Groom of the Stool

William III's close-stool. Hampton Court collection

TheGroom of the Stool(formally styled: "Groom of the King'sClose Stool") was the most intimate of anEnglish monarch'scourtiers,initially responsible for assisting the king inexcretionandhygiene.

The physical intimacy of the role naturally led to his becoming a man in whom much confidence was placed by his royal master and with whom many royal secrets were shared as a matter of course. This secret information—while it would never have been revealed, for it would have led to the discredit of his honour—in turn led to his becoming feared and respected and therefore powerful within the royal court in his own right. The office developed gradually over decades and centuries into one of administration of the royal finances, and underHenry VII,the Groom of the Stool became a powerful official involved in setting national fiscal policy, under the "chamber system".^[1]^[2]

Later, the office was renamedGroom of the Stole.The Tudor historianDavid Starkeyhas attempted to frame this change as classicVictorianism:"When the Victorians came to look at this office, they spelt it s-t-o-l-e, and imagined all kinds of fictions about elaborate robes draped around the neck of the monarch at the coronation";^[3].However, the change is in fact seen as early as the 17th century.^[4]

History

Origins

The Groom of the Stool was a male servant in the household of the English monarch who was responsible for assisting the king in his toileting needs.^[5]It is a matter of some debate as to whether the duties involved cleaning the king's anus, but the groom is known to have been responsible for supplying a bowl, water and towels and also for monitoring the king's diet and bowel movements^[6]and liaising with the Royal Doctor about the king's health.^[5]The appellation "Groom of the Close Stool" derived from theitem of furniture used as a toilet.It also appears as "Grom of the Stole" as the word "Groom" comes from theOld Low Franconianword "Grom".^[7]^[8]

In the Tudor era

By theTudor age,the role of Groom of the Stool was fulfilled by a substantial figure, such asHugh Denys(d. 1511) who was a member of the Gloucestershire gentry, married to an aristocratic wife, and who died possessing at least four manors. The function was transformed into that of a virtual minister of the royal treasury, being then an essential figure in the king's management of fiscal policy.^[9]^[10]^[11]

In the early years ofHenry VIII's reign, the title was awarded to court companions of the king who spent time with him in theprivy chamber.These were generally the sons of noblemen or important members of the gentry. In time they came to act as virtual personal secretaries to the king, carrying out a variety of administrative tasks within his private rooms. The position was an especially prized one, as it allowed unobstructed access to the king.^[12]^: 42David Starkeywrites: "The Groom of the Stool had (to our eyes) the most menial tasks; his standing, though, was the highest... Clearly then, the royal body service must have been seen as entirely honourable, without a trace of the demeaning or the humiliating."^[13]Further, "the mere word of the Gentleman of the Privy Chamber was sufficient evidence in itself of the king's will", and the Groom of the Stool bore "the indefinable charisma of the monarchy".^[14]

Evolution and discontinuation

The office was exclusively one serving male monarchs, so on the accession ofElizabeth I of Englandin 1558, it was replaced by theFirst Lady of the Bedchamber,first held byKat Ashley.^[15]The office effectively came to an end when it was "neutralised" in 1559.^[11]

In Scotland the valets of the chamber likeJohn Gibbhad an equivalent role.^[16]On the accession ofJames I,the male office was revived as the seniorGentleman of the Bedchamber,who always was a great nobleman who had considerable power because of its intimate access to the king. During the reign ofCharles I,the term "stool" appears to have lost its original signification ofchair.From 1660 the office of Groom of the Stole (revived with theRestoration of the Monarchy) was invariably coupled with that of First Gentleman (or Lady) of the Bedchamber; as effective Head of the royal Bedchamber, the Groom of the Stole was a powerful individual who had the right to attend the monarch at all times and to regulate access to his or her private quarters.^[17]Incongruously, the office of Groom of the Stole continued in use during the reign ofQueen Anne,when it was held by a duchess who combined its duties with those ofMistress of the Robes.^[18]

Under theHanoveriansthe 'Groom of the Stole' began to be named inThe London Gazette.^[19]In 1726,John Chamberlaynewrote that while theLord Chamberlainhas oversight of all Officers belonging to the King's Chamber, 'the Precinct of the King's Bed-Chamber […] is wholly under the Groom of the Stole'.^[20]Chamberlayne defines the Groom of the Stole as the first of theGentlemen of the Bedchamber;translating his title ('from the Greek') as 'Groom or Servant of the Long-robe or Vestment', he explains that he has 'the Office and Honour to present and put on his Majesty's first Garment or Shirt every morning, and to order the Things of the Bed-Chamber'.^[20]By 1740 the Groom of the Stole is described as having 'the care of the king's wardrobe'.^[21]

The office again fell into abeyance with the accession ofQueen Victoria,though her husband,Prince Albert,and their son,Edward, Prince of Wales,employed similar courtiers;^{[citation needed]}but when Edward acceded to the throne as King Edward VII in 1901, he discontinued the office.^{[citation needed]}

List of Grooms of the Stool

Before the Tudors

1455: William Grymesby was "Yoman of the Stoole" toHenry VI.^[22]He may, or may not, be theWillielmus Grymesbywho was MP forGreat Grimsby.

Tudor monarchy

Grooms of the Stool under Henry VII

1487-1509:Hugh Denys^[23]ofOsterley,Middlesex.Hugh Denys controlled the private and secret finances of King Henry VII.^[24]

Grooms of the Stool under Henry VIII (1509–1547)

1509–1526:William Compton^[12]^: 97
1526–1536:Sir Henry Norris^[25]
1536–1546:Thomas Heneage^[12]
1546–1547:Sir Anthony Denny^[12]^: 486^[26]

Heneage and Denny, as servants "whom he used secretly about him", were privy to Henry VIII's most intimate confidences aboutAnne of Cleves.He told them he doubted her virginity, on account of "her brests so slacke".^[27]

Grooms of the Stool to Edward VI (1547–1553)

1547–1551:Sir Michael Stanhope^[28]

Neither Mary I nor Elizabeth I appointed a Groom of the Stool.

Stuart monarchy

Hanoverian monarchy

Grooms of the Stole toGeorge I

1714–1719:Lionel Sackville, 1st Duke of Dorset
1719–1722:Charles Spencer, 3rd Earl of Sunderland
1722–1723:Vacant
1723–1727:Francis Godolphin, 2nd Earl of Godolphin

Grooms of the Stole toGeorge II

1727–1735:Francis Godolphin, 2nd Earl of Godolphin
1735–1750:Henry Herbert, 9th Earl of Pembroke
1751–1755:Willem Anne van Keppel, 2nd Earl of Albemarle
1755–1760:William Nassau de Zuylestein, 4th Earl of Rochford

Grooms of the Stole toGeorge III

1760–1761:John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute
1761–1770:Francis Hastings, 10th Earl of Huntingdon
1770–1775:George Hervey, 2nd Earl of Bristol
1775:Thomas Thynne, 3rd Viscount Weymouth
1775–1782:John Ashburnham, 2nd Earl of Ashburnham
1782–1796:Thomas Thynne, 3rd Viscount Weymouth(later Marquess of Bath)
1796–1804:John Ker, 3rd Duke of Roxburghe
1804–1812:George Finch, 9th Earl of Winchilsea
1812–1820:Charles Paulet, 13th Marquess of Winchester

Grooms of the Stole toGeorge IV

1820–1830:Charles Paulet, 13th Marquess of Winchester

Grooms of the Stole toWilliam IV

1830–1837:Charles Paulet, 13th Marquess of Winchester

Victoria did not appoint a Groom of the Stole; appointments were made, however, in the households of her husband and eldest son.

Grooms of the Stole toPrince Albert

1840–1841:Lord Robert Grosvenor(later Lord Ebury)
1841–1846:Brownlow Cecil, 2nd Marquess of Exeter
1846–1859:James Hamilton, 2nd Marquess of Abercorn(later Duke of Abercorn)
1859–1861:John Spencer, 5th Earl Spencer

Grooms of the Stole toAlbert Edward, Prince of Wales

1862–1866:John Spencer, 5th Earl Spencer
1866–1877:Shea Douglas Tuffery
1877–1883:Sir William Knollys
1883–1901:James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn

References

^For the role of the Groom of the Stool on the fiscal policy of Henry VII see: Starkey, D.The Virtuous Prince,2009.
^Re. the "Chamber System" and "Chamber Finance" see: Grummitt, D. "Henry VII, Chamber Finance and the 'New Monarchy': some New Evidence".Journal of the Institute of Historical Research,vol.72, no.179, pp.229-243. Published online 2003.
^"Majesty in all its magnificence".The Daily Telegraph.Retrieved19 October2020.
^"Page 1 | Issue 2054, 23 July 1685".The London Gazette.Retrieved19 October2020.
^^a ^bRidgway, Claire (19 April 2016)."What is a Groom of the Stool?".Tudor Society.Retrieved13 January2019.
^Johnson, Ben."Groom of the Stool".Historic UK.Retrieved13 January2019.
^Brewer, E. Cobham. "Grom of the Stole"Dictionary of Phrase and Fable.Philadelphia: Henry Altemus, 1898; Page 369.
^A Dictionary of the English Language.By Noah Webster, Chauncey Allen Goodrich, John Walker. Page 466.
^Starkey, David.The Virtuous Prince,2004, chap. 16 discusses the important fiscal role of Hugh Denys, Groom of the Stool to Henry VII; & an article in theIndependentnewspaper (28/6/2004) by the same author, who states that the position effectively became neutralised on the accession of Elizabeth I
^Bruce Boehrer. "The Privy and Its Double: Scatology and Satire in Shakespeare's Theatre". in Dutton, Richard,A Companion to Shakespeare's Works: Poems, Problem Comedies, Late Plays,2003. "The Groom of the Stool presided over the office of royal excretion that is, he had the task of cleaning the monarch's anus after abowel movement.
^^a ^bNicholls, Mark (1999).A History of the Modern British Isles, 1529–1603: The Two Kingdoms.Wiley-Blackwell. p. 194.ISBN 978-0-631-19334-0.
^^a ^b ^c ^dWeir, Alison (2002).Henry VIII: The King and His Court.Random House.ISBN 978-0-345-43708-2.
^Quoted inPatterson, Orlande (1982).Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study.Harvard UP. p.330.
^Sharpe, Kevin M.; Steven N. Zwicker (2003).Reading, Society and Politics in Early Modern England.Cambridge UP. p.51.ISBN 9780521824347.
^Brimacombe, Peter (2000).All the Queen's Men: The World of Elizabeth I.Palgrave Macmillan. p. 25.ISBN 978-0-312-23251-1.
^Bowes Correspondence(London, 1843), pp. 205-6: Roderick J. Lyall,Alexander Montgomerie: Poetry, Politics, and Cultural Change in Jacobean Scotland(Arizona, 2005), p. 97.
^Bucholz, R. O."'The bedchamber: Groom of the Stole 1660-1837', in Office-Holders in Modern Britain: Volume 11 (Revised), Court Officers, 1660-1837, ed. R O Bucholz (London, 2006), pp. 13-14. British History Online ".British History Online.Institute of Historical Research.Retrieved5 July2019.
^Haydn, Joseph (1851).The Book of Dignities.London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans.
^"Search Result".thegazette.co.uk.
^^a ^bChamberlayne, John (1726).Magnae Britaniae Notitia Or the Present State of Great Britain, Volume 1.pp. +100–104.
^Dyche, Thomas (1740).A New General English Dictionary.London: Richard Ware.
^David Starkey,'Intimacy and Innovation',The English Court(London: Longman, 1987), p. 78:A collection of ordinances and regulations for the government of the royal household(London, 1790), p. 18,(citedOED).
^Starkey, D.,The Virtuous Prince,2008. Discussion about Hugh Denys and his role in the chamber
^Starkey, D.
^Ives, Eric William (2004).The life and death of Anne Boleyn: 'the most happy'.Wiley-Blackwell. p. 207.ISBN 978-0-631-23479-1.
^'Accounts of the Groom of the Stole',The Antiquary,20 (London, 1889), pp. 189–192.
^John Strype,Ecclesiastical Memorials,vol. 1 part 2 (Oxford, 1822), 458-9, depositions of Heneage and Denny.
^Stanhope, Michael (by 1508–1552),History of ParliamentRetrieved 24 September 2015.
^Neil Cuddy, 'The Revival of the Entourage' in David Starkey,The English Court(London, 1987), p. 185.
^"FULLERTON, Sir James (c.1563-1631), of Broad Street, London and Byfleet, Surr".History of Parliament Trust.Retrieved4 April2019.
^"FULLERTON, Sir James (c.1563-1631), of Broad Street, London and Byfleet, Surr".History of Parliament Trust.Retrieved4 April2019.
^^a ^bClarendon, Edward Hyde(1888).William Dunn Macray(ed.).The History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England: Begun in the Year 1641.Clarendon Press. p. 146.
^^a ^bEvelyn, John (1907).The Life of Margaret Godolphin.Chatto and Windus. p.4.
^O'Conor, Charles (1819).Bibliotheca Ms. Stowensis. A Descriptive Catalogue of the Manuscripts in the Stowe Library, Vol. II.Seeley. p. 527.

[1] For the role of the Groom of the Stool on the fiscal policy of Henry VII see: Starkey, D.The Virtuous Prince,2009.

[2] Re. the "Chamber System" and "Chamber Finance" see: Grummitt, D. "Henry VII, Chamber Finance and the 'New Monarchy': some New Evidence".Journal of the Institute of Historical Research,vol.72, no.179, pp.229-243. Published online 2003.

[3] "Majesty in all its magnificence".The Daily Telegraph.Retrieved19 October2020.

[4] "Page 1 | Issue 2054, 23 July 1685".The London Gazette.Retrieved19 October2020.

[Ridgway-5] Ridgway, Claire (19 April 2016)."What is a Groom of the Stool?".Tudor Society.Retrieved13 January2019.

[Johnson-6] Johnson, Ben."Groom of the Stool".Historic UK.Retrieved13 January2019.

[7] Brewer, E. Cobham. "Grom of the Stole"Dictionary of Phrase and Fable.Philadelphia: Henry Altemus, 1898; Page 369.

[8] A Dictionary of the English Language.By Noah Webster, Chauncey Allen Goodrich, John Walker. Page 466.

[9] Starkey, David.The Virtuous Prince,2004, chap. 16 discusses the important fiscal role of Hugh Denys, Groom of the Stool to Henry VII; & an article in theIndependentnewspaper (28/6/2004) by the same author, who states that the position effectively became neutralised on the accession of Elizabeth I

[10] Bruce Boehrer. "The Privy and Its Double: Scatology and Satire in Shakespeare's Theatre". in Dutton, Richard,A Companion to Shakespeare's Works: Poems, Problem Comedies, Late Plays,2003. "The Groom of the Stool presided over the office of royal excretion that is, he had the task of cleaning the monarch's anus after abowel movement.

[Nicholls-11] Nicholls, Mark (1999).A History of the Modern British Isles, 1529–1603: The Two Kingdoms.Wiley-Blackwell. p. 194.ISBN 978-0-631-19334-0.

[Weir-12] Weir, Alison (2002).Henry VIII: The King and His Court.Random House.ISBN 978-0-345-43708-2.

[13] Quoted inPatterson, Orlande (1982).Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study.Harvard UP. p.330.

[14] Sharpe, Kevin M.; Steven N. Zwicker (2003).Reading, Society and Politics in Early Modern England.Cambridge UP. p.51.ISBN 9780521824347.

[15] Brimacombe, Peter (2000).All the Queen's Men: The World of Elizabeth I.Palgrave Macmillan. p. 25.ISBN 978-0-312-23251-1.

[16] Bowes Correspondence(London, 1843), pp. 205-6: Roderick J. Lyall,Alexander Montgomerie: Poetry, Politics, and Cultural Change in Jacobean Scotland(Arizona, 2005), p. 97.

[BHO-17] Bucholz, R. O."'The bedchamber: Groom of the Stole 1660-1837', in Office-Holders in Modern Britain: Volume 11 (Revised), Court Officers, 1660-1837, ed. R O Bucholz (London, 2006), pp. 13-14. British History Online ".British History Online.Institute of Historical Research.Retrieved5 July2019.

[Haydn1851-18] Haydn, Joseph (1851).The Book of Dignities.London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans.

[19] "Search Result".thegazette.co.uk.

[Chamberlayne_1726-20] Chamberlayne, John (1726).Magnae Britaniae Notitia Or the Present State of Great Britain, Volume 1.pp. +100–104.

[21] Dyche, Thomas (1740).A New General English Dictionary.London: Richard Ware.

[22] David Starkey,'Intimacy and Innovation',The English Court(London: Longman, 1987), p. 78:A collection of ordinances and regulations for the government of the royal household(London, 1790), p. 18,(citedOED).

[23] Starkey, D.,The Virtuous Prince,2008. Discussion about Hugh Denys and his role in the chamber

[24] Starkey, D.

[25] Ives, Eric William (2004).The life and death of Anne Boleyn: 'the most happy'.Wiley-Blackwell. p. 207.ISBN 978-0-631-23479-1.

[26] 'Accounts of the Groom of the Stole',The Antiquary,20 (London, 1889), pp. 189–192.

[27] John Strype,Ecclesiastical Memorials,vol. 1 part 2 (Oxford, 1822), 458-9, depositions of Heneage and Denny.

[28] Stanhope, Michael (by 1508–1552),History of ParliamentRetrieved 24 September 2015.

[29] Neil Cuddy, 'The Revival of the Entourage' in David Starkey,The English Court(London, 1987), p. 185.

[30] "FULLERTON, Sir James (c.1563-1631), of Broad Street, London and Byfleet, Surr".History of Parliament Trust.Retrieved4 April2019.

[31] "FULLERTON, Sir James (c.1563-1631), of Broad Street, London and Byfleet, Surr".History of Parliament Trust.Retrieved4 April2019.

[clarendon-32] Clarendon, Edward Hyde(1888).William Dunn Macray(ed.).The History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England: Begun in the Year 1641.Clarendon Press. p. 146.

[Evelyn-33] Evelyn, John (1907).The Life of Margaret Godolphin.Chatto and Windus. p.4.

[34] O'Conor, Charles (1819).Bibliotheca Ms. Stowensis. A Descriptive Catalogue of the Manuscripts in the Stowe Library, Vol. II.Seeley. p. 527.

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v t e Royal Household in England, Scotland and the United Kingdom
Great officers of the Household	Lord Chamberlain of the Household Vice-Chamberlain of the Household Lord Steward of the Household Master of the Horse His Majesty's Representative at Ascot Master of the Buckhounds Clerk Marshal Treasurer of the Household Comptroller of the Household
Other great officers of the Household (currently amongGreat Officers of State)	Lord High Steward Lord Chancellor Purse Bearer Keeper of the Privy Seal Earl Marshal Knight Marshal
Private Secretary's Office	Private Secretary to the Sovereign Director for Security Liaison Royal Communications
Privy Purse and Treasurer's Office	Keeper of the Privy Purse Royal Almonry
Lord Chamberlain's Office	Central Chancery of the Orders of Knighthood Crown Equerry Gentleman of the Horse Master of the Revels
Master of the Household's Department	Master of the Household Master of the Household of Scotland Butler of Scotland
Board of Green Cloth	Clerk of the Green Cloth Cofferer of the Household
Lords/ladies-in-waiting	Mistress of the Robes Master of the Robes Groom of the Robes Groom in Waiting Page of Honour Maid of Honour Mother of the Maids
Medical Household	Physician to the King Serjeant Surgeon Apothecary to the Household Apothecary to the Household at Sandringham Apothecary to the Household at Windsor Coroner of the Queen's Household Medical Officer to The King
Ecclesiastical Household	Clerk of the Closet Deputy Clerk of the Closet Dean of the Chapel Royal Gentleman of the Chapel Royal Master of the Children of the Chapel Royal Honorary Chaplain to the King
Royal ArchivesandRoyal Collection	Keeper of the Royal Archives Royal Librarian Surveyor of the King's Pictures Surveyor of the King's Works of Art Master of the Jewel Office Treasurer of the Chamber Crown Jeweller Historiographer Royal England Scotland
Wardrobe	Keeper (or Treasurer) of the Wardrobe Comptroller of the Wardrobe Cofferer of the Wardrobe Keeper of the Great Wardrobe
Privy chamberand bedchamber	Groom of the Chamber Lord of the Bedchamber Gentleman of the Bedchamber Lady of the Bedchamber Woman of the Bedchamber Chamberer Groom of the Stool(1509–1901) Page of the Backstairs
Bodyguards and guardians	King's Guard Yeomen of the Guard Captain of the Yeomen of the Guard Sovereign's Bodyguard Gold Stick-in-Waiting Silver Stick-in-Waiting Yeomen Warders High Constables and Guard of Honour of the Palace of Holyroodhouse
Animal keepers	Master of the Staghounds(1738–1782) Master of the Hawks Master of the Harriers Keeper of the Queen's Swans Warden of the Swans Marker of the Swans
Arts and entertainment	Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom Master of the Ceremonies Master of the King's Music Official Harpist to the Prince of Wales Groom Porter Piper to the Sovereign Piper to the Queen Mother Serjeant Painter Principal Painter in Ordinary Painter and Limner Flower Painter in Ordinary Sculptor in Ordinary for Scotland Grand Carver of England Master Carver Pantler of Scotland
Other positions	Defence Services Secretary Astronomer Royal Astronomer Royal for Scotland Geographer Royal Justiciar(1102–1261) Knight Marischal Personal aide-de-camp Armour-Bearer and Squire of His Majesty's Body King's Flag Sergeant Field Officer in Brigade Waiting Warden of the Mint(1216–1829) Gentleman Usher Gentleman Usher to the Sword of State His Majesty's Botanist King's Bargemaster Funeral directors

History

Origins

In the Tudor era

Evolution and discontinuation

List of Grooms of the Stool

Before the Tudors

Tudor monarchy

Grooms of the Stool under Henry VII

Grooms of the Stool under Henry VIII (1509–1547)

Grooms of the Stool to Edward VI (1547–1553)

Stuart monarchy

Grooms of the Stool toJames I(1603–1625)

Grooms of the Stool toCharles I(1625–1649)

Grooms of the Stool toHenrietta Maria of France

Grooms of the Stole toCharles II(1660–1685)

Grooms of the Stole toJames II(1685–1688)

Grooms of the Stole toWilliam III(1689–1702)

Grooms of the Stole toAnne(1702–1714)

Grooms of the Stole toPrince George