Jump to content

Truck

Page semi-protected
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected fromHeavy vehicle)

"Trucks" and "Lorry" redirect here. For other uses, seeTruck (disambiguation)andLorry (disambiguation).

FreightlinerM2 dump truck

Atruckorlorryis amotor vehicledesigned to transportfreight,carry specialized payloads, or perform other utilitarian work. Trucks vary greatly in size, power, and configuration, but the vast majority featurebody-on-frameconstruction, with a cabin that is independent of the payload portion of the vehicle. Smaller varieties may be mechanically similar to someautomobiles.Commercial trucks can be very large and powerful and may be configured to be mounted with specialized equipment, such as in the case ofrefuse trucks,fire trucks,concrete mixers,andsuction excavators.In American English, a commercial vehicle without a trailer or other articulation is formally a "straight truck" while one designed specifically to pull a trailer is not a truck but a "tractor".[1]

The majority of trucks currently in use are powered bydiesel engines,although small- to medium-size trucks withgasoline enginesexist inNorth America.The market-share ofelectrically powered trucksis growing rapidly, expected to reach 7% globally by 2027, and are already in service in various roles.[2]In theEuropean Union,vehicles with agross combination massof up to 3.5 t (3.4 long tons; 3.9 short tons) are defined aslight commercial vehicles,and those over aslarge goods vehicles.

History

Steam wagons

Sentinelsteam wagon
Main article:Steam wagon

Trucks and cars have a common ancestor: the steam-poweredfardierNicolas-Joseph Cugnotbuilt in 1769.[citation needed]However,steam wagonswere not common until the mid-19th century. The roads of the time, built for horse and carriages, limited these vehicles to very short hauls, usually from a factory to the nearest railway station. The firstsemi-trailerappeared in 1881,[citation needed]towed by asteam tractormanufactured byDe Dion-Bouton.Steam-powered wagons were sold in France and the United States until the eve ofWorld War I,and 1935 in the United Kingdom, when a change in road tax rules made them uneconomic against the new diesel lorries.

Internal combustion

Daimler Motor-Lastwagenfrom 1898
1903 Eldridge truck on display at theIowa 80Trucking Museum, Walcott, Iowa.

In 1895,Karl Benzdesigned and built the firstinternal combustiontruck. Later that year some of Benz's trucks were modified to become busses byNetphener.A year later, in 1896, another internal combustion engine truck was built byGottlieb Daimler,theDaimler MotorLastwagen.[3]Other companies, such asPeugeot,RenaultandBüssing,also built their own versions. The first truck in the United States was built byAutocarin 1899 and was available with 5 or 8 horsepower (4 or 6 kW) engines.[4]Another early American truck was built by George Eldridge of Des Moines, Iowa, in 1903. It was powered by an engine with two opposed cylinders, and had a chain drive[5]A 1903 Eldridge truck is displayed at theIowa 80Trucking Museum, Walcott, Iowa. Trucks of the era mostly usedtwo-cylinderengines and had a carrying capacity of 1.5 to 2 t (3,300 to 4,400 lb). After World War I, several advances were made:electric starters,and 4, 6, and 8 cylinder engines.

Diesel engines

Fodendiesel truck from 1931

Although it had been invented in 1897, thediesel enginedid not appear in production trucks until Benz introduced it in 1923.[6]The diesel engine was not common in trucks in Europe until the 1930s. In the United States, Autocar introduced diesel engines for heavy applications in the mid-1930s. Demand was high enough that Autocar launched the "DC" model (diesel conventional) in 1939. However, it took much longer for diesel engines to be broadly accepted in the US: gasoline engines were still in use on heavy trucks in the 1970s.[7][8]

Electric motors

Main article:Electric truck
1911 Walker Electric truck on display at theIowa 80Trucking Museum, Walcott, Iowa.
President Joe Bidentest driving the Ford F-150 Lightning all-electric pick up at Ford'sRouge Electric Vehicle Center

Electrically powered truckspredate internal combustion ones and have been continuously available since the mid-19th-century. In the 1920sAutocar Truckswas the first of the major truck manufacturers to offer a range of electric trucks for sale.[9]Electric trucks were successful for urban delivery roles and as specialized work vehicles likeforkliftsandpushback tugs.The higher energy density of liquid fuels soon led to the decline of electric-powered trucks in favor of, first, gasoline, and then diesel and CNG-fueled engines until battery technology advanced in the 2000s when newchemistriesand higher-volume production broadened the range of applicability of electric propulsion to trucks in many more roles. Today, manufacturers are electrifying all trucks ahead of national regulatory requirements, with long-range over-the-road trucks being the most challenging.[10][11]

Etymology

Mannesmann Mulagtruck at theFinlayson factoryinTampere,Finlandin 1921

Truckis used inAmerican English,and is common inCanada,Australia,New Zealand,PakistanandSouth Africa,whilelorryis the equivalent inBritish English,and is the usual term in countries likeIreland,Malaysia,SingaporeandIndia.[original research?]

The first known usage of "truck" was in 1611 when it referred to the small strong wheels on ships' cannon carriages, and comes from "Trokhos" (Greek) = "wheel". In its extended usage, it came to refer to carts for carrying heavy loads, a meaning known since 1771. Its expanded application to "motor-powered load carrier" has been in usage since 1930, shortened from "motor truck", which dates back to 1901.[12][13]

"Lorry" has a more uncertain origin, but probably has its roots in therail transportindustry, where the word is known to have been used in 1838 to refer to a type of truck (agoods wagonas in British usage, not abogieas in the American), specifically a large flat wagon. It might derive from the verblurry(to carry or drag along, or to lug) which was in use as early as 1664, but that association is not definitive.[14]The expanded meaning oflorry,"self-propelled vehicle for carrying goods", has been in usage since 1911.[15][16]

International variance

Further information:List of truck types
Trucks parked near Plaza, by the side of Highway in USA
In Pakistan and India the majority of trucks are colorful and decorated.

In the United States, Canada, and the Philippines, "truck" is usually reserved for commercial vehicles larger than regular passenger cars, but includes large SUVs, pickups, and other vehicles with an open load bed.

In Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, the word "truck" is mostly reserved for larger vehicles. In Australia and New Zealand, a pickup truck is frequently called aute(short for "utility" vehicle),[17]while in South Africa it is called abakkie(Afrikaans:"small open container" ).

In the United Kingdom, India, Malaysia, Singapore, Ireland, andHong Konglorryis used instead oftruck,but only for the medium and heavy types, whiletruckis used almost exclusively to refer topickups.

Types by size

See also:Truck classificationandList of truck types

Ultra light

Often produced as variations ofgolf cars,with internal combustion orbattery electric drive,these are used typically for off-highway use on estates, golf courses, and parks. While not suitable for highway use some variations may be licensed as slow speed vehicles for operation on streets, generally as a body variation of aneighborhood electric vehicle.A few manufactures produce specialized chassis for this type of vehicle, whileZap Motorsmarkets a version of their Xebra electric tricycle (licensable in the U.S. as a motorcycle).

Might-E TruckfromCanadian Electric Vehicles
Mitsubishi Minicab MiEVbattery-electrictruck
Dairy Crestelectric milk float truck

Very light

Popular in Europe and Asia, many mini-trucks are factory redesigns of light automobiles, usually withmonocoquebodies. Specialized designs with substantial frames such as the Italian Piaggio shown here are based upon Japanese designs (in this case byDaihatsu) and are popular for use in "old town" sections of European cities that often have very narrow alleyways.

Regardless of name, these small trucks serve a wide range of uses. In Japan, they are regulated under theKei carlaws, which allow vehicle owners a break in taxes for buying a smaller and less-powerful vehicle (currently, the engine is limited to 660 cc displacement). These vehicles are used as on-road utility vehicles in Japan. These Japanese-made mini-trucks that were manufactured for on-road use are competing with off-road ATVs in the United States, and import regulations require that these mini-trucks have a 25 mph (40 km/h) speed governor as they are classified as low-speed vehicles.[18]These vehicles have found uses in construction, large campuses (government, university, and industrial), agriculture, cattle ranches, amusement parks, and replacements for golf carts.[19]

Major mini-truck manufacturers and their brands include:Daihatsu Hijet,Honda Acty,Tata Ace,Mazda Scrum,Mitsubishi Minicab,Subaru Sambar,andSuzuki Carry.

Piaggio Porterin Palmero
Suzuki Carryin Taiwan
Tata Super Acein Indonesia

Light

Light trucks are car-sized (in the US, no more than 13,900 lb (6.3 t)) and are used by individuals and businesses alike. In the EU they may not weigh more than 3.5 t (7,700 lb) and are allowed to be driven with adriving licencefor cars.

Pickup trucks,calledutesin Australia and New Zealand, are common in North America and some regions of Latin America, Asia, and Africa, but not so in Europe, where this size of commercial vehicle is most often made as vans.

Ford Rangerpickup truck
LindnerUnitrac 95L truck harvesting hay in Switzerland
Holden Ute (VF)in Australia

Medium

Medium trucks are larger than light but smaller than heavy trucks. In the US, they are defined as weighing between 13,000 and 33,000 lb (5.9 and 15.0 t). For the UK and the EU the weight is between 3.5 and 7.5 t (7,700 and 16,500 lb). Local delivery and public service (dump trucks,garbage trucksandfire-fighting trucks) are normally around this size.

Fuso Canter(8th gen) in Taiwan
SML Isuzuin Ghana
Fire-fighting truck in Switzerland

Heavy

Heavy trucks are the largest on-road trucks,Class 8.These include vocational applications such as heavy dump trucks, concrete pump trucks, and refuse hauling, as well as ubiquitous long-haul 4x2 and6×4tractor units.[20]

Road damage and wear increase very rapidly with the axle weight. The number of steering axles and the suspension type also influence the amount of the road wear. In many countries with good roads a six-axle truck may have a maximum weight of 44 t (97,000 lb) or more.

Acement mixer
A6×4truck hauling a Walmart container
Seddon AtkinsonStratos refuse compactor

Off-road

Off-road trucks include standard, extra heavy-duty highway-legal trucks, typically outfitted with off-road features such as a front driving axle and special tires for applications such as logging and construction, and purpose-built off-road vehicles unconstrained by weight limits, such as theLiebherr T 282Bmining truck.

ALMAantenna transporter with 28 tires[21]
Liebherr T 282Bdiesel-electricmining truck

Maximum sizes by country

Further information:Road train
AMack Titanroad trainin Australia

Australia has complex regulations over weight and length, including axle spacing, type of axle/axle group, rear overhang, kingpin to rear of trailer, drawbar length, ground clearance, as well as height and width laws. These limits are some of the highest in the world, a B-double can weigh 62.5 t (61.5 long tons; 68.9 short tons) and be 25 m (82 ft) long, androad trainsused in theoutbackcan weigh 172 t (169.3 long tons; 189.6 short tons) and be 53.5 m (176 ft) long.[22][23]

The European Union also has complex regulations. The number and spacing of axles, steering, single or dual tires, and suspension type all affect maximum weights. Length of a truck, of a trailer, from axle to hitch point, kingpin to rear of trailer, and turning radius are all regulated. In additions, there are special rules for carrying containers, and countries can set their own rules for local traffic.[24]

The United States Federal Bridge Law deals with the relation between the gross weight of the truck, the number of axles, the weight on and the spacing between the axles that the truck can have on the Interstate highway system.[25]Each State determines the maximum permissiblevehicle,combination,andaxleweight on state and local roads.

Country Maximum
with three axles		 With one trailer Maximum combination
Australia[22][23] 23 t (22.6 long tons; 25.4 short tons) 12 m (39 ft) 172 t (169.3 long tons; 189.6 short tons)
53.5 m (176 ft)
China[26] 25 t (24.6 long tons; 27.6 short tons)
12 m (39 ft)		 49 t (48.2 long tons; 54.0 short tons)
16.5 m (54 ft)		 55 t (54.1 long tons; 60.6 short tons)
18.75 m (62 ft)
EU[24] 26 t (25.6 long tons; 28.7 short tons)
12 m (39 ft)		 16.5 m (54 ft) 44 t (43.3 long tons; 48.5 short tons)
18.75 m (62 ft)
Finland[27] 28 t (27.6 long tons; 30.9 short tons)
13 m (43 ft)		 76 t (74.8 long tons; 83.8 short tons)
34.5 m (113 ft 2 in)		 76 t (74.8 long tons; 83.8 short tons)
34.5 m (113 ft)
Ireland[28] 26 t (25.6 long tons; 28.7 short tons)
12 m (39 ft)		 30 t (29.5 long tons; 33.1 short tons)
16.5 m (54 ft 2 in)		 44 t (43.3 long tons; 48.5 short tons)
22 m (72 ft)
Sweden[29][30] 26 t (25.6 long tons; 28.7 short tons)
24 m (79 ft)		 74 t (72.8 long tons; 81.6 short tons)
25.25 m (82 ft 10 in)		 74 t (72.8 long tons; 81.6 short tons)
34.5 m (113 ft)
UK[31] 26 t (25.6 long tons; 28.7 short tons)
12 m (39 ft)		 44 t (43.3 long tons; 48.5 short tons)
16.5 m (54 ft)		 44 t (43.3 long tons; 48.5 short tons)
18.75 m (62 ft)
USA[32][33]
(Interstate)		 54,000 lb (24 t)
45 ft (13.7 m)		 80,000 lb (36 t)
none		 80,000 lb (36 t)
none

Uniquely, theState of Michiganhas a gross vehicle weight limit of 164,000 lb (74 t), which is twice the U.S. federal limit.[34][35][36]A measure to change the law was defeated in theMichigan Senatein 2019.[37][38][39][40][41]

Design

Almost all trucks share a common construction: they are made of achassis,acab,an area for placingcargoor equipment,axles,suspensionandroadwheels,anengineand adrivetrain.Pneumatic,hydraulic,water,andelectricalsystems may also be present. Many also tow one or moretrailersor semi-trailers.

Cab

A cabover truck
Streamlined conventional cab
Cab beside engine

The "cab", or "cabin" is an enclosed space where the driver is seated. A "sleeper"is a compartment attached to or integral with the cab where the driver can rest while not driving, sometimes seen in semi-trailer trucks.

There are several cab configurations:

  • "Cab overengine "(COE) or" flat nose "; where the driver is seated above the front axle and theengine.This design is almost ubiquitous in Europe, where overall truck lengths are strictly regulated, and is widely used in the rest of the world. They were common in North American heavy-duty trucks but lost prominence when permitted length was extended in the early 1980s. Nevertheless, this design is still popular in North America among medium- and light-duty trucks. To reach the engine, the whole cab tilts forward, earning this design the name of "tilt-cab". This type of cab is especially suited to the delivery conditions in Europe where many roads require the short turning radius afforded by the shorter wheelbase of the cab over engine layout.[42]
  • "Cab-under" is where the driver is positioned at the front at the lowest point possible as means for maximum cargo space as possible.[43][44][45][46]Examples were made by Hunslet, Leyland, Bussing, Strick[47]and Steinwinter.[48]
  • "Conventional" cabs seated the driver behind the engine, as in most passenger cars or pickup trucks. Many new cabs are verystreamlined,with a sloped hood (bonnet) and other features to lower drag. Conventional cabs are the most common in North America, Australia, and China, and are known in the UK as "American cabs"[citation needed]and in the Netherlands as "torpedo cabs".[citation needed]
  • "Cab beside engine" designs are used forterminal tractorsatshipping yardsand for other specialist vehicles carrying long loads such as pipes. This type is often made by replacing the passenger side of a cab-over truck with an extended section of the load bed.

A further step from this is the side loadingforkliftthat can be described as a specially fabricated vehicle with the same properties as a truck of this type, in addition to the ability to pick up its own load.

Engines and motors

Cummins ISB6.7L medium-duty truck diesel engine

Most small trucks such assport utility vehicles(SUVs),vansorpickups,and even light medium-duty trucks in North America, China, and Russia usegasoline engines(petrol engines), but manydiesel enginedmodels are now being produced. Most of the heavier trucks usefour-strokediesel engines with aturbochargerandintercooler.Huge off-highway trucks use locomotive-type engines such as aV12Detroit Dieseltwo strokeengine. A large proportion of refuse trucks in the United States employCNG(compressed natural gas) engines for their low fuel cost and reduced carbon emissions.

A significant proportion of North American manufactured trucks use an engine built by the last remaining major independent engine manufacturer (Cummins) but most global OEMs such asVolvo TrucksandDaimler AGpromote their own "captive" engines.[49]

In the European Union, all new truck engines must comply withEuro VIemission regulations.[50]

As of 2019several alternative technologies are competing to displace the use of diesel engines in heavy trucks. CNG engines are widely used in the US refuse industry and in concrete mixers, among other short-range vocations, but range limitations have prevented their broader uptake in freight hauling applications. Heavyelectric trucksandhydrogen-powered trucksare new to the market in 2021,[51][52]but major freight haulers are interested.[53][54]Although cars will be first thephase-out of fossil fuel vehiclesincludes trucks.[55]According toThe Economistmagazine "Electric lorries will probably run on hydrogen, not batteries, which are too expensive."[56]Other researchers say that once fasterchargersare available batteries will become competitive against diesel for all, except perhaps the heaviest, trucks.[57]

Drivetrain

A truck rear suspension and drive axles overview
Eaton Roadranger 18 speed "crash box" with automated gearshift

Small trucks use the same type oftransmissionsas almost all cars, having either an automatic transmission or a manual transmission withsynchromesh(synchronizers). Bigger trucks often use manual transmissions without synchronizers, saving bulk and weight, although synchromesh transmissions are used in larger trucks as well. Transmissions without synchronizers, known as "crash boxes", requiredouble-clutchingfor each shift, (which can lead to repetitive motion injuries), or a technique known colloquially as "floating", a method of changing gears which does not use the clutch, except for starts and stops, due to the physical effort of double-clutching, especially with non-power-assisted clutches, faster shifts, and less clutch wear.

Double-clutching allows the driver to control the engine and transmission revolutions to synchronize so that a smooth shift can be made; for example, when upshifting, the accelerator pedal is released and the clutch pedal is depressed while the gear lever is moved into neutral, the clutch pedal is then released and quickly pushed down again while the gear lever is moved to the next higher gear. Finally, the clutch pedal is released and the accelerator pedal pushed down to obtain the required engine speed. Although this is a relatively fast movement, perhaps a second or so while the transmission is in neutral, it allows the engine speed to drop and synchronize engine and transmission revolutions relative to the road speed. Downshifting is performed in a similar fashion, except the engine speed is now required to increase (while the transmission is in neutral) just the right amount in order to achieve the synchronization for a smooth, non-collision gear change. "Skip changing" is also widely used; in principle, the operation is the same as double-clutching, but it requires neutral be held slightly longer than a single-gear change.

Common North American setups include 9, 10, 13, 15, and 18 speeds.Automaticandautomated manual transmissionsfor heavy trucks are becoming more and more common, due to advances both in transmission and engine power. In Europe, 8, 10, 12, and 16 gears are common on larger trucks with a manual transmission, while conventional automatic or automated manual transmissions would have anything from 5 to 12 gears. Almost all heavy truck transmissions are of the "range and split" (double H shift pattern) type, where range change and so‑called half gears or splits are air operated and always preselected before the main gear selection.

Frame

A truck rear frame (chassis) section view
Pickup truck frame (right rear view)

A truckframeconsists of two parallel boxed (tubular) or C‑shaped rails, or beams, held together bycrossmembers.These frames are referred to asladder framesdue to their resemblance to a ladder if tipped on end. The rails consist of a tall vertical section (two if boxed) and two shorter horizontal flanges. The height of the vertical section provides opposition to vertical flex when weight is applied to the top of the frame (beam resistance). Though typically flat the whole length on heavy-duty trucks, the rails may sometimes be tapered or arched for clearance around the engine or over the axles. The holes in rails are used either for mounting vehicle components and running wires and hoses or measuring and adjusting the orientation of the rails at the factory or repair shop.

The frame is usually made ofsteel,but can be made (whole or in part) ofaluminumfor a lighter weight. Atow barmay be found attached at one or both ends, but heavy tractors almost always make use of afifth wheelhitch.[citation needed]

Body types

Box truckshave walls and a roof, making an enclosed load space. The rear has doors for unloading; a side door is sometimes fitted.[58]

Chassis cabtrucks have a fully enclosed cab at the front, with barechassisframe-rails behind, suitable for subsequent permanent attachment of a specialized payload, like afire-truckorambulancebody.

Concrete mixershave a rotating drum on an inclined axis, rotating in one direction to mix, and in the other to discharge the concrete down chutes. Because of the weight and power requirements of the drum body and rough construction sites, mixers have to be very heavy duty.[59][60]

Dual drive/Steer trucksare vehicles used to steer the rear oftrailers.[61][62][63][64]

Dump trucks( "tippers" in the UK) transport loose material such as sand, gravel, or dirt for construction. A typical dump truck has an open-box bed, which is hinged at the rear and lifts at the front, allowing the material in the bed to be unloaded ( "dumped" ) on the ground behind the truck.[65][66]

Flatbed truckshave an entirely flat, level platform body. This allows for quick and easy loading but has no protection for the load. Hanging or removable sides are sometimes fitted,[67]often in the form of astakebody.

Refrigerator truckshave insulated panels as walls and a roof and floor, used for transporting fresh and frozen cargo such as ice cream, food, vegetables, and prescription drugs. They are mostly equipped with double-wing rear doors, but a side door is sometimes fitted.

Refuse truckshave a specialized body for collecting and, often, compacting trash collected from municipal, commercial, and industrial sites. This application has the widest use of thecab-overconfiguration in North America, to provide better maneuverability in tight situations. They are also among the most severe-duty and highestGVWRtrucks on public roads.

Semi-tractors( "artics" in the UK) have a fifth wheel for towing a semi-trailer instead of a body.

Tank trucks( "tankers" in the UK) are designed to carryliquidsorgases.They usually have a cylindrical tank lying horizontally on the chassis. Many variants exist due to the wide variety of liquids and gases that can be transported.[68]

Wreckers( "recovery lorries" in the UK) are used to recover and/or tow disabled vehicles. They are normally equipped with a boom with a cable; wheel/chassis lifts are becoming common on newer trucks.[69][70][71]

Sales and sales issues

Manufacturers

Main article:List of truck manufacturers

Truck market worldwide

Largest truck manufacturers in the world as of 2015.
Pos. Make Units
1 Daimler AG(Mercedes-Benz,Freightliner,Unimog,Western Star,Fuso,BharatBenz) 506,663[72]
2 Navistar International 359,000[73]
3 Dongfeng 336,869[74]
4 Tata 317,780[75]
5 Volvo Group(Volvo,Mack,Renault,UD Nissan) 207,475[76]
6 Volkswagen Group(MAN,Scania,Caminhões e Ônibus) 179,035[77]
7 Hino 162,870[78]
8 Paccar(DAF,Kenworth,Peterbilt,Leyland) 154,700[79]
9 Iveco 140,200[80]

Driving

In many countries, driving a truck requires a special driving license. The requirements and limitations vary with each different jurisdiction.

Australia

Inside a Mack truck

In Australia, atruck driver's license is required for any motor vehicle with aGross Vehicle Mass(GVM) exceeding 4.5 t (4.4 long tons; 5.0 short tons). The motor vehicles classes are further expanded as:

Combination
  • HC:Heavy Combination, a typical prime mover plus semi-trailer combination.
  • MC:Multi Combination, e.g., B Doubles/road trains
Rigid
  • LR:Light rigid: a rigid vehicle with a GVM of more than 4.5 t (4.4 long tons; 5.0 short tons) but not more than 8 t (7.9 long tons; 8.8 short tons). Any towed trailer must not weigh more than 9 t (8.9 long tons; 9.9 short tons) GVM.
  • MR:Medium rigid: a rigid vehicle with 2 axles and a GVM of more than 8 t (7.9 long tons; 8.8 short tons). Any towed trailer must not weigh more than 9 t (8.9 long tons; 9.9 short tons) GVM. Also includes vehicles in classLR.
  • HR:Heavy Rigid: a rigid vehicle with three or more axles and a GVM of more than 8 t (7.9 long tons; 8.8 short tons). Any towed trailer must not weigh more than 9 t (8.9 long tons; 9.9 short tons) GVM. Also includes articulated buses and vehicles in classMR.
Heavy vehicle transmission

There is also a heavy vehicle transmission condition for a license classHC,HR,orMCtest passed in a vehicle fitted with an automatic or synchromesh transmission; a driver's license will be restricted to vehicles of that class fitted with a synchromesh or automatic transmission. To have the condition removed, a person needs to pass a practical driving test in a vehicle with non-synchromesh transmission (constant mesh or crash box).[81]

Europe

Inside a Mercedes-Benz truck

Driving licensing has been harmonized throughout theEuropean Unionand theEEA(and practically all European non-member states), so that common rules apply within Europe (seeEuropean driving licence). As an overview, to drive a vehicle weighing more than 7.5 t (7.4 long tons; 8.3 short tons) for commercial purposes requires a specialist license (the type varies depending on the use of the vehicle and number of seats). For licenses first acquired after 1997, that weight was reduced to 3.5 t (3.4 long tons; 3.9 short tons), not including trailers.[citation needed]

Since 2013, the C1 license category allows driving vehicles over 3.5 and up to 7.5 tonnes. The C license category allows driving vehicles over 3.5 tonnes with a trailer up to 750 kg, and the CE category allows driving category C vehicles with a trailer over 750 kg.

South Africa

To drive any vehicle with a GVM exceeding 3.5 t (3.4 long tons; 3.9 short tons), a code C1 drivers license is required. Furthermore, if the vehicle exceeds 16 t (15.7 long tons; 17.6 short tons) a code C license becomes necessary.

To drive any vehicle in South Africa towing a trailer with a GVM more than 7.5 t (7.4 long tons; 8.3 short tons), further restrictions apply and the driver must possess a license suitable for the GVM of the total combination as well as an articulated endorsement. This is indicated with the letter "E" prefixing the license code.

In addition, any vehicle designed to carry goods or passengers may only be driven by a driver possessing a Public Driver's Permit, (or PrDP) of the applicable type. This is an additional license that is added to the DL card of the operator and subject to annual renewal unlike the five-year renewal period of a normal license.

The requirements for obtaining the different classes are below.

  • "G": Required for the transport of general goods, requires a criminal record check and a fee on issuing and renewal.
  • "P": Required for the transport of paying passengers, requires a more stringent criminal record check, additionally the driver must be over the age of 21 at time of issue. A G class PrDP will be issued at the same time.
  • "D": Required for the transport of dangerous materials, requires all of the same checks as class P., and in addition the driver must be over 25 at time of issue.

United States

Inside a Navistar 9000

In the United States, acommercial driver's licenseis required to drive any type of commercial vehicle weighing 26,001 lb (11,794 kg) or more.[82]The federal government regulates how many hours a driver may be on the clock, how much rest and sleep time is required (e.g., 11 hours driving/14 hours on-duty followed by 10 hours off, with a maximum of 70 hours/8 days or 60 hours/7 days, 34 hours restart )[83]Violations are often subject to significant penalties. Instruments to track each driver's hours must sometimes be fitted. In 2006, theUS trucking industryemployed 1.8 million drivers of heavy trucks.[84]

There is a shortage of willing trained long-distance truck drivers.[85]Part of the reason for this is the economic fallout fromderegulationof the trucking industry.Michael H. Belzer,associate professor,in the economics department atWayne State Universityand co-author ofSweatshops on Wheels: Winners and Losers in Trucking Deregulation,argues that low pay, bad working conditions and unsafe conditions have been a direct result of deregulation.[86][87]The book cites poor working conditions and an unfair pay system as responsible for high annual employee turnover in the industry.[88][89]

In 2018, in the US, 5,096 large trucks and buses were involved in fatal crashes:

  • The number of large trucks involved in fatal crashes is 4,862,
  • The number of large trucks involved in injury crashes is 112,000,
  • The number of large trucks involved in property damage only crashes is 414,000.[90]

Environmental effects

See also:Diesel exhaustandEnvironmental effects of transport
Exhaust fumes from a small truck
Trucks' share of US vehicles produced, has tripled since 1975. Though vehicle fuel efficiency has increased within each category, the overall trend toward trucks has offset some of the benefits of greater fuel economy and reductions in pollution and carbon dioxide emissions.[91]Without the shift towards SUVs, energy use per unit distance could have fallen 30% more than it did from 2010 to 2022.[92]

Like cars, trucks contribute to air, noise, andwater pollution.[93]Unlike cars, as of 2022,most trucks run on diesel, anddiesel exhaustis especially dangerous for health.[94]Some countries have different vehicle emission standards for trucks and cars.[95][96]

NOxandparticulatesemitted by trucks are very dangerous to health,[97][98]causing thousands of early deaths annually in the US alone.[99]As older trucks are usually the worst,[100]many cities have banned 20th century trucks.[101]Air pollution also threatens professional truck drivers.[102]

Over a quarter of global transportCO2emissionsare from road freight,[103]in 2021 over 1700 million tonnes from medium and heavy trucks,[104]so many countries are further restricting truck CO2emissions to helplimit climate change.[105]Many environmental organizations favor laws and incentives to encourage the switch from road to rail, especially in Europe.[106]Several countries have pledged that 30% of sales of trucks and buses will be zero emission by 2030.[107]

With respect tonoise pollution,trucks emit considerably higher sound levels at all speeds compared to typical cars; this contrast is particularly strong with heavy-duty trucks.[108]There are several aspects of truck operations that contribute to the overall sound that is emitted. Continuous sounds are those fromtiresrolling on the roadway and the constant hum of their diesel engines at highway speeds. Less frequent noises, but perhaps more noticeable, are things like the repeated sharp-pitched whistle of aturbochargeron acceleration, or the abrupt blare of anexhaust brakeretarderwhen traversing a downgrade. There has beennoise regulationput in place to help control where and when the use ofengine brakingretarders are allowed.[citation needed]

Operator health and safety

An orange metal housing with an open panel containing three horizontal stacked filters
Truck cab filter housing using a contiguous series of pre-, HEPA, and charcoal panel filters

A truck cab is ahazard controlthat protects the truck operator from hazardous airborne pollutants.[citation needed]As an enclosure, it is an example of anengineering control.Enclosed operator cabs have been used on agriculture, mining, and construction vehicles for several decades. Most modern-day enclosed cabs haveheating, ventilation, and air conditioning(HVAC) systems for primarily maintaining a comfortable temperature and providing breathable air for their occupants. Various levels of filtration can be incorporated into the HVAC system to remove airborne pollutants such asdusts,diesel particulate matter (DPM), and otheraerosols.[109]

Two key elements of an effective environmental enclosure are a good filtration system and an enclosure with good integrity (sealed isolation from the outside environment). It is recommended that a filtration system filter out at least 95% or greater of airborne respirable aerosols from the intake airflow, with an additional recirculation filtering component for the inside air. Good enclosure integrity is also needed to achievepositive pressureto prevent wind-driven aerosol penetration into the enclosure,as well as to minimize air leakage around the filtration system. Test methods and mathematical modeling of environmental enclosures are also beneficial for quantifying and optimizing filtration system designs, as well as maintaining optimum protection factor performance for enclosure occupants.[109]

Operations issues

Taxes

Commercial trucks in the US pay higher road use taxes on a state level than other road vehicles and are subject to extensive regulation.[110]A few reasons commercial trucks pay higher road use taxes: they are bigger and heavier than most other vehicles, and cause more wear and tear per hour on roadways; and trucks and their drivers are on the road for more hours per day. Rules on use taxes differ among jurisdictions.

Damage to pavement

The life of a pavement is measured by the number of passes of a vehicle axle. It may be evaluated using the Load Equivalency Factor,[111]which states that the damage by the pass of a vehicle axle is proportional to the 4th power of the weight, so a ten-ton axle consumes 10,000 times the life of the pavement as a one-ton axle. For that reason, loaded trucks cost the same as thousands of cars in pavement costs, and are subject to higher taxes and highway tolls.[38][39]

Commercial insurance

Primary liability insurance coverage protects the truck from damage or injuries to other people as a result of a truck accident. This truck insurance coverage is mandated by U.S. state and federal agencies, and proof of coverage is required to be sent to them. Interstate trucks in the U.S. are required to have a minimum of $75,000 in liability insurance. This includes motor carriers operating vehicles with a gross weight rating in excess of 10,000 lb (4.5 t) (which transport non-hazardous materials). All motor carriers operating vehicles transporting materials classified as hazardous, and which have a gross weight rating in excess of 10,000 lb (4.5 t) must have a minimum of $1,000,000 in liability insurance. All motor carriers operating vehicles such as hopper-type cargo vehicles or tankers with a capacity in excess of 3,500 US gal (13,000 L) must have a minimum of $5,000,000 in liability insurance. Pricing is dependent on region, driving records, and history of the trucking operation.

Motor truck cargo insurance protects the transporter for his responsibility in the event of damaged or lost freight. The policy is purchased with a maximum load limit per vehicle. Cargo insurance coverage limits can range from $10,000 to $100,000 or more. Pricing for this insurance is mainly dependent on the type of cargo being hauled.

Safety

Trucking accidents

Trucking accident

In 2002 and 2004, there were over 5,000 fatalities related to trucking accidents in the United States. The trucking industry has since made significant efforts in increasing safety regulations. In 2008, the industry had successfully lowered the fatality rate to just over 4,000 deaths, but trucking accidents are still an issue that causes thousands of deaths and injuries each year. Approximately 6,000 trucking accident fatalities occur annually in the United States. Fatalities are not the only issue caused by trucking accidents. Here are some of the environmental issues that arise with trucking accidents:

  • 14.4% of trucking accidents cause cargo to spill
  • 6.5% cause open flames

Following increased pressure fromThe Times"Cities Fit For Cycling" campaign and from other media in Spring 2012, warning signs are now displayed on the backs of manyheavy goods vehicles(HGV). These signs are directed against a common type of accident that occurs when the large vehicle turns left at a junction: a cyclist trying to pass on the nearside can be crushed against the HGV's wheels, especially if the driver cannot see thecyclist.The signs, such as the winning design of theInTANDEM road safety competitionlaunched in March 2012, advocate extra care when passing a large vehicle on the nearside.

HGV safety in the EU

In-vehicle speed limitation is required applying a 90 km/h limit to commercial vehicles over 3.5 tonnes.[112]

Front, side, and rear underrun protection is required on commercial vehicles over 3.5 tonnes.[112]

Trucks must be fitted with blind-spot mirrors that give drivers a wider field of vision than conventional mirrors.[113]

See also

References

  1. ^"Glossary"(PDF).trucking.org.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 29 November 2019.Retrieved12 September2019.
  2. ^Gies, Erica (18 December 2017)."Electric Trucks Begin Reporting for Duty, Quietly and Without All the Fumes".Inside Climate News.Archivedfrom the original on 13 June 2021.Retrieved13 June2021.Replacing fleets of medium- and heavy-duty trucks can help cut greenhouse gas emissions and make cities quieter and cleaner. Because trucks need so much hauling power, they have eluded electrification until recently; a battery that could pull significant weight would itself be too hefty and too expensive. But now, improvements in battery technology are paying off, bringing down both size and cost. The number of hybrid-electric and electric trucks is set to grow almost 25 percent annually, from 1 percent of the market in 2017 to 7 percent in 2027, a jump from about 40,000 electric trucks worldwide this year to 371,000.
  3. ^"Truck History".About.com.Archived fromthe originalon 11 July 2012.Retrieved6 September2008.
  4. ^"Autocar, Always up, Our History".Autocar, LLC.Archivedfrom the original on 22 October 2018.Retrieved21 October2018.
  5. ^"D.M.'s Eldridge Beat Henry Ford." Des Moines Register, June 5, 1996, p. 6N-LC.https://www.newspapers.com/image/130960696/?clipping_id=131599051&fcfToken=eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJmcmVlLXZpZXctaWQiOjEzMDk2MDY5NiwiaWF0IjoxNzE1NTQwMzIwLCJleHAiOjE3MTU2MjY3MjB9.-lQ-C4jYruRLmtDhkKYk7d6sZTuWnWdhpGvssMexmjA
  6. ^"Debut of diesel engines in tractors and trucks".Daimler AG.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2018.Retrieved27 September2018.
  7. ^Davies, Peter J. (2000).The World Encyclopedia of Trucks.Lorenz Books. pp. 20–21, 114, 118, 160, 204.ISBN0-7548-0518-2.
  8. ^Motor's Truck and Diesel Repair Manual(26 ed.). Motor. 1973. pp. 530, 1035.ISBN0-910992-16-9.
  9. ^"AutoCar Archives".Archivedfrom the original on 17 August 2021.Retrieved1 July2021.
  10. ^Profita, Cassandra (26 June 2020)."California's Landmark Electric Truck Rule Targets 'Diesel Death Zone'".National Public Radio.Archivedfrom the original on 9 June 2021.Retrieved14 June2021.California will require automakers to sell more electric trucks starting in 2024. The measure, approved unanimously Thursday by the California Air Resources Board, says that by 2045 all new trucks sold in the state should be zero-emissions.
  11. ^Shephardson, David; Groom, Nichola (25 June 2020)."California passes landmark mandate for zero emission trucks".Reuters.Archivedfrom the original on 14 June 2021.Retrieved14 June2021.The mandate, which applies to medium-duty and large trucks, will put an estimated 300,000 zero-emission trucks on the road by 2035. The mandate will start in the 2024 model year and initially require 5%–9% zero emission vehicles (ZEV) based on class, rising to 30%–50% by 2030. By 2045, all vehicles should be ZEVs. The regulation would apply to pickup trucks weighing 8,500 pounds or more, but not to light-duty trucks, which are covered by separate zero emission regulations.
  12. ^"Truck".Archived9 July 2017 at theWayback Machine.Merriam-Webster Dictionary.
  13. ^"Truck".Archived29 May 2011 at theWayback Machine.Online Etymology Dictionary.16 September 2010.
  14. ^"lurry, v."Oxford English Dictionary Online.Oxford University Press. September 2019.Retrieved1 December2019.
  15. ^"Lorry"Archived20 October 2012 at theWayback MachineOnline Etymology Dictionary16 September 2010
  16. ^"Lorry"Archived11 April 2010 at theWayback MachineMerriam-Webster Dictionary
  17. ^"The First Ute".ABC – Radio Australia. Archived fromthe originalon 29 March 2012.Retrieved15 June2012.
  18. ^"49CFR571".Archived fromthe originalon 22 September 2008.Retrieved31 January2018.
  19. ^"お vấn い hợp わせ"(in Japanese). Archived fromthe originalon 9 August 2020.Retrieved12 September2019.
  20. ^"Chapter 3. HEAVY TRUCKS – Center for Transportation" (PDF)cta.ornl.gov20 August 2015
  21. ^"An ALMA Antenna on the Move".ESO Picture of the Week.Archivedfrom the original on 27 January 2013.Retrieved16 July2012.
  22. ^ab"Heavy Vehicle (Mass, Dimension and loading) National Regulation Schedule 1 (NSW)".New South Wales Government.Archivedfrom the original on 27 July 2016.Retrieved5 August2016.
  23. ^ab"Heavy Vehicle (Mass, Dimension and loading) National Regulation Schedule 6 (NSW)".New South Wales Government.Archivedfrom the original on 27 July 2016.Retrieved5 August2016.
  24. ^ab"Council Directive 96/53/EC laying down for certain road vehicles circulating within the Community the maximum authorized dimensions in national and international traffic and the maximum authorized weights in international traffic".EUR-Lex.Archivedfrom the original on 24 August 2016.Retrieved5 August2016.
  25. ^"Freight Management and Operations: Bridge Formula Weights".US Department of Transportation. 21 May 2015.Archivedfrom the original on 12 February 2007.Retrieved26 May2015.
  26. ^Harborn, Mats; Feng, Feng; Xu, Tommy (2013)."Chinese Road Transport Mass and Dimensions Regulations – An Analysis of the Challenges Ahead".road-transport-technology.org.Archivedfrom the original on 4 July 2018.Retrieved6 August2016.
  27. ^"Asetus ajoneuvojen käytöstä tiellä".Finlex.Archivedfrom the original on 19 December 2019.Retrieved2 December2019.
  28. ^"Guidelines on Maximum Weights and Dimensions"(PDF).Ireland Road Safety Authority. February 2013.Archived(PDF)from the original on 27 July 2013.Retrieved26 June2014.
  29. ^""Legal loading" - Weight and dimension regulations for heavy vehicles "(PDF).Swedish Transport Agency.Archived(PDF)from the original on 3 December 2022.Retrieved3 December2022.
  30. ^"Längre kombinationer tillåts i Sverige från 1 december".Trailer(in Swedish). Albinsson & Sjöberg. 2 November 2023.Retrieved3 June2024.
  31. ^"A Guide to Haulage & Courier Vehicle Types & Weights"(PDF).Returnloads.net.Archivedfrom the original on 22 July 2021.Retrieved23 March2021.
  32. ^"Federal Size Regulations for Commercial Motor Vehicles".US Department of Transportation.Archivedfrom the original on 5 June 2013.Retrieved5 August2016.
  33. ^"Compilation of Exixting State Truck Size and Weight Limit Laws".US Department of Transportation. May 2015.Archivedfrom the original on 7 August 2016.Retrieved7 August2016.
  34. ^Egan, Paul (13 March 2018)."Does your body ache from hitting potholes? 5 reasons Michigan has lousy roads".Detroit Free Press.Archivedfrom the original on 16 April 2019.Retrieved16 April2019.
  35. ^Anderson, Bill (17 August 2018)."Michigan's Road Spending: How do we stack up?".Southeast Michigan Council of Governments.Retrieved16 April2019.
  36. ^Haddad, Ken (22 February 2018)."Pothole questions: Why are Ohio's roads better than Michigan's roads? MDOT points to lack of funding compared to Ohio".Archived fromthe originalon 16 April 2019.Retrieved16 April2019.
  37. ^Oosting, Jonathhan (2 December 2014)."Michigan road funding: Proposal to cut truck weight limits fails in state Senate".MLive.Archivedfrom the original on 16 April 2019.Retrieved16 April2018.
  38. ^abChatti, K. (February 2009)."Effect of Michigan Multi-Axle Trucks on Pavement Distress"(PDF).Michigan DOTandMichigan State University,Final Report, Executive Summary, Project RC-1504. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 24 October 2020.
  39. ^ab"Pavement Comparative Analysis Technical Report Comprehensive Truck Size and Weight Limits Study"(PDF).U.S. Department of Transportation,Federal Highway Administration.15 June 2015.Archived(PDF)from the original on 11 January 2019.Retrieved16 April2019.
  40. ^Egan, Paul (19 April 2019)."Experts weigh in on how much Michigan's heavy trucks damage the state's roads".Detroit Free Press.Archivedfrom the original on 20 April 2019.Retrieved21 April2019.
  41. ^Egan, Paul (1 March 2019)."Fixing Michigan's crumbling roads: What about the heavy trucks?".Detroit Free Press.Archivedfrom the original on 21 April 2019.Retrieved21 April2019.
  42. ^Davies (2000),pp. 58–61.
  43. ^Commercial Car Journal May 1977, Brian Taylor
  44. ^Heavy Duty Trucking, November 1977, The cab-under controversy
  45. ^"Cab-under trucks didn't make it".Historic Vehicles.
  46. ^"Cab-under trucks – is an old idea returning?".www.trucksales.com.au.
  47. ^Strohl, Daniel (27 May 2022)."Strick's unconventional Cab-Under truck prototype, designed to skirt trucking length laws, returns to the United States, restoration underway".www.hemmings.com.Retrieved16 September2023.
  48. ^Stumpf, Rob (18 July 2017)."The Forgotten Steinwinter Supercargo Is Unlike Anything on the Road Today".The Drive.
  49. ^Operators Handbook-DM, DMM, U Series.Mack Trucks.1988. pp. 62–64.
  50. ^"EU: Heavy-Duty Truck and Bus Engines".DieselNet.November 2016. Archived fromthe originalon 11 July 2018.Retrieved15 October2017.
  51. ^Raynal, Wes (26 February 2021)."Electric Truck Maker Nikola Is Cutting Production Target, Again".Autoweek.Archivedfrom the original on 26 February 2021.Retrieved27 February2021.
  52. ^Salisbury, Mark (25 February 2021)."DHL Freight and Volvo Trucks join to introduce long-distance electric trucks".FleetPoint.Archivedfrom the original on 27 February 2021.Retrieved27 February2021.
  53. ^"Want a Nikola hydrogen-electric truck? You will have to wait".FreightWaves.17 April 2019.Archivedfrom the original on 18 April 2019.Retrieved18 April2019.
  54. ^Lambert, Fred (11 January 2019)."Tesla Semi receives another order, electric trucks will move goods in Europe".Archivedfrom the original on 19 April 2019.Retrieved19 April2019.
  55. ^"California takes bold step to reduce truck pollution | California Air Resources Board".ww2.arb.ca.gov.Archivedfrom the original on 26 February 2021.Retrieved27 February2021.
  56. ^"Daimler Truck and Mercedes-Benz part ways".The Economist.4 February 2021.ISSN0013-0613.Archivedfrom the original on 27 February 2021.Retrieved27 February2021.
  57. ^"Climate change: Electric trucks 'can compete with diesel ones'".BBC News.8 April 2021.Archivedfrom the original on 9 April 2021.Retrieved9 April2021.
  58. ^Davies (2000),pp. 30–31.
  59. ^"Concrete Mixers (company site)".McNeilus. 2016.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2016.Retrieved24 September2016.
  60. ^"Truck Mixers Summary (Sales Brocure)"(PDF).Stetter. 2016.Archived(PDF)from the original on 27 September 2016.Retrieved24 September2016.
  61. ^Berg, Tom (19 August 2013)."'Steer Cars' and 'Jeeps' Bring Up the Rear of Long-Beam Hauls ".www.truckinginfo.com.
  62. ^"This Truck/Trailer Combination Requires 2 Drivers and Moves Massive Plane Parts".9 March 2021.
  63. ^"VIDEO: Truckers use dual-driver system to haul oversized load".CDLLife.29 December 2022.
  64. ^"A Trailer So Big the Back Half Has Its Own Driver".
  65. ^Davies (2000),pp. 34–35.
  66. ^"Dump Truck Operator Manual"(PDF).Galion-Godwin Truck Body Co.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2016.Retrieved13 September2016.
  67. ^Davies (2000),pp. 28–29.
  68. ^Davies (2000),pp. 32–33.
  69. ^Davies (2000),pp. 46–47.
  70. ^"HDR 70/85 Wrecker Operations and Maintenance Manual"(PDF).Jerr-Dan. 2010.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2016.Retrieved13 September2016.
  71. ^"Owner's Manual 820 Wrecker/FIIIT"(PDF).Miller Industries. 1997.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2016.Retrieved13 September2016.
  72. ^"Annual Report 2015".Daimler. 2016. Archived fromthe originalon 2 October 2016.Retrieved25 September2016.
  73. ^"Form 10K Navistar International Corp".US Securities and Exchange Commission. 2016. p. 48.Archivedfrom the original on 9 October 2016.Retrieved24 September2016.
  74. ^"2015 Annual Report"(PDF).Dongfeng. 2016. p. 10. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 27 September 2016.Retrieved25 September2016.
  75. ^"70th Annual Report 2015-2015"(PDF).Tata. 2016. p. 53. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 9 October 2016.Retrieved24 September2016.
  76. ^"Annual and Sustainability Report 2015"(PDF).Volvo. 2016. p. 91. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 10 October 2016.Retrieved25 September2016.
  77. ^"Annual Report 2015"(PDF).Volkswagen. 2016. p. 98. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 9 October 2016.Retrieved25 September2016.
  78. ^"Financial Reports for the Fiscal Year Ending"(PDF).Hino Motors. 2016. p. 25. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 9 October 2016.Retrieved25 September2016.
  79. ^"2015 Annual Report"(PDF).PACCAR. 2016. p. 28.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2016.Retrieved25 September2016.
  80. ^"2015 Annual Report"(PDF).CNH. 2016. p. 60. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 23 October 2016.Retrieved23 October2016.
  81. ^"South Australia License class information".Gov't of South Australia.Archivedfrom the original on 4 December 2016.Retrieved28 July2016.
  82. ^"Commercial Drivers License".National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.Archived fromthe originalon 17 September 2008.Retrieved21 May2008.
  83. ^"Hours of Service Rules".US Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration. 18 December 2014.Archivedfrom the original on 27 May 2015.Retrieved26 May2015.
  84. ^"Truck Drivers and Drivers/Sales Workers".Occupational Outlook Handbook.Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. 18 December 2007.Archivedfrom the original on 11 October 2007.Retrieved25 January2008.
  85. ^Morris, Frank (11 February 2019)."Facing A Critical Shortage Of Drivers, The Trucking Industry Is Changing"(Audio).Morning edition.National Public Radio.Archivedfrom the original on 17 April 2019.Retrieved17 April2019.
  86. ^"Sweatshops on Wheels".Oxford University Press. July 2000.Archivedfrom the original on 8 March 2012.Retrieved17 March2012.
  87. ^Belzer, Michael H.(24 August 2000).Sweatshops on Wheels: Winners and Losers in Trucking Deregulation(Hardcover).Oxford University Press,USA. p. 272.ISBN0-19-512886-9.ISBN978-0-19-512886-4.
  88. ^"Sweatshops on Wheels",U.S. News & World Report.
  89. ^"Sweatshops on Wheels."The Washington Post
  90. ^"Large Truck and Bus Crash Facts 2018 | FMCSA".www.fmcsa.dot.gov.Archivedfrom the original on 30 March 2021.Retrieved30 March2021.
  91. ^"Highlights of the Automotive Trends Report".EPA.gov.U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 12 December 2022.Archivedfrom the original on 2 September 2023.
  92. ^Cazzola, Pierpaolo; Paoli, Leonardo; Teter, Jacob (November 2023)."Trends in the Global Vehicle Fleet 2023 / Managing the SUV Shift and the EV Transition"(PDF).Global Fuel Economy Initiative (GFEI). p. 3.doi:10.7922/G2HM56SV.Archived(PDF)from the original on 26 November 2023.
  93. ^"Road Traffic Could Be a Major Source of Water Pollution".Applied Sciences from Technology Networks.Retrieved17 November2022.
  94. ^Long, Erin; Carlsten, Christopher (9 February 2022)."Controlled human exposure to diesel exhaust: results illuminate health effects of traffic-related air pollution and inform future directions".Particle and Fibre Toxicology.19(1): 11.doi:10.1186/s12989-022-00450-5.ISSN1743-8977.PMC8827176.PMID35139881.
  95. ^"Emission Standards: USA: Heavy-Duty Onroad Engines".dieselnet.com.Retrieved17 November2022.
  96. ^Carroll, Sean Goulding (15 November 2022)."Euro 7 accused of deadly sins".www.euractiv.com.Retrieved17 November2022.
  97. ^Skibell, Arianna."New, Stronger Rules for Truck Pollution Still Would Not Meet Air Quality Goals".Scientific American.Retrieved17 November2022.
  98. ^"Heavy Duty Vehicles and NOx | Union of Concerned Scientists".www.ucsusa.org.Retrieved17 November2022.
  99. ^"New Report: Transition to Zero-Emission Trucks Could Save More Than 66,000 Lives".www.lung.org.4 October 2022.Retrieved17 November2022.
  100. ^"Target the oldest diesel trucks to reduce racial disparities in air pollution exposure in NYC".The Real Urban Emissions Initiative.Retrieved17 November2022.
  101. ^"Ban old trucks from big cities to save lives: new Grattan Institute report".Grattan Institute.28 August 2022.Retrieved17 November2022.
  102. ^"Truck drivers 'worst affected' by air pollution".Motor Transport.30 May 2019.Retrieved17 November2022.
  103. ^"Cars, planes, trains: where do CO2emissions from transport come from? ".Our World in Data.Archivedfrom the original on 16 June 2021.Retrieved19 June2021.
  104. ^"Trucks and Buses – Analysis".IEA.Retrieved17 November2022.
  105. ^"EU countries agree to 30 percent cut in truck CO2emissions ".Reuters.20 December 2018.Archivedfrom the original on 18 April 2019.Retrieved18 April2019.
  106. ^"How Government policy can realize rail freight's role in reducing carbon emissions".FreightOnRail.org.uk. Archived fromthe originalon 20 August 2008.Retrieved6 September2008.
  107. ^Smorodin, Amy (16 November 2022)."A story of transition: How Europe's faring in its move to zero-emission trucks and buses".International Council on Clean Transportation.Retrieved17 November2022.
  108. ^C. Michael Hogan (1973)."Analysis of highway noise".Water, Air, and Soil Pollution.2(3).Springer Science+Business Media:387–392.Bibcode:1973WASP....2..387H.doi:10.1007/BF00159677.S2CID109914430.Retrieved12 February2020.
  109. ^abOrganiscak, J.; Cecala, A.; Hall, R. (June 2018)."Design, Testing, and Modeling of Environmental Enclosures for Controlling Worker Exposure to Airborne Contaminants".U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.Archivedfrom the original on 9 November 2018.Retrieved9 November2018.
  110. ^"Trucking Industry Operating Taxes State of Georgia".Archived fromthe originalon 1 September 2006.Retrieved18 August2006.
  111. ^"Road wear from heavy vehicles – an overview".NVF committee Vehicles and Transports. August 2008. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 18 August 2016.Retrieved27 September2016.
  112. ^ab"Heavy goods vehicles".Mobility and transport – European Commission.17 October 2016.Archivedfrom the original on 5 December 2020.Retrieved19 June2020.
  113. ^"Blind spot mirrors".Mobilità u Trasport – European Commission.17 October 2016.Archivedfrom the original on 19 July 2020.Retrieved19 July2020.
Wikimedia Commons has media related toTruck.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truck&oldid=1228547692"