Hindi literature

Not to be confused withHindu literature,the specific literature of the Hindu religious tradition.

Not to be confused withSindhi literature.

Hindi literature(Hindi:हिन्दी साहित्य, hindī sāhitya) includes literature in the variousHindi languageswhich have differentwriting systems.Earliest forms of Hindi literature are attested in poetry ofApabhraṃśalike Awadhi, and Marwari languages. Hindi literature is composed in three broad styles- गद्य (Gadya-prose), पद्य( Padya- poetry) and चम्प्पू (Campū -Prosimetrum.)In terms of historical development, it is broadly classified into five prominent forms (genres) based on the date of production. They are:

• Ādi Kāl /Vīr-Gāthā Kāl (आदि काल/वीरगाथा काल) --[prior to & including 14th century CE.]This period was marked byPoems extolling brave warriors.
• BhaktiKāl (भक्ति काल) --[14th–18th century CE.]Prominent genre in this period wasPoems of Devotiondue toBhakti Movement.
• Rīti Kāl /Śṛṅgār Kāl (रीति काल/ शृंगार काल) --[18th–20th century CE.]The major genre of this period isPoems of Romancewhich are marked with high ornamentalism.
• Ādhunik Kāl (आधुनिक काल) --[from 1850 CE onwards.]Literally meansModern literature.
• Navyottar Kāl (नव्योत्तर काल) --[from 1980 CE onwards.]Literally meansPost- Modern literature.

The literature was produced in dialects such asKhariboli,Braj,Bundeli,Awadhi,Kannauji,as well asMarwari,andChhattisgarhi.From the 20th century, works produced inModern Standard Hindi,aregisterofHindustaniwritten in theDevanagari script,are sometimes regarded as the only basis of modern literature in Hindi (excludingUrdu literatureof Hindustani language).

History

Adi Kal or Vir-Gatha kal (c. 1050 to 1375)

Literature ofAdi kal(c. before the 15th century CE) was developed in the regions ofKannauj,Delhi,Ajmerstretching up to central India.Prithviraj Raso,an epic poem written byChand Bardai(1149 –c. 1200), is considered one of the first works in the Bhraj Bhasha literature.Chand Bardai was a court poet ofPrithviraj Chauhan,the famous ruler ofDelhiandAjmerduring the invasion ofMuhammad of Ghor.

Jayachandra,the last ruler of Kannauj gave more patronage toSanskritrather than local dialects. Harsha, the author ofNaishdhiya Charitra,was his court poet. Jagnayak (sometimes Jagnik), the royal poet inMahoba,and Nalha, the royal poet inAjmer,were the other prominent literary figures in this period. However, after Prithviraj Chauhan's defeat in theSecond Battle of Tarain,most literary works belonging to this period were destroyed by the army ofMuhammad of Ghor.Very few scriptures and manuscripts from this period are available and their genuineness is also doubted.

SomeSiddhaand Nathpanthi poetical works belonging to this period are also found, but their genuineness is again, doubted. The Siddhas belonged to theVajrayana,a laterBuddhist sect.Some scholars argue that the language of Siddha poetry is not an earlier form of Hindi, butMagadhiPrakrit.Nathpanthis wereyogiswho practised theHatha yoga.SomeJainandRasau(heroic poets) poetry works are also available from this period.

In theDeccanregion in South India,Dakkhinior Hindavi was used. It flourished under theDelhi Sultanateand later under theNizamsofHyderabad.It was written in thePersianscript. Nevertheless, the Hindavi literature can be considered proto-Hindi literature. Many Deccani experts like Sheikh Ashraf or Mulla Vajahi used the wordHindavito describe this dialect. Others such as Roustami, Nishati etc. preferred to call it Deccani. Shah Buharnuddin Janam Bijapuri used to call it Hindi. The first Deccani author was Khwaja Bandanawaz Gesudaraz Muhammad Hasan. He wrote three prose works – Mirazul Aashkini, Hidayatnama and Risala Sehwara. His grandson Abdulla Hussaini wroteNishatul Ishq.The first Deccani poet was Nizami.

During the later part of this period and early Bhakti Kala, many saint-poets likeRamanandandGorakhnathbecame famous. The earliest form of Hindi can also be seen in some ofVidyapati'sMaithiliworks.

Bhakti kaal (c. 1375 to 1700)

The medieval Hindi literature is marked by the influence ofBhaktimovement and composition of long, epic poems.

AwadhiandBraj Bhashawere the dialects in which literature was developed. The main works in Avadhi areMalik Muhammad Jayasi'sPadmavatandTulsidas'sRamacharitamanas.The major works in Braj dialect areTulsidas'sVinaya PatrikaandSurdas'sSur Sagar.Sadhukaddiwas also a language commonly used, especially byKabirin his poetry and dohas.

The Bhakti period also marked great theoretical development in poetry forms chiefly from a mixture of older forms of poetry. These included Verse Patterns likeSortha,Chaupaya(four-liners) etc. This was also the age when Poetry was characterised under the variousRasas.Unlike the Adi Kaal (also called the Vir Gatha Kaal) which was characterised by an overdose of Poetry in theVir Rasa(Heroic Poetry), the Bhakti Yug marked a much more diverse and vibrant form of poetry which spanned the whole gamut ofrasasfromShringara rasa(love),Vir Rasa(Heroism).

Bhakti poetry had two schools – theNirgunaschool (the believers of a formless God or an abstract name) and theSagunaschool (the believers of a God with attributes and worshippers of Vishnu's incarnations).KabirandGuru Nanakbelong to the Nirguna school, and their philosophy was greatly influenced by theAdvaita Vedantaphilosophy ofAdi Sankaracharya.They believed in the concept of Nirgun Nirakaar Brahma or the Shapeless Formless One. TheSagunaschool was represented by mainlyVaishnavapoets likeSurdas,Tulsidasand others and was a logical extension of the Dvaita and Vishishta Advaita Philosophy propounded by the likes of Madhavacharya etc. This school was chieflyVaishnavain orientation as in seen in the main compositions likeRamacharitamanas,Sur Saravali,Sur SagarextollingRamaandKrishna.

This was also the age of tremendous integration between the Hindu and the Islamic elements in the Arts with the advent of many Muslim Bhakti poets likeAbdul Rahim Khan-I-Khanawho was a minister toMughalemperorAkbarand was also a great devotee of Krishna. The Nirgun School of Bhakti Poetry was also tremendously secular in nature and its propounders like Kabir and Guru Nanak had a large number of followers irrespective of caste or religion.

Riti-kavya kal (c. 1700 to 1900)

In theRitikavyaorRitismagra Kavyaperiod, the erotic element became predominant in theHindiliterature. This era is called Riti (meaning 'procedure') because it was the age when poetic figures and theory were developed to the fullest. But this emphasis on poetry theory greatly reduced the emotional aspects of poetry—the main characteristic of the Bhakti movement—and the actual content of the poetry became less important. The Saguna School of the Bhakti Yug split into two schools (Rama bhakti and Krishna bhakti) somewhere in the interregnum of the Bhakti and the Reeti Eras. Although most Reeti works were outwardly related toKrishnaBhakti,their emphasis had changed from total devotion to the supreme being to the Shringaror erotic aspects of Krishna's life—his Leela, his pranks with the Gopis inBraj,and the description of the physical beauty ofKrishnaandRadha,(Krishna's Consort). The poetry ofBihari,andGhananand Dasfit this bill. The most well known book from this age is theBihari SatsaiofBihari,a collection of Dohas (couplets), dealing withBhakti(devotion),Neeti(Moral policies) andShringar(love).

The first Hindi books, using theDevanagari scriptorNāgarī scriptwere oneHeera Lal's treatise onAin-i-Akbari,called Ain e Akbari ki Bhasha Vachanika, and Rewa Maharaja's treatise onKabir.Both books came out in 1795. MunshiLallu Lal's Hindi translation of SanskritHitopadeshawas published in 1809. Lala Srinivas Das published a novel in HindiPariksha guruin theNāgarī scriptin 1886.Shardha Ram Phillauri wrote a Hindi novelBhagyawatiwhich was published in 1888.

Chandrakanta,written byDevaki Nandan Khatriin 1888, is considered the first authentic work of prose in modern Hindi.The person who brought realism in the Hindi prose literature wasMunshi Premchand,who is considered the most revered figure in the world of Hindi fiction and progressive movement.

Adhunik kal (c. 1900 onwards)

In 1800, theBritish East India CompanyestablishedFort William CollegeatCalcutta.The college presidentJ. B. Gilchristhired professors to write books in Hindustani. Some of these books werePrem SagarbyLallu Lal,Naasiketopaakhyanby Sadal Mishra,Sukhsagarby Sadasukhlal of Delhi andRani Ketaki ki kahaniby Munshi Inshallah Khan.

A depiction ofSuryain an 1884 book,Indrajalakala(The Art of Magic); Jwala Prakash Press,Meerut

The person who brought realism in the Hindi prose literature wasPremchand,who is considered the most revered figure in the world of Hindi fiction and progressive movement. Before Premchand, the Hindi literature revolved around fairy or magical tales, entertaining stories and religious themes. Premchand's novels have been translated into many other languages.

Dwivedi Yug

TheDwivedi Yug( "Age of Dwivedi" ) in Hindi literature lasted from 1900 to 1918. It is named afterMahavir Prasad Dwivedi,who played a major role in establishing the modern Hindi language in poetry and broadening the acceptable subjects of the Hindi poetry from the traditional ones of religion and romantic love. He encouraged poetry in Hindi dedicated to nationalism and social reform.

Dwivedi became the editor ofSaraswatiin 1903, the first Hindi monthly magazine of India, which was established in 1900.He used it to crusade for reforms in the Hindi literature. One of the most prominent poems of the period wasMaithili Sharan Gupt'sBharat-bharati,which evokes the past glory of India. Shridhar Prathak'sBharatgitis another renowned poem of the period.

Some scholars have labelled much of the poetry of this period as "versified propaganda". According to Lucy Rosenstein: "It is verse of public statement; its language is functional but aesthetically unappealing. Earnestly concerned with social issues and moral values, it is puritanical poetry in which aesthetic considerations are secondary. Imagination, originality, poetic sensibility and expression are wanting, the metre is restrictive, the idiom clumsy." She adds, however, that the period was important for laying the foundations to the modern Hindi poetry and that it did reflect sensitivity to social issues of the time. However, she also adds that the inelegance is a typical feature of a "young" poetry, as she considers Modern Hindi.

Without a poetic tradition in modern Hindi, poets often modeled their forms on Braj, and later on Sanskrit, Urdu, Bengali and English forms, often ill-suited to Hindi. The subjects of the poems tended to be communal rather than personal. Characters were often presented not as individuals but as social types.

Chhayavaadi Yug

In the 20th century, Hindi literature saw a romantic upsurge. This is known asChhayavaad(shadowism) and the literary figures belonging to this school are known asChhayavaadi.Jaishankar Prasad,Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala',Mahadevi VarmaandSumitranandan Pant,are the four majorChhayavaadipoets. PoetRamdhari Singh 'Dinkar'was another great poet with some Chayavaadi element in his poetry although he wrote in other genres as well.

This period ofNeo-romanticism,represents the adolescence of Hindi Poetry. It is marked by beauty of expression and flow of intense emotion. The four representative poets of this era represent the best in Hindi Poetry. A unique feature of this period is the emotional (and sometimes active) attachment of poets with national freedom struggle, their effort to understand and imbibe the vast spirit of a magnificent ancient culture and their towering genius which grossly overshadowed all the literary 'talked abouts' of next seven decades.

Other important genres ofAdhunik Sahitya(Modernism) are:Prayogvad(Experimentalism) ofAjneyaand theTar Saptakpoets, also known asNayi Kavita(New Poetry) andNayi Kahani(New Story) ofNirmal Vermaand others; followed byPragativad(Progressivism) ofGajanan Madhav Muktibodhand other authors.

Nakenwad

Among the numerous schools of poetry which sprang up in the 1950s wasNakenwad,a school deriving its nomenclature from the first letters of the names of its three pioneers –Nalin Vilochan Sharma,Kesari Kumar, andNaresh Mehtaall poets of note in their own right.Apart from being poets, Nalin Vilochan and Kesari Kumar were also brilliant critics, with a wide perspective on literary history.Their critical attitude is marked by a synthesis or coordination of various disciplines of human knowledge – philosophy, history, art and culture, all pressed into the service of literary appraisal and analysis.

Genres of Hindi Literature

Hindi Kavita (Poetry)

Hindi has a rich legacy of poetry ( Shayari ). There are several genres ofKavitabased onRas, Chhand and Alankar(e.g., Shringar, Karun, Veer,Hāsya,etc.). Hasya Kavitais humorous comic poetry in Hindi. It is particularly famous due to Hindikavi sammelans. Bal kavitais children's rhymes in Hindi.

Many attempts have been made to document Hindi poetry. Some of the most comprehensive online collections for Hindi poetry areKavitakoshandKavita. The most classy content that has created new audiences who were not looking for Hindi poetry or Hindi content is Hindi Kavita.This movement started in 2014 by Manish Guptahas generated an entirely new market and brought many projects to the fore. Many award-winning poets, scholars, journalists and celebrities from film, television and theatre have come forward to support the cause and take it further.Hindi Kavita has also made significant contributions to Indian film music. Several famous musical masterpieces have been witnessed.

Vyangya (Hindi Satire)

The rhetoric of satire is calledVyangyain Hindi. Vyangya writings includes the essence of sarcasm and humour. Some of the better known writers in this genre are,Harishankar Parsai(Hindi: हरिशंकर परसाई) (22 August 1924 – 1995) was a Hindi writer. He was a noted satirist and humorist of modern Hindi literature and is known for his simple and direct style.,Sri Lal Sukla,Suryakumar Pandeyetc.

Hindi travel literature

Rahul Sankrityayan,Bhadant Anand Kausalyayan,Sachchidananda Hirananda Vatsyayan 'Ajneya'andBaba Nagarjunwere some of the great Indian writers who dedicated themselves entirely to the HindiTravel Literature(Yatra Vritanta).Rahul Sankrityayanwas one of the greatest travelled scholars of India, spending forty-five years of his life on travels away from his home. He is known as the ("Father of HindiTravel literature").Baba Nagarjunwas a major Hindi and Maithili poet who has also penned a number of novels, short stories, literary biographies and travelogues, and was known as ( "Janakavi- the People's Poet").

Hindi playwriting

The pioneer ofHindi theatreas well as playwrighting,Bhartendu HarishchandrawroteSatya Harishchandra(1875),Bharat Durdasha(1876) andAndher Nagari(1878), in the late 19th century,Jaishankar Prasadbecame the next big figure in Hindi playwriting with plays likeSkanda Gupta(1928),Chandragupta(1931) andDhruvswamini(1933).

As the Independence struggle was gathering steam playwrights broaching issues of nationalism and subversive ideas against the British, yet to dodge censorship they adapted themes from mythology, history and legend and used them as vehicle for political messages, a trend that continues to date, though now it was employed to bring out social, personal and psychological issues rather than clearly political, though street theatre broke this trend in coming decades in post-independence era, like IPTA-inspired, Naya Theatre ofHabib Tanvirdid in the 1950s–90s,Jana Natya ManchofSafdar Hashmidid in the 1970s–80s. Post-independence the emerging republic threw up new issues for playwrights to tackle and express, and Hindi playwriting showed greater brevity and symbolism, but it was not as prolific as in case with Hindi poetry or fiction.Yet we have playwrights likeJagdish Chandra Mathur(Konark) andUpendranath Ashk(Anjo Didi), who displayed a steadily evolving understanding of stagecraft. These were followed another generation of pioneers in Hindi playwrighting,Mohan Rakesh,who started withAshadh Ka Ek Din(1958),Adhe AdhureandLehron Ke Rajhans,Dharamvir Bharati,who wroteAndha Yug,and other playwrights likeSurendra Verma,andBhisham Sahni.

Hindi essay-writing

Kuber Nath Raiis one of the writers who dedicated themselves entirely to the form of essay-writing.His collections of essaysGandha Madan,Priya neel-kanti,Ras Aakhetak,Vishad Yog,Nishad Bansuri,Parna mukuthave enormously enriched the form of essay. A scholar ofIndian cultureandwestern literature,he was proud of Indian heritage.His love for natural beauty and Indianfolk literaturesand preference for agricultural society over the age of machines, his romantic outlook, aesthetic sensibility, his keen eye on contemporary reality and classical style place him very high among contemporary essayists inHindi.

Prominent figures

Main article:List of Hindi authors

Main article:List of Hindi language poets

• Chand Bardai(1148–1191), author ofPrithviraj Raso.
• Amir Khusro(1253–1325 AD), author ofpahelisandmukrisin the Hindavi dialect.
• Vidyapati(1352–1448), a prominent poet of Eastern dialects.
• Kabir(1398–1518), a major figure of thebhakti(devotional) movement.
• Surdas(1467–1583), author ofSahitya Lahari,Sur Saravali,Sur Sagaretc.
• Malik Muhammad Jayasi(1477–1542), author of thePadmavat(1540) etc.
• Mirabai(1504–1560), author ofMira Padavalietc.
• Tulsidas(1532–1623), author ofRamacharitamanas,Vinay Patrikaetc.
• Keshavdas(1555–1617), author ofRasikpriyaetc.
• Raskhan(1548–1628), a major figure of thebhakti(devotional) movement.
• Banarasidas(1586–1643) who is known for his poetic autobiography -Ardhakathānaka,(The Half Story).
• Bihari(1595–1664) became famous by writingSatasai(Seven Hundred Verses).
• Bhushan(1612–1713), author ofShivabavani,Chhatrasal Dashaketc.
• Vrind(1643–1723), author ofNitisatsai,Vrind Satsaietc.
• Guru Gobind Singh(1669–1708), author ofBichitra Nataketc.
• Sūdan(1700–1753), author ofSujān Charitraetc.
• Lallu Lal(1763–1835), translator ofBaital Pachisi,Shakuntalaetc., and author ofPrem Sagar,etc.
• Ganga Das(1823–1913), author of about fifty kavya-granthas and thousands of padas, he is known as Bhismpitama of the Hindi poetry.
• Bharatendu Harishchandra(1850–1885), author ofAndher Nagarietc.; his works are compiled inBharatendu Granthavali.
• Devaki Nandan Khatri(1861–1913), author of mystery novels likeChandrakanta,Bhootnath,etc.
• Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi(1864–1938), author ofKavya Manjusha,Sugandh,Sahitya Sandarbh,Sahitya Vichar,etc.
• Munshi Premchand(1880–1936), considered one of the greatest Hindi novelists of all time. His novels includeGodaan,Karmabhoomi,Gaban,Mansarovar,Idgah,etc.
• Maithili Sharan Gupt(1886–1964), author ofSaket,Yashodhara,etc.
• Jaishankar Prasad(1889–1937), poet, novelist, playwright, stalwart of the literaryChhayavaadimovement. His greatest works areKamayani,Dhruvswamini,Skandagupta,etc.
• Makhanlal Chaturvedi(1889–1968), first recipient ofSahitya Akademi Awardin Hindi for his workHim Taringini,works includeYug Charan,Pushp Ki Abhilasha,etc.
• Rahul Sankrityayan(1893–1962), the father of Indian travelled literature.
• Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala'(1896–1961), one of the "four pillars" of theChhayavaadmovement.
• Sumitranandan Pant,(1900–1977) eminent Hindi poet who wrote mainly on nature.
• Yashpal(1903–1976), author ofJhutha Sach,Meri Teri Uski Baat,etc.
• Jainendra Kumar(1905–1988), An extremely influential figure in 20th-century Hindi literature.
• Hazariprasad Dwivedi(1907–1979), novelist, literary historian.
• Mahadevi Varma(1907–1987), one of the "four pillars" of theChhayavaadmovement.
• Ramdhari Singh Dinkar(1908–1974), hailed as a Rashtrakavi.
• Nagarjun(1911–1998), hailed as Janakavi (The People's Poet).
• Bhisham Sahni(1915–2003), novelist, playwright, author ofTamas,Madhavi,etc.
• Nalin Vilochan Sharma(1916–1961), one of the pioneers ofNakenwadmovement.
• Phanishwar Nath 'Renu'(1921–1977), novelist best known forMaila Anchal,Juloos,etc.
• Harishankar Parsai(1922–1995), known for satirical works.
• Naresh Mehta(1922–2000), poet, playwright, one of the pioneers ofNakenwadmovement.
• Mohan Rakesh(1925–1972), novelist, playwright known forAshadh Ka Ek Din,Andhere Band Kamre,Na Aane Wala Kal,etc.
• Dharmavir Bharati(1926–1997), a renowned writer, author ofGunaho Ka Devta,Suraj Ka Satvan Ghoda,etc.
• Raghuvir Sahay(1929–1990) was a versatile Hindi poet, translator, short-story writer and journalist.
• Nirmal Verma(1929–2005), one of the founders of theNai Kahaniliterary movement.
• Kamleshwar(1932–2007), author ofKitne Pakistan.
• Dushyant Kumar(1933–1975), prominent Hindi poet and composer of ghazals.
• Kashinath Singh(1937–) author ofRehan Par Ragghu,Kashi Ka Assi,etc.
• Narendra Kohli(1940–2021), known for reinventing the ancient form of epic writing in modern prose.
• Geetanjali Shree(1957–), author of Ret Samadhi which won the International Booker Prize in 2022

Eminent Hindi journalists

Bharatendu Harishchandra

Bharatendu Harishchandrabegan his career as a journalist at the age of 17. Published Kavi Vachan Sudha (1867) a monthly dedicated to ancient and medieval poetry. Published Harishchandra Magazine in 1873 – a general interest magazine. Published Bala Bodhini from 1874 – for women and young girls.

KVS was acknowledged to be the finest literary journal in any Indian language of that time, and was on par with the best of English journals. Bharatendu kept the journal up until his death 1885. Because of his extraordinary achievements, he is considered the most prolific Hindi journalist.

Madan Mohan Malaviya

Madan Mohan Malaviyawas born in 1861 in Allahabad to a Brahmin family. From 1885 to 1887 was the editor of Indian Opinion. He was a strong supporter of the Congress. He helped launch the newspaper Dainik Hindustan and was its editor from 1887 to 1889. He was a close friend of many eminent Hindi writers like Gopalram Gehmari, Amrutlal Chakravarty and Pandit Pratap Narayan Mishra.

Along with Bal Mukund Gupta, he launched an Urdu journal 'Kohinoor' from Lahore. In those days, Gupta was not a facile Hindi scholar, but under Malviya's training, Gupta became editor of Bharat Mitra. In 1908, Malviya founded a new revolutionary journal Abhyudaya from Prayag. The renowned writerPurushottam Das Tandonwas a frequent contributor to it.

After Abhyudaya, Malviya founded a monthly magazine 'Maryada', in 1909 he founded a daily 'Leader' and later on another daily – 'Bharat'.

Malviya was a great patriot and his love for his country was seen in all of his writings. He also contributed to Aaj, and helped to found the Hindustan Times in 1933, along with its Hindi counterpart Hindustan. Babu Gulabrai (17 January 1888 – 13 April 1963) (pen name: Gulabrai MA) was one of the greatest literary figures of modern Hindi literature.

Durgaprasad Mishra

Born in Kashmir, he came to Calcutta and started Bharat Mitra in 1878. In 1879, he began another weekly magazine- Saar Sudhanidhi but it closed down in that same year. On 17 August 1880, he started a 3rd weekly- Ucchit Vakta- meaning Right or Best Time. Ucchit Vakta focused on spreading the truth (about the British Raj) and fighting for justice. It became very popular for many years.

Mishra underwent a lot of difficulties trying to bring out a critical publication at the time of the British Raj. At times he was the editor, writer and also sold the paper himself. He was an inspiration for many journalists, particularly Bal Mukund Gupta.

Dharmvir Bharati

Born on 25 December 1926,Dharamvir Bharatigraduated in BA (first class) in 1945 and in 1947 completed his MA in Hindi literature (first class) and finally did his PhD from Allahabad University. For some time he was principal of Allahabad University.

He began his journalist career in Abhyudaya, a journal by Padmakant Malviya. He then joined Sangam, edited by Ilachand Joshi and then became editor of Dharmayug. Thanks to Bharati, this journal became very popular.

During the 1971 war, Bharati reported from the frontlines of the battle. He covered all the horrors of the war. His series of reports, the finest in Hindi war journalism, were published under the title of 'Yudh Yatra'. As an honest and dedicated reporter, Bharati was unrivaled. After the war, he became editor of 2 more journals- Aalochana and Nikarshak.

Bharati was also famous as a short story writer, poet, essayist and novelist. The best known of his works are 'Band Galli ka Aakhiri Makaan', 'Andha Yug', 'Kunpriya'.

See also

• Mahatma Gandhi Antarrashtriya Hindi Vishwavidyalaya,anIndian central universitywith a literary focus
• Hindustani orthography

Bibliography

• Dr. Nagendra (1988).Indian Literature.Prabhat Prakashan.
• Diana Dimitrova (2004).Western tradition and naturalistic Hindi theatre.Peter Lang.ISBN0-8204-6822-3.
• Amaresh Datta (2006).The Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature (Volume Two) (Devraj To Jyoti), Volume 2.Sahitya Akademi.ISBN81-260-1194-7.

Further reading

• Hindi Literature,by Ram Awadh Dwivedi. Published by Hindi Pracharak Pustakalaya, 1953.
• A History of Hindi literature,by K. B. Jindal. Published by Kitab Mahal, 1955.
• Hindi Literature from Its Beginnings to the Nineteenth Century,by Ronald Stuart McGregor. Published by Harrassowitz, 1984.ISBN3-447-02413-5.
• Hindi Literature of the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries,by Ronald Stuart McGregor. Published by Harrassowitz, 1974.ISBN3-447-01607-8.
• A New Voice for New Times: The Development of Modern Hindi Literature,by Ronald Stuart McGregor. Faculty of Asian Studies, Australian National University, 1981.ISBN0-909879-13-3.
• An Encyclopaedia of World Hindi Literature,by Ganga Ram Garg. Published by Concept Pub. Co., 1986.

External links

• Hindi Language and Literature