuscripts. In Europe, and particularly in Ireland, it was widely used for intense greens in illumination and miniature painting. They avoided mixing it with other colors, because in a mixture it became unstable.[11]

It was (and is) extremely expensive (more than 100 Euros for 100 grams in 2000),[citation needed]so it was usually only used on limited surfaces. It was largely replaced in the early 19th century by chrome green, though it is still frequently used in China for fine greens. A synthetic form of malachite,verditer,has also been used.

In Latin America, theTeotihuacancivilisation, which ruled in Mexico between 300 and 650, AD, made murals using crushed malachite, which was mixed with chalk for lighter shades, or mixed with blue from azurite or lapis-lazuli to make blue greens, or with yellow ochre to make yellow-greens.[12]

Classical painters made extensive use of the color. The wedding gown in theArnolfini Portrait,byJan van Eyck(1434), was painted with malachite.[13]

Green earth (Terre Verte)

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Green earthwas an olive-green natural pigment widely used in the 14th and 15th centuries. It was often used in Italian painting as an under layer beneath flesh colors, particularly in painting byDuccio.In some of Ducco's paintings the upper flesh colors deteriorated, and the green under layer has become visible. Green earth pigments in the Middle Ages supplemented the more expensive malachite pigment. In Europe, they came from Verona, the South of France, and Cyprus. During the Roman Empire they were widely used in frescoes decorating villas. They were used either pure or mixed with other pigments, such asEgyptian Blue.They also were used Egypt in portraits atFayoum,and in the Buddhist temples atAjantain India. In the Middle Ages, since the color by itself was somber, it was sometimes brightened with lead white.

They were also used by Native American artists in North America, particularly theHopis,who used them to color their ceremonial sand paintings.[14]

  • Green earth pigment
    Green earth pigment
  • Mural using green earth pigments of the goddess Flora, in Villa di Arianna, Stabia South Italy. using green earth pigments
    Mural using green earth pigments of the goddessFlora,in Villa di Arianna,StabiaSouth Italy. using green earth pigments
  • Murals in the Ajanta Caves in India (5th century)
    Murals in theAjanta Cavesin India (5th century)
  • Mural of Tawa, the symbol of the Sun, from the Hopi tribe, Painted Desert Inn, Petrified Forest National Park, Arizona
    Mural of Tawa, the symbol of the Sun, from theHopitribe, Painted Desert Inn, Petrified Forest National Park, Arizona

Viridian

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Viridianis a blue-green synthetic pigment of medium saturation and relatively dark in value, created in the 19th century. It takes its name from "Viridis", the Latin word for green.[15]It became a particular favourite of the paintersPaul Cézanne,Jean RenoirandClaude Monet.

Chromium(III) oxide(or chromia) is one of the principal oxides of the elementchromium.In nature, the color is found in the rare mineraleskolaite.[16]

  • Chomium(III)-oxide sample
    Chomium(III)-oxide sample
  • La Grenouillére Claude Monet (1869)
    La Grenouillére
    Claude Monet (1869)
  • Mountains in Provence Paul Cézanne (c. 1890-92)
    Mountains in Provence
    Paul Cézanne (c. 1890-92)

Emerald Green

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Emerald Green,also known asParis Green,Scheele's Green, Schweinfurt green and Vienna Green, is a syntheticinorganic compound,made by a reaction ofsodium arsenitewithcopper(II) acetate.While it makes a beautiful rich green, the color of theemeraldstone, it is highlytoxic,due to a main ingredient,arsenic.[17]It was invented as 'emerald green' in 1814 by two chemists, Russ and Sattler, at the Wilhelm Dye and White Lead Company ofSchweinfurt,Bavaria,who were trying to improve another similar synthetic pigment,Scheele's green,so that it would not darken around sulfides. Because of its toxic arsenic content, it became a popularrodenticideandinsecticide,[18]

Emerald green was particularly popular with the Impressionists, includingPaul GauguinandVincent van Gogh,both of whom in 1888 placed vivid reds next to Emerald green to create jarring contrasts in their paintingsArlésiennes (Mistral)andThe Night Cafe.Van Gogh wrote of theNight Cafe:"The café is one of the most horrible I have every painted. But was intentional, because I tried to express the terrible passions of humanity by means of the red and green".[19]

  • Emerald green pigment
    Emerald green pigment
  • Arlesiennes (Mistral) Paul Gauguin (1888)
    Arlesiennes (Mistral)
    Paul Gauguin (1888)
  • The Night Café Vincent van Gogh (1888)
    The Night Café
    Vincent van Gogh (1888)

Chemical composition of natural and synthetic non-organic green pigments

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  • Malachite:cupric carbonate hydroxide (Cu2CO3(OH)2).
  • Green earth:also known as terre verte and Verona green (K[(Al,Fe3+),(Fe2+,Mg](AlSi3,Si4)O10(OH)2).

Notes and citations

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  1. ^Varichon (2005), pp. 205-211
  2. ^"Verdigris" Oxford English Dictionary
  3. ^abDarnton, Robert. "A Bourgeois Puts His World in Order" inThe Great Cat Massacre --and other Episodes in French Cultural History.New York: Vintage Books, 1985. p. 114.
  4. ^Solomon, Sally D.; Rutkowsky, Susan A.; Mahon, Megan L.; Halpern, Erica M. (2011). "Synthesis of Copper Pigments, Malachite and Verdigris: Making Tempera Paint".Journal of Chemical Education.88(12): 1694–1697.doi:10.1021/ed200096e.
  5. ^Varichon (2005), pp. 214-215
  6. ^Bomford and Roy, "A Closer Look at Colour" (2009), p. 38-39
  7. ^Charanay and De Givry,Comment Regarder Les Couleurs Dans la Peinture,(2017), p. 97
  8. ^Gettens, R.J. and Fitzhugh, E. W. (1993) "Malachite and Green Verditer", pp. 183–202 inArtists’ Pigments. A Handbook of Their History and Characteristics,Vol. 2: A. Roy (Ed.) Oxford University Press.ISBN0894682601
  9. ^Varichon (2005), p. 212
  10. ^Varichon (2005), p. 212
  11. ^Varichon (2005) p. 212-213
  12. ^Varichon (2005), pg. 198
  13. ^Varichon,Couleurs- Pigments et Teintures dans les mains des Peuples,p. 213
  14. ^Varichon, Anne,Couleurs - Pigments et Teintures dans les Mains des Peuples,(2000), p. 210-211
  15. ^Maerz and Paul (1930),A Dictionary of Color.McGraw-Hill, New York. Page 18 See: "Table--Polyglot Table of Principle Color Names" Pages 18-19
  16. ^"Pigments through the Ages - Overview - Cobalt green".
  17. ^"Hazardous Substance Fact Sheet"(PDF).NJ Dept. of Health and Senior Services.Retrieved2011-02-07.
  18. ^"Dangers in the Manufacture of Paris Green and Scheele's Green".Monthly Review of the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.5(2): 78–83. 1917.JSTOR41829377.
  19. ^Ball, Philip, "Histoire Vinvante des Couleurs" (2005), p. 353-353


Bibliography

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  • Pastoureau, Michel (2013).Vert: Histoire d'une couleur(in French). Paris: Éditions du Seuil.ISBN978-2-7578-6731-0.
  • Varichon, Anne (2005).Couleurs: pigments et teintures dans les mains des peuples(in French). Paris: Editions du Seuil.ISBN978-2-02-084697-4.
  • Bomford, David; Roy, Ashok (2009).A Closer Look - Colour.London: National Gallery.ISBN978-185709-442-8.
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