Ramayana

This article is about the Sanskrit epic. For other uses, seeRamayana (disambiguation).

Rāmāyaṇa
Rāma slaying Rāvaṇa, from a royal Mewar manuscript, 17th century
Information
Religion	Hinduism
Author	Valmiki
Language	Sanskrit
Period	7th century BCE–3rd century CE
Chapters	500 Sargas, 7 Kandas
Verses	24,000
Full text
Rāmāyaṇaat SanskritWikisource
The RamayanaatEnglish Wikisource

TheRamayana(/rɑːˈmɑːjənə/;Sanskrit:रामायणम्,romanized:Rāmāyaṇam), also known asValmiki Ramayana,as traditionally attributed toValmiki,is asmrititext (also described as aSanskritepic) fromancient India,one of the two important epics ofHinduismknown as theItihasas,the other being theMahabharata.The epic narrates the life ofRama,a prince ofAyodhyain the kingdom ofKosala.The epic followshis fourteen-year exileto the forest urged by his father KingDasharatha,on the request of Rama's stepmotherKaikeyi;his travels across forests in theIndian subcontinentwith his wifeSitaand brotherLakshmana;the kidnapping of Sita byRavana,the king ofLanka,that resulted in war; and Rama's eventual return toAyodhyaalong withSitato be crowned king amidst jubilation and celebration.

Scholarly estimates for the earliest stage of the text range from the 7th to 5th centuries BCE,and later stages extend up to the 3rd century CE,although the original date of composition is unknown. It is one of the largest ancient epics in world literature and consists of nearly 24,000verses(mostly set in theShloka/Anuṣṭubhmetre), divided into sevenkāṇḍa(chapters). It belongs to the genre ofItihasa,narratives of past events (purāvṛtta), interspersed with teachings onthe goals of human life.

There are manyversions of theRamayanain Indian languages, includingBuddhistandJainadaptations. There are alsoCambodian(Reamker),Indonesian,Filipino,Thai(Ramakien),Lao,Burmese,Nepali,Maldivian,Cambodian,Vietnamese,Tibeto-Chinese,andMalayversions of the Ramayana.

TheRamayanawas an important influence on laterSanskritpoetry and theHindulife and culture, and its main figures were fundamental to the cultural consciousness of a number of nations, bothHinduandBuddhist.Its most important moral influence was the importance of virtue, in the life of a citizen and in the ideals of the formation of a state (fromSanskrit:रामराज्य,romanized:Rāmarājya,a utopian state where Rama is king) or of a functioning society.

Etymology

The nameRāmāyaṇais composed of two words,Rāmaandayaṇa.Rāma,the name of the main figure of the epic, has two contextual meanings. In theAtharvaveda,it means 'dark, dark-coloured, black' and is related to the wordrātriwhich means 'darkness or stillness of night'. The other meaning, which can be found in theMahabharata,is 'pleasing, pleasant, charming, lovely, beautiful'.The wordayanameans travel or journey. Thus,Rāmāyaṇameans "Rama's journey" withayanaaltered toyaṇa(due to the amalgamation of "a" in Rama and the "a" in ayana, as per the Sanskrit grammar rule ofinternal sandhi).

Dating

Rama (left third from top) depicted in theDashavatara,the ten avatars ofVishnu.Painting fromJaipur,now at theVictoria and Albert Museum

Scholarly estimates for the earliest stage of the available text range from the 7th to 5th centuries BCE,with later stages extending up to the 3rd century CE.According toRobert P. Goldman(1984), the oldest parts of theRamayanadate to the early7th century BCE.The later parts cannot have been composed later than the 6th or 5th century BCE, due to the narrative not mentioning Buddhism (founded in the 5th century BCE) nor the prominence ofMagadha(which rose to prominence in the 7th century BCE). The text also mentionsAyodhyaas the capital ofKosala,rather than its later name of Saketa or the successor capital ofShravasti.In terms of narrative time, the action of theRamayanapredates theMahabharata.Goldman & Sutherland Goldman (2022)consider Ramayana's oldest surviving version was composed around 500 BCE.

Books two to six are the oldest portion of the epic, while the first and last books (BalakandaandUttara Kanda,respectively) seem to be later additions. Style differences and narrative contradictions between these two volumes and the rest of the epic have led scholars since Hermann Jacobi toward this consensus.

Textual characteristics

An artist's impression of sageValmikicomposing theRamayana

Genre

TheRamayanabelongs to the genre ofItihasa,narratives of past events (purāvṛtta), which includes the epicsMahabharataand Ramayana, and thePuranas.The genre also includes teachings onthe goals of human life.It depicts the duties of relationships, portraying ideal characters like the ideal son, servant, brother, husband, wife, and king.Like theMahabharata,Ramayanapresents the teachings of ancient Hindu sages in the narrativeallegory,interspersing philosophical and ethical elements.

Structure

In its extant form, Valmiki'sRamayanais an epic poem containing over 24,000 couplet verses, divided into sevenkāṇḍas (Bālakāṇḍa,Ayodhyakāṇḍa, Araṇyakāṇḍa, Kiṣkindakāṇḍa,Sundarākāṇḍa,Yuddhakāṇḍa, Uttarakāṇḍa), and about 500 sargas (chapters).It is regarded as one of the longest epic poems ever written.

Recensions

TheRamayanatext has several regional renderings, recensions, and sub-recensions. Textual scholarRobert P. Goldmandifferentiates two major regional revisions: the northern (n) and the southern (s). ScholarRomesh Chunder Duttwrites that "theRamayana,like theMahabharata,is a growth of centuries, but the main story is more distinctly the creation of one mind. "

There has been discussion as to whether the first and the last volumes of Valmiki'sRamayana(Bala Kanda and Uttara Kanda) were composed by the original author. Though Bala Kanda is sometimes considered in the main epic, according to many Uttara Kanda is certainly a later interpolation, not attributable to Valmiki.Both of these two kāndas are absent in the oldest manuscript.

Some think that the Uttara Kanda contradicts how Rama and Dharma are portrayed in the rest of the epic. M. R. Parameswaran says that the way the positions of women andShudrasare depicted shows that the Uttara Kanda is a later insertion.

Since Rama was revered as a dharmatma, his ideas seen in the Ramayana proper cannot be replaced by new ideas as to what dharma is, except by claiming that he himself adopted those new ideas. That is what the U-K [Uttara Kanda] does. It embodies the new ideas in two stories that are usually referred to as Sita-parityaga, the abandonment of Sita (after Rama and Sita return to Ayodhya and Rama was consecrated as king) and Sambuka-vadha, the killing of the ascetic Sambuka. The U-K attributes both actions to Rama, whom people acknowledged to be righteous and as a model to follow. By masquerading as an additional kanda of the Ramayana composed by Valmiki himself, the U-K succeeded, to a considerable extent, in sabotaging the values presented in Valmiki's Ramayana.

Characters

Main article:List of characters in Ramayana

Synopsis

Bāla Kāṇḍa

Main article:Balakanda

The marriage of the four sons of Dasharatha with the four daughters of Siradhvaja Janaka and Kushadhvaja. Rama and Sita, Lakshmana and Urmila, Bharata and Mandavi and Shatrughna with Shrutakirti. Folio from the Shnagri Ramayana, early 18th-century.National Museum, New Delhi

The epic begins with the sage Vālmīki asking Nārada if there is a righteous man still left in the world, to which Nārada replies that such a man is Rāma. After seeing two birds being shot, Vālmīki creates a new form of metre calledśloka,in which he is granted the ability to compose an epic poem about Rāma. He teaches his poem to the boys Lava and Kuśa, who recite it throughout the land and eventually at the court of king Rāma. Then the main narrative begins.

Daśaratha was the King of Ayodhyā. He had three wives: Kausalyā, Kaikeyī, and Sumitrā. He did not have a son and in the desire to have a legal heir performs a fire sacrifice known as Putrīyā Iṣṭi. Meanwhile, the gods are petitioning to Brahmā and Viṣhṇu about Rāvaṇa, king of the rākṣasas who is terrorizing the universe. Thus Viṣṇu had opted to be born into mortality to combat the demonRāvaṇa.As a consequence, Rāma was first born to Kausalyā, Bharata was born to Kaikeyī, and Lakṣmaṇa and Śatrughna were born to Sumitrā.

When Rāma was 16 years old, ther̥ṣi(sage) Viśvāmitra comes to the court of Daśaratha in search of help against demons who were disturbing sacrificial rites. He chooses Rāma, who is followed by Lakṣmaṇa, his constant companion throughout the story. Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa receive instructions and supernatural weapons from Viśvāmitra and proceed to destroyTāṭakāand many other demons. Viśvāmitra also recounts much lore of the landscape, his own ancestors, and the ancestors of the princes.

The party then decide to go to attend kingJanaka'ssacrifice in the kingdom ofMithilā,who has a bow that no one has been able to string. Janaka recounts the history of the famed bow, and informs them that whoever strings the bow will win the hand of his daughterSītā,whom he had found in the earth when plowing a field. Rāma then proceeds to not only string the bow, but breaks it in the process. Rāma marries Sītā; the wedding is celebrated with great festivity inMithilāand the marriage party returns to Ayodhyā.

Ayodhyā Kāṇḍa

Rama leaving for fourteen years of exile from Ayodhya

After Rāma and Sītā have been married, an elderly Daśaratha expresses his desire to crown Rāma, to which the Kosala assembly and his subjects express their support. On the eve of the great event, Kaikeyī was happy about this, but was later on provoked byMantharā,a wicked maidservant, to claim two boons that Daśaratha had long ago granted her. Kaikeyī demandsRāma to be exiled into the wilderness for fourteen years,while the succession passes to her son Bharata.

The grief-stricken king, bound by his word, accedes to Kaikeyī's demands. Rāma accepts his father's reluctant decree with absolute submission and calm self-control which characterizes him throughout the story. He asks Sītā to remain in Ayodhyā, but she convinces him to take her with him in exile. Lakṣmaṇa also resolves to follow his brother into the forest.

After Rāma's departure, King Daśaratha, unable to bear the grief, passes away. Meanwhile, Bharata, who was on a visit to his maternal uncle, learns about the events in Ayodhyā. He is shocked and refuses to profit from his mother's wicked scheming. He visits Rāma in the forest and implores him to return to Ayodhyā and claim the throne that is rightfully his. But Rāma, determined to carry out his father's orders to the letter, refuses to return before the period of exile. Bharata reluctantly returns to Ayodhyā and rules the kingdom on behalf of his brother.

Araṇya Kāṇḍa

Main articles:Aranya KandaandExile of Lord Rama

RāvaṇafightsJatāyuas he carries off the kidnapped Sītā. Painting byRaja Ravi Varma

In exile, Rāma, Sītā, and Lakṣmaṇa journey southward along the banks of the riverGodāvari,where they build cottages and live off the land. One day, in thePañcavatiforest they are visited by arākṣasīnamedŚurpaṇakhā,sister of Ravaṇa. She tries to seduce the brothers and, after failing, attempts to kill Sītā out of jealousy. Lakṣmaṇa stops her by cutting off her nose and ears. Hearing of this, her brothersKharaand Dushan organize an attack against the princes. Rama defeats Khara and his rakshasas.

When the news of these events reaches Rāvaṇa, he resolves to destroy Rāma by capturing Sītā with the aid of therakṣasaMārīca.Mārīca, assuming the form of a golden deer, captivates Sītā's attention. Entranced by the beauty of the deer, Sītā pleads with Rāma to capture it. Rāma, aware that this is the ploy of the demons, cannot dissuade Sītā from her desire and chases the deer into the forest, leaving Sītā under Lakṣmaṇa's guard.

After some time, Sītā hears Rāma calling out to her; afraid for his life, she insists that Lakṣmaṇa rush to his aid. Lakṣmaṇa tries to assure her that Rāma cannot be hurt that easily and that it is best if he continues to follow Rāma's orders to protect her. On the verge of hysterics, Sītā insists that it is not she but Rāma who needs Lakṣmaṇa's help. He obeys her wish but stipulates that she is not to leave the cottage or entertain any stranger. He then draws a line that no demon could cross and leaves to help Rāma. With the coast finally clear, Rāvaṇa appears in the guise of an ascetic requesting Sītā's hospitality. Unaware of her guest's plan, Sītā is tricked and is then forcibly carried away by Rāvaṇa.

Jatāyu,avulture,tries to rescue Sītā but is mortally wounded. In Lankā, Sītā is kept under the guard ofrakṣasīs.Ravaṇa asks Sītā to marry him, but she refuses, being totally devoted to Rāma. Meanwhile, Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa learn about Sītā's abduction from Jatāyu and immediately set out to save her. During their search, they meetKabandhaand the asceticŚabarī,who directs them towards Sugriva and Hanuman.

Kiṣkindhā Kāṇda

A stone bas-reliefat Banteay Srei inCambodiadepicts the combat betweenValiandSugriva(middle). To the right, Rama fires his bow. To the left, Vali lies dying.

CitadelKishkindha Kandais set in the place ofVānaras(Vana-nara) – Forest dwelling humans.Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa meet Hanumān, the biggest devotee of Rāma, greatest of ape heroes, and an adherent ofSugriva,the banished pretender to the throne of Kiṣkindhā. Rāma befriends Sugriva and helps him by killing his elder brotherVālithus regaining the kingdom of Kiṣkindhā, in exchange for helping Rāma to recover Sītā.

However, Sugriva soon forgets his promise and spends his time enjoying his newly gained power. The clever former ape queenTārā,(wife of Vāli) calmly intervenes to prevent an enraged Lakṣmaṇa from destroying the ape citadel. She then eloquently convinces Sugriva to honor his pledge. Sugriva then sends search parties to the four corners of the earth, only to return without success from north, east, and west. The southern search party under the leadership ofAṅgadaand Hanumān learns from a vulture namedSampātīthe elder brother of Jatāyu, that Sītā was taken to Lankā.

Sundara Kaṇḍa

Main article:Sundara Kanda

Ravana is meeting Sita at Ashokavana. Hanuman is seen on the tree.

Sundara Kandaforms the heart of Valmiki's Ramayana and consists of a detailed, vivid account ofHanumān's heroics. After learning about Sītā, Hanumān assumes a gigantic form and makes a colossal leap across the sea to Lanka. On the way, he meets with many challenges like facing aGandharvaKanyā who comes in the form of a demon to test his abilities. He encounters a mountain namedMainākawho offers Hanuman assistance and offers him rest. Hanumān refuses because there is little time remaining to complete the search for Sītā.

After entering Lankā, he finds a demon, Lankini, who protects all of Lankā. Hanumān fights with her and subjugates her in order to get into Lankā. In the process, Lankini, who had an earlier vision/warning from the gods, therefore, knows that the end of Lankā nears if someone defeats Lankini. Here, Hanumān explores the demons' kingdom and spies on Rāvaṇa. He locates Sītā in Ashoka grove, where she is being wooed and threatened by Rāvaṇa and his rakshasis to marry Rāvaṇa.

Hanumān reassures Sītā, giving Rāma's signet ring as a sign that Rāma is still alive. He offers to carry Sītā back to Rāma; however, she refuses and says that it is not the dharma, stating that Ramāyaṇa will not have significance if Hanumān carries her to Rāma – "When Rāma was not there Rāvaṇa carried Sītā forcibly and when Rāvaṇa was not there, Hanumān carried Sītā back to Ræma." She says that Rāma himself must come and avenge the insult of her abduction. She gives Hanumān her comb as a token to prove that she is still alive.

Hanumān takes leave of Sītā. Before going back to Rāma and tell him of Sītā's location & desire to be rescued only by him, he decides to wreak havoc in Lankā by destroying trees in the Naulakha Bagh and buildings and killing Rāvaṇa's warriors. He allows himself to be captured and delivered to Rāvaṇa. He gives a bold lecture to Rāvaṇa to release Sīta. He is condemned and his tail is set on fire, but he escapes his bonds and leaps from roof to roof, sets fire to Rāvaṇa's citadel, and makes the giant leap back from the island. The joyous search party returns to Kiṣkindhā with the news.

Yuddha Kāṇḍa

TheBattle at Lanka, RamayanabySahibdin.It depicts the vānara army of Rāma (top left) fightingRāvaṇathe demon-king ofLankāto save Rāma's kidnapped wife, Sītā. The painting depicts multiple events in the battle against the three-headed demon generalTriṣira,in the bottom left. Triṣira is beheaded by Hanumān, the vānara companion of Rāma.

Also known asLankā Kāṇḍa,this book describes the war between the army of Rāma and the army of Rāvaṇa. Having received Hanuman's report on Sītā, Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa proceed with their allies towards the shore of the southern sea. There they are joined by Rāvaṇa's renegade brotherVibhiṣaṇa.The vānaras namedNalaandNīlaconstruct theRama Setu.

The princes and their army cross over to Lanka. A lengthy war ensues. During a battle, Ravana's sonMeghanādahurls a powerful weapon at Lakṣmaṇa and he gets mortally wounded. So Hanumān assumes his gigantic form and flies from Lankā to the Himalayas. Upon reaching Mount Sanjeevani, Hanumān is unable to identify the herb that will cure Lakṣmaṇa and so he decides to bring the entire mountain back to Lankā. Eventually, the war ends when Rāma kills Rāvaṇa. Rāma then installs Vibhishaṇa on the throne of Lanka.

On meeting Sītā, Rāma says; "The dishonour meted out to him and the wrong done to her by Rāvaṇa have been wiped off, by his victory over the enemy with the assistance of Hanumān, Sugrīva and Vibhishaṇa".However, upon criticism from people in his kingdom about the chastity of Sītā, Rāma gets extremely disheartened. So Sītā, in order to prove the citizens wrong and wipe the false blame on her, requests Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa to prepare a pyre for her to enter. When Lakṣmaṇa prepares the pyre, Sītā prays toAgniand enters into it, in order to prove her conjugal fidelity. Agni appears in person from the burning pyre, carrying Sītā in his arms and restores her to Rāma, testifying to her purity.Rama later joyfully accepts her. The episode ofAgni Parikshavaries in the versions ofRamāyaṇaby Valmiki andTulsidas.InTulsidas'sRamcharitmanas,Sītā was under the protection of Agni (seeMāyā Sītā) so it was necessary to bring her out before reuniting with Rāma. The gods led by Brahma arrive and glorify Rama as the incarnation of Supreme God Narayana. Indra restores the dead Vanaras back to life.

After the exile, Rāma returns to Ayodhya and the people are so happy they celebrate it like a festival.Deepavaliis the day considered that Rāma, Sītā, Lakṣmaṇa and Hanumān reached Ayodhyā after a period of 14 years in exile after Rāma's army of good defeated demon king Rāvaṇa's army of evil. The return of Rāma to Ayodhyā was celebrated with his coronation. It is calledRāma pattabhisheka.There are mentions in Rāmayaṇa that Rama gave several donations to Sugriva, Jambavan, other Vanaras, and gave a pearl necklace to Sita telling her to give it to a great person. She gives it to Hanumān.Rāmawas so thankful toVibhisaṇaand wanted to give him a great gift.Rāmagave hisAradhana Devata(Sri Ranganathaswamy) toVibhishanaas a gift.Rama's rule itself wasRāma rājyadescribed to be a just and fair rule.It is believed by many that when Rama returned people celebrated their happiness withdiyas,and the festival ofDeepavaliis connected with Rāma's return.

Uttara Kanda

See also:Exile of Sita

SitawithLavaandKusha

Scholars note "linguistic and rhetorical differences" between the Uttara Kanda and books 2 through 6 of the Ramayana, especially in stories such as Sita's exile and death ofShambuka,and together with Bala Kanda it is considered by some scholars to be an interpolation, and that "the 'original' poem ended with the Yuddhakanda.

This kanda narrates Rama's reign ofAyodhya,the birth ofLavaandKusha,theAshvamedhayajna,and last days of Rama. At the expiration of his term of exile, Rama returns to Ayodhya with Sita, Lakshmana, and Hanuman, where the coronation is performed. On being asked to prove his devotion to Rama, Hanuman tears his chest open and to everyone's surprise, there is an image of Rama and Sita inside his chest. Rama rules Ayodhya and the reign is calledRama-Rajya(a place where the common folk is happy, fulfilled, and satisfied). Then Valmiki trained Lava and Kusha in archery and succeeded the throne after Rama.

Versions

See also:Versions of the Ramayana

The epic story ofRamyanawas adopted by several cultures across Asia. Shown here is a Thai historic artwork depicting the battle which took place between Rama and Ravana.

A relief with part of the Ramayana epic, shows Rama killed the golden deer that turn out to be the demonMarichain disguise.PrambananTrimurti temple nearYogyakarta,Java,Indonesia

As in many oral epics, multiple versions of theRamayanasurvive. In particular, theRamayanarelated in north India differs in important respects from that preserved in south India and the rest of southeast Asia. There is an extensive tradition of oral storytelling based onRamayanainIndonesia,Cambodia,Philippines,Thailand,Malaysia,Laos,VietnamandMaldives.

India

There are diverse regional versions of theRamayanawritten by various authors in India. Some of them differ significantly from each other. A West Bengal manuscript from the 6th century presents the epic without two of its kandas.

During the 12th century,KambanwroteRamavataram,known popularly asKambaramayanaminTamil,but references toRamayana story appear in Tamil literatureas early as 3rd century CE. TheTelugurendition,Ranganatha Ramayanam,was written byGona Budda Reddyin the 13th century and another of a purer Telugu rendition, called Molla Ramayanam written byAtukuri Mollain the 15th century.

The earliest translation to a regional Indo-Aryan language is the early 14th centurySaptakanda RamayanainAssamesebyMadhava Kandali.Valmiki'sRamayanainspiredSri Ramacharit ManasbyTulsidasin 1576, an epic inAwadhiHindiwith a slant more grounded in a different realm of Hindu literature, that ofbhakti;it is an acknowledged masterpiece, popularly known asTulsi-krita Ramayana.Gujaratipoet Premanand wrote a version of theRamayanain the 17th century.Akbar,the third Mughal Emperor, commissioned a simplified text of the Ramayana which he dedicated to his mother,Hamida Banu Begum.Created around 1594, the manuscript is illustrated with scenes from the narrative.

Other versions includeKrittivasi Ramayan,aBengaliversion byKrittibas Ojhain the 15th century;Vilanka Ramayanaby 15th century poetSarala DasaandJagamohana Ramayana(also known asDandi Ramayana) by 16th century poet Balarama Dasa, both inOdia;a Torave Ramayana inKannadaby 16th-century poet Narahari;Adhyathmaramayanam,aMalayalamversion byThunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachanin the 16th century; inMarathiby Sridhara in the 18th century; inMaithilibyChanda Jhain the 19th century; and in the 20th century, RashtrakaviKuvempu'sSri Ramayana DarshanaminKannadaandSrimadramayana Kalpavrukshamuin Telugu byViswanatha Satyanarayanawho receivedJnanapeeth awardfor this work.

There is a sub-plot to theRamayana,prevalent in some parts of India, relating the adventures ofAhiravanand Mahi Ravana, evil brother of Ravana, which enhances the role of Hanuman in the story. Hanuman rescues Rama and Lakshmana after they are kidnapped by the Ahi-Mahi Ravana at the behest of Ravana and held prisoner in a cave, to be sacrificed to the goddessKali.Adbhuta Ramayanais a version that is obscure but also attributed toValmiki– intended as a supplementary to the originalValmiki Ramayana.In this variant of the narrative, Sita is accorded far more prominence, such as elaboration of the events surrounding her birth – in this case toRavana's wife,Mandodarias well as her conquest of Ravana's older brother in theMahakaliform.

TheGondi peoplehave their own version of the Ramayana known as theGond Ramayani,derived from oral folk legends. It consists of seven stories with Lakshmana as the protagonist, set after the main events of the Ramayana, where he finds a bride.

InAdiya Ramayana,an oral version of Ramayana prevailing among the Adiya tribe ofWayanad,Sita is an Adiya woman hailing fromPulpallyin Wayanad.A notable difference in the version is that the Rama, Lakshmana and Hanuman were tied to a tree and were brought to trial in the tribal court, where the deities of the clan Sidhappan, Nanjappan, Mathappan etc interrogate them with intense inquiries regarding the ethical justification for abandoning his pregnant wife in the barren jungle, neglecting his duties as a husband. Rama admits his mistakes and reaccepts Sita, Lava and Kusha.

Early references in Tamil literature

Main article:Ramayana in Tamil literature

Even beforeKambarwrote theRamavataramin Tamil in the 12th century AD, there are many ancient references to the story of Ramayana, implying that the story was familiar in the Tamil lands even before the Common Era. References to the story can be found in theSangam literatureofAkanaṉūṟu(dated 1st century BCE)andPurananuru(dated 300 BC),the twin epics ofSilappatikaram(dated 2nd century CE)andManimekalai(cantos 5, 17 and 18),and theAlvarliterature ofKulasekhara Alvar,Thirumangai Alvar,AndalandNammalvar(dated between 5th and 10th centuries CE).Even the songs of the Nayanmars have references to Ravana and his devotion to Lord Siva.

The entire Ramayana was written as anTamilOperaagain in the 18th century CE byArunachala KavirayarinSrirangam.The Ramayana was named asRama Natakamand was composed inTamil Language.Arunachala Kaviwas fascinated by the epic Ramayana so much that he wanted to impart the story and the good lessons preached by it to a large number of persons who could not obviously read the entire epic in original. He composed the entireRamayanain the form of songs together as an opera so even normal people could understand his Ramayana.

Buddhist version

Main article:Dasaratha Jataka

In the Buddhist variant of theRamayana(Dasaratha Jataka), Dasharatha was king ofBenaresand not Ayodhya. Rama (called Rāmapaṇḍita in this version) was the son of Kaushalya, first wife of Dasharatha. Lakṣmaṇa (Lakkhaṇa) was a sibling of Rama and son of Sumitra, the second wife of Dasharatha. Sita was the wife of Rama. To protect his children from his wife Kaikeyi, who wished to promote her son Bharata, Dasharatha sent the three to a hermitage in the Himalayas for a twelve-year exile.

After nine years, Dasharatha died and Lakkhaṇa and Sita returned. Rāmapaṇḍita, in deference to his father's wishes, remained in exile for a further two years. This version does not include the abduction of Sītā. There is noRavanain this version, or the Rama-Ravana war. However,Ravanaappears in other Buddhist literature, theLankavatara Sutra.

In the explanatory commentary on Jātaka, Rāmapaṇḍita is said to have been a previous birth of theBuddha,and Sita as previous birth ofYasodharā(Rahula-Mata).

Jain versions

Main articles:Rama in JainismandSalakapurusa

Jainversions of theRamayanacan be found in the variousJain agamaslike Saṅghadāsagaṇī Vāchaka'sVasudevahiṇḍī(circa 4th century CE),Ravisena'sPadmapurana(story of Padmaja andRama,Padmaja being the name ofSita),Hemacandra'sTrisastisalakapurusa charitra(hagiography of 63 illustrious persons), Sanghadasa'sVasudevahindiandUttarapuranaby Gunabhadara. According toJain cosmology,everyhalf time cyclehas nine sets ofBalarama,Vasudevaand prativasudeva.

Rama,LakshmanaandRavanaare the eighth Baldeva, Vasudeva andPrativasudevarespectively.Padmanabh Jaininotes that, unlike in the Hindu Puranas, the names Baladeva and Vasudeva are not restricted toBalaramaandKrishnain Jain Puranas. Instead they serve as names of two distinct classes of mighty brothers, who appear nine times in each half time cycle and jointly rule half the earth as half-chakravartins.Jaini traces the origin of this list of brothers to thejinacharitra(lives of jinas) byAcharya Bhadrabahu(3d–4th century BCE).

In the Jain epic ofRamayana,it is not Rama who kills Ravana as told in the Hindu version. Perhaps this is because Rama, a liberated Jain Self in his last life, is unwilling to kill.Instead, it is Lakshmana who kills Ravana (as Vasudeva killes Prativasudeva).In the end, Rama, who led an upright life, renounces his kingdom, becomes aJain monkand attainsmoksha.On the other hand, Lakshmana and Ravana go toHell.However, it is predicted that ultimately they both will be reborn as upright persons and attain liberation in their future births. According toJain texts,Ravana will be the futureTirthankara(omniscient teacher) of Jainism.

The Jain versions have some variations from Valmiki'sRamayana.Dasharatha, the king of Ayodhya had four queens: Aparajita, Sumitra, Suprabha and Kaikeyi. These four queens had four sons. Aparajita's son was Padma and he became known by the name of Rama. Sumitra's son was Narayana: he came to be known by another name, Lakshmana. Kaikeyi's son was Bharata and Suprabha's son was Shatrughna. Furthermore, not much was thought of Rama's fidelity to Sita. According to the Jain version, Rama had four chief queens: Maithili, Prabhavati, Ratinibha, and Sridama.

Furthermore, Sita takes renunciation as a Jain ascetic after Rama abandons her and is reborn in heaven as Indra. Rama, after Lakshman's death, also renounces his kingdom and becomes a Jain monk. Ultimately, he attainsKevala Jnanaomniscience and finally liberation. Rama predicts that Ravana and Lakshmana, who were in thefourth hell,will attain liberation in their future births. Accordingly, Ravana is the future Tirthankara of the next half ascending time cycle and Sita will be hisGanadhara.

Southeast Asian

Indonesia

Balinese dance Legong in Ubud, Ramayana

Lakshmana,Rama and Sita during their exile inDandaka Forestdepicted inJavanese dance

There are several Indonesian adaptations of Ramayana, including the JavaneseKakawin Ramayanaand BalineseRamakavaca.The first half ofKakawin Ramayanais similar to the original Sanskrit version, while the latter half is very different. One of the recognizable modifications is the inclusion of the indigenous Javanese guardian demigod,Semar,and his sons, Gareng, Petruk, and Bagong who make up the numerically significant fourPunokawanor "clown servants".

Kakawin Ramayanais believed to have been written inCentral Javacirca 870 AD during the reign of Mpu Sindok in theMataram Kingdom.The JavaneseKakawin Ramayanais not based on Valmiki's epic, which was then the most famous version of Rama's story, but based onRavanavadhaor the "Ravana massacre," which is the sixth or seventh century poem by Indian poet Bhattikavya.

Kakawin Ramayanawas further developed on the neighboring island ofBalibecoming the BalineseRamakavaca.The bas-reliefs ofRamayanaandKrishnayanascenes are carved on balustrades of the 9th centuryPrambanantemple inYogyakarta,as well as in the 14th centuryPenatarantemple inEast Java.InIndonesia,the Ramayana is a deeply ingrained aspect of the culture, especially amongJavanese,BalineseandSundanesepeople, and has become the source of moral and spiritual guidance as well as aesthetic expression and entertainment, for example inwayangand traditional dances.

TheBalinesekecakdance for example, retells the story of the Ramayana, with dancers playing the roles of Rama, Sita, Lakhsmana, Jatayu, Hanuman, Ravana, Kumbhakarna and Indrajit surrounded by a troupe of over 50 bare-chested men who serve as the chorus chanting "cak". The performance also includes a fire show to describe the burning of Lanka by Hanuman.InYogyakarta,theWayang WongJavanese dancealso retells the Ramayana. One example of a dance production of the Ramayana in Java is theRamayana Balletperformed on the Trimurti Prambanan open air stage, with dozens of actors and the three main prasad spires of thePrambananHindu temple as a backdrop.

Malaysia

The Malay adaptation of the Ramayana, also known as theHikayat Seri Rama,incorporates elements of both Hindu history andIslamic mythology.

Philippines

Main article:Maharadia Lawana

TheMaharadia Lawana,an epic poem of theMaranao peopleof thePhilippines,has been regarded as an indigenized version of the Ramayana since it was documented and translated into English by ProfessorJuan R. Franciscoand Nagasura Madale in 1968.The poem, which had not been written down before Francisco and Madale's translation,narrates the adventures of the monkey-king, Maharadia Lawana, to whom the Gods have granted immortality.

Francisco, an indologist from theUniversity of the Philippines Manila,believed that theRamayananarrative arrived in the Philippines some time between the 17th to 19th centuries, via interactions with Javanese and Malaysian cultures which traded extensively with India.

By the time it was documented in the 1960s, the character names, place names, and the precise episodes and events in Maharadia Lawana's narrative already had some notable differences from those of theRamayana.Francisco believed that this was a sign of "indigenization", and suggested that some changes had already been introduced in Malaysia and Java even before the story was heard by the Maranao, and that upon reaching the Maranao homeland, the story was "further indigenized to suit Philippine cultural perspectives and orientations."

Thailand

The Thai retelling of the tale—Ramakien—is popularly expressed intraditional regional dancetheatre

Thailand's popular national epicRamakien(Thai:รามเกียรติ์,fromrāmakīrti,'glory of Ram') is derived from the Hindu epic. InRamakien,Sita is the daughter of Ravana and Mandodari (thotsakanandmontho).Vibhishana(phiphek), the astrologer brother of Ravana, predicts the death of Ravana from Sita's horoscope. Ravana throws her into the water, but she is later rescued by Janaka (chanok).

While the main story is identical to that ofRamayana,many other aspects were transposed into a Thai context, such as the clothes, weapons, topography and elements of nature, which are described as being Thai in style. It has an expanded role for Hanuman and he is portrayed as a lascivious character. Ramakien can be seen in an elaborate illustration atWat Phra Kaewin Bangkok.

Critical edition

Acritical editionof the text was compiled in India in the 1960s and 1970s, by the Oriental Institute atMaharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda,India, utilizing dozens of manuscripts collected from across India and the surrounding region.An English language translation of the critical edition was completed in November 2016 by Sanskrit scholar Robert P. Goldman of theUniversity of California, Berkeley.

Commentaries

There are around thirty three commentaries on the Ramayana.Some of the commentaries on the Ramayana include Mahesvara Tirtha'stattvadīpa(also known astattvadīpika), Govindaraja'sbhūṣaṇa(also known asgovindarājīyam), Sivasahaya'sśiromaṇi,Mahadeva Yogi'samṛtakaṭaka,Ramanuja'srāmānujīyam,Ahobala'staniclōkīandtilakaby Nagoji Bhatta or Ramavarma.The three commentariestilaka,bhūṣaṇaandśiromaṇiare known asṭīkātraya(i.e. commentary trio) and are more popular.

Influence

See also:Ramayana Ballet

Holidays

Diwali

Diwali,the festival of lights in Hinduism, is celebrated in joy of Lord Rama returning to Ayodhya with his wife Sita and brother Lakshmana.

In toponymy

Bridge To Lanka

ARamlilaactor wears the traditional attire of Ravanan.

Adam's bridgealso known as Ramsetu was built by Lord Rama and vanaras to cross thePalk Straitfor rescuing Sita from Ravana'sLanka.

In art

The painting by theIndonesian(Balinese) artist,Ida Bagus Made Togogdepicts the episode from the Ramayana about the Monkey Kings ofSugrivaandVali;The Killing of Vali.Ramadepicted as a crowned figure with a bow and arrow.

One of the most important literary works ofancient India,theRamayanahas had a profound impact on art and culture in theIndian subcontinentand southeast Asia with the lone exception of Vietnam. The story ushered in the tradition of the next thousand years of massive-scale works in the rich diction of regal courts and Hindu temples. It has also inspired much secondary literature in various languages, notablyKambaramayanambyTamilpoetKambarof the 12th century,Telugu languageMolla Ramayanamby poetMollaandRanganatha Ramayanamby poet Gona Budda Reddy, 14th centuryKannadapoet Narahari's Torave Ramayana and 15th centuryBengalipoetKrittibas Ojha'sKrittivasi Ramayan,as well as the 16th centuryAwadhiversion,Ramcharitmanas,written byTulsidas.

Ramayanic scenes have also been depicted throughterracottas,stone sculptures,bronzesandpaintings.These include the stone panel at Nagarjunakonda inAndhra Pradeshdepicting Bharata's meeting withRamaatChitrakuta(3rd century CE).

TheRamayanabecame popular inSoutheast Asiafrom the 8th century onward and was represented in literature, temple architecture, dance and theatre. Today, dramatic enactments of the story of theRamayana,known asRamlila,take place all acrossIndiaand in many places across the globe within theIndian diaspora.

InIndonesia,especiallyJavaandBali,Ramayanahas become a popular source of artistic expression for dance drama and shadow puppet performances in the region.Sendratari Ramayanais theJavanese traditional balletinwayang orangstyle, routinely performed in the cultural center ofYogyakarta.Large casts were part of outdoor and indoor performances presented regularly atPrambananTrimurti temple for many years.Balinese dance dramasofRamayanawere also performed frequently inBalinese Hindu templesinUbudandUluwatu,where scenes from Ramayana are an integral part ofkecakdance performances.JavaneseWayang(Wayang KulitofpurwaandWayang Wong) also draw fromRamayanaorMahabharata.

Ramayanahas also been depicted in many paintings, notably by theIndonesian(Balinese) artists such as I Gusti Dohkar (before 1938), I Dewa Poetoe Soegih, I Dewa Gedé Raka Poedja,Ida Bagus Made Togogbefore 1948 period. Their paintings are currently in the National Museum of World Cultures collections ofTropenmuseuminAmsterdam,Netherlands.Malaysian artistSyed Thajudeenalso depictedRamayanain 1972. The painting is currently in the permanent collection of the Malaysian National Visual Arts Gallery.

In popular culture

Multiple modern,English-languageadaptations of the epic exist, namelyRam Chandra SeriesbyAmish Tripathi,Ramayana SeriesbyAshok Bankerand a mythopoetic novel,Asura: Tale of the VanquishedbyAnand Neelakantan.Another Indian author,Devdutt Pattanaik,has published three different retellings and commentaries of Ramayana titledSita,The Book Of RamandHanuman's Ramayan.A number of plays, movies and television serials have also been produced based upon theRamayana.

Stage

Hanuman atKecakfire dance, Bali, 2018

One of the best knownRamayanaplays is Gopal Sharman'sThe Ramayana,a contemporary interpretation in English, of the great epic based on the ValmikiRamayana.The play has had more than 3,000 performances all over the world, mostly as a one-woman performance by actressJalabala Vaidya,wife of the playwright Gopal Sharman.The Ramayanahas been performed on Broadway, London's West End, United Nations Headquarters, the Smithsonian Institution among other international venue and in more than 35 cities and towns in India.

Starting in 1978 and under the supervision ofBaba Hari Dass,Ramayanahas been performed every year by Mount Madonna School in Watsonville, California.

In the Philippines, a jazz ballet production was produced in the 1970s entitled "Rama at Sita" (Rama and Sita). The production was a result of a collaboration of four National Artists, Bienvenido Lumbera's libretto (National Artist for Literature), production design by Salvador Bernal (National Artist for Stage Design), music by Ryan Cayabyab (National Artist for Music) and choreography by Alice Reyes (National Artist for Dance).

Nomenclatures

Ramayana has had a profound influence on India and Indians across the geographical and historical space. Rampur is the most common name for villages and towns across the nation particularly UP, Bihar and West Bengal.It is so common that people have been using Ram Ram as a greeting to each other.

Texts and translations

Sanskrit text

• Electronic version of the Sanskrit text,input by Muneo Tokunaga
• Sanskrit textonGRETIL

Translations

Here is a list of notable English translations of the Ramayana in chronological order:

• Griffith, Ralph T. H.(1870–1874).The Ramayan of Valmiki.Trübner – via Sacred-texts.org.(Project Gutenberg).
  • Griffith's translation was one of the earliest complete translations of the Ramayana into English.
• Dutt, Romesh Chunder (1898).The Ramayana and Mahabharata Condensed into English Verse.J. M. Dent.Reprint: Dover Publications. 2012.ISBN978-0-486-14352-1.
  • Dutt provided a condensed version of the Ramayana in verse form.
• Johnson, Helen M. (1931)."Book VII - Jain Ramayana (Rāmāyaṇa)".Trishashti Shalaka Purusha Caritra.
  • This translation presents the Jain perspective on the Ramayana.
• Shastri, Hari Prasad (1952).The Ramayana of Valmiki.Shanti Sadan.
  • Shastri's translation is notable for its attempt to retain the poetic beauty of the original Sanskrit.
• Narayan, R. K. (1973).The Ramayana: A Shortened Modern Prose Version of the Indian Epic.Chatto and Windus.ISBN978-0-7011-1990-4.
  • Narayan's translation is a prose version that simplifies the story for a modern audience while retaining its essential elements.
• Buck, William(1976).Ramayana.University of California Press.35th Anniversary Edition. 2012.ISBN978-0-520-27298-9
  • Buck's version is a modern retelling that aims to make the story accessible to contemporary readers.
• Raghunathan, N. (1981).Srimad Valmiki Ramayanam.Madras: Vighneswara Publishing House.
  • This translation is noted for its fidelity to the original text.
• Goldman, Robert P. (1990).The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India: Balakanda.Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0-691-01485-2.
• ————————— (1994).The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India: Kiskindhakanda.Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0-691-06661-5.
• ————————— (1996).The Ramayana of Valmiki: Sundarakanda.Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0-691-06662-2.
  • This translation is part of the Princeton Library of Asian Translations and is noted for its scholarly approach and detailed annotations. The project spans multiple volumes and years.
• Sattar, Arshia(1996).The Rāmāyaṇa by Vālmīki: An Epic of Ancient India.Viking.ISBN978-0-14-029866-6.
  • Sattar's translation is praised for its clarity and readability, as well as for staying close to the original text.
• Brockington, J. L.; Brockington, Mary (2006).Rāma the Steadfast: An Early Form of the Rāmāyaṇa.Penguin.ISBN0-14-044744-X.
  • This translation provides an early form of theRamayana,emphasizing its foundational aspects.
• Debroy, Bibek (2017).The Valmiki Ramayana.Vol. 1. Penguin.ISBN978-93-87326-26-2.
  • Debroy's translation is known for its fidelity to the original text and detailed footnotes and commentary.

These translations reflect a range of approaches, from strict adherence to the original Sanskrit text to more accessible modern retellings.

See also

• Rāmakṛṣṇavilomakāvyaṃ

References

Works cited

• Brockington, J. L. (1998).The Sanskrit Epics.Brill.ISBN90-04-10260-4.
• Cakrabartī, Bishṇupada (2006).The Penguin Companion to the Ramayana.Penguin Books.ISBN978-0-14-310046-1.
• Claeys, Gregory (2010).The Cambridge Companion to Utopian Literature.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-139-82842-0.
• Coedès, George(1968). Vella, Walter F. (ed.).The Indianized States of Southeast Asia.Translated by Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press.ISBN978-0-8248-0368-1.
• Francisco, Juan R. (1989). "The Indigenization of the Rama Story in the Philippines".Philippine Studies.37(1): 101–111.JSTOR42633135.
• Goldman, Robert P. (1984).The Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki: An Epic of Ancient India, Vol. I, Bālakānda(PDF).Princeton University Press.ISBN81-208-3162--4.
• Goldman, Robert P.; Sutherland Goldman, Sally J. (2022).The Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki: The Complete English Translation.Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0-691-20686-8.
• Guillermo, Artemio R. (2011).Historical Dictionary of the Philippines.Scarecrow Press.ISBN978-0-8108-7511-1.
• Kumar, Sanjeev (2020)."A study of social issues in the Ramayana in the context of subcommentaries"(PDF).International Journal of Sanskrit Research.6(4): 144–147.ISSN2394-7519.Archived(PDF)from the original on 29 October 2020.
• Lal, B. B.(2008).Rāma, His Historicity, Mandir, and Setu: Evidence of Literature, Archaeology, and Other Sciences.Aryan Books.ISBN978-81-7305-345-0.
• Mankekar, Purnima (1999).Screening Culture, Viewing Politics: An Ethnography of Television, Womanhood, and Nation in Postcolonial India.Duke University Press.ISBN978-0-8223-2390-7.
• Parameswaran, M. R. (2014).Valmiki Ramayana: Critical Essays.Manipal University Press.ISBN978-93-82460-18-3.
• Ramanujan, A. K. (2004).The Collected Essays of A. K. Ramanujan.New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
• Rao, Ajay K. (2014).Re-figuring the Ramayana as Theology: A History of Reception in Premodern India.London: Routledge.ISBN978-1-134-07735-9.
• Sharma, Ramashraya (1986).A Socio-political Study of the Vālmīki Rāmāyaṇa.Motilal Banarsidass.ISBN978-81-208-0078-6.

Further reading

• Bhattacharji, Sukumari (1998).Legends of Devi.Orient Blackswan.ISBN978-81-250-1438-6.
• Fallon, Oliver (2009).Bhatti's Poem: The Death of Rávana (Bhaṭṭikāvya).New York: New York University Press,Clay Sanskrit Library.ISBN978-0-8147-2778-2.Archived fromthe originalon 16 March 2021.Retrieved18 April2009.
• Jain, Meenakshi (2013).Rama and Ayodhya.Aryan Books International.ISBN978-81-7305-451-8.
• Keshavadas, Sadguru Sant (1988).Ramayana at a Glance.Motilal Banarsidass.ISBN978-81-208-0545-3.
• Murthy, S. S. N. (November 2003)."A note on the Ramayana"(PDF).Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies.10(6). New Delhi: 1–18.ISSN1084-7561.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 8 August 2012.
• Prabhavananda, Swami (1979).The Spiritual Heritage of India.Vedanta Press.ISBN978-0-87481-035-6.
• Rabb, Kate Milner(1896).National Epics.Archived fromthe originalon 14 September 2011 – viaProject Gutenberg.
• Rohman, Todd (2009). "The Classical Period". In Watling, Gabrielle; Quay, Sara (eds.).Cultural History of Reading: World literature.Greenwood.ISBN978-0-313-33744-4.
• Sachithanantham, Singaravelu(2004).The Ramayana Tradition in Southeast Asia.Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press.ISBN978-983-100-234-6.
• Sundararajan, K.R. (1989)."The Ideal of Perfect Life: The Ramayana".In Krishna Sivaraman; Bithika Mukerji (eds.).Hindu spirituality: Vedas through Vedanta.The Crossroad Publishing Co. pp. 106–126.ISBN978-0-8245-0755-8.

External links

• RamayanaatProject Gutenberg
• The Ramayana of ValmikiEnglish translation by Hari Prasad Shastri, 1952 (revised edition with interwoven glossary)
• A condensed verse translationbyRomesh Chunder Duttsponsored by theLiberty Fund
• Ramayanpublic domain audiobook atLibriVox
• Absolute dating of Ramayana
• Collection: Art of the Ramayanafrom theUniversity of Michigan Museum of Art