History of Austria

Thehistory of Austriacovers the history ofAustriaand its predecessor states. In the lateIron AgeAustria was occupied by people of theHallstattCelticculture (c. 800 BC), they first organized as a Celtic kingdom referred to by the Romans asNoricum,dating from c. 800 to 400 BC. At the end of the 1st century BC, the lands south of theDanubebecame part of theRoman Empire.In theMigration Period,the 6th century, theBavarii,aGermanicpeople, occupied these lands until it fell to theFrankish Empireestablished by the GermanicFranksin the 9th century. The nameOstarrîchi(Austria) has been in use since 996 AD when it was amargravateof theDuchy of Bavariaand from 1156 an independentduchy(laterarchduchy) of theHoly Roman Empire(Heiliges Römisches Reich962–1806).

Austria was dominated by theHouse of HabsburgandHouse of Habsburg-Lorraine(Haus Österreich) from 1273 to 1918. In 1806, whenEmperor Francis IIof Austria dissolved the Holy Roman Empire, Austria became theAustrian Empire,and was also part of theGerman Confederationuntil theAustro-Prussian Warof 1866. In 1867, Austria formed a dual monarchy with Hungary: theAustro-Hungarian Empire(1867–1918). When this empire collapsed after the end ofWorld War Iin 1918, Austria was reduced to the main, mostly German-speaking areas of the empire (its current frontiers), and adopted the name, theRepublic of German-Austria.However, union with Germany and the chosen country name were forbidden by the Allies at theTreaty of Versailles.This led to the creation of theFirst Austrian Republic(1919–1933).

Following the First Republic,Austrofascismtried to keep Austria independent from theGerman Reich.Engelbert Dollfussaccepted that most Austrians were German and Austrian, but wanted Austria to remain independent from Germany. In 1938, Austrian-bornAdolf Hitlerannexed Austria to theGerman Reichunder theAnschlussconcept, which was supported by a large majority of theAustrian people.After the German defeat in World War II, theGerman identity in Austriawas weakened. Ten years after theSecond World WarAustria again became an independent republic as theSecond Austrian Republicin 1955. Austria joined theEuropean Unionin 1995.

Historiography

Since the territory understood by the term 'Austria' underwent drastic changes over time, dealing with aHistory of Austriaraises a number of questions, e.g., whether it is confined to the current or former Republic of Austria, or extends also to all lands formerly ruled by the rulers of Austria. Furthermore, should Austrian history include the period 1938–1945, when it nominally did not exist? Of the lands now part of the second Republic of Austria, many were added over time – only two of the nine provinces orBundesländer(Lower Austria and Upper Austria) are strictly 'Austria', while other parts of its former sovereign territory are now part of other countries e.g., Italy, Croatia, Slovenia and Czechia. Within Austria there are regionally and temporally varying affinities to adjacent countries.

Prehistory

Paleolithic

TheVenus of Willendorf,c. 25,000 BC.Naturhistorisches Museum,Vienna.

The Alps were inaccessible during theIce Age,so human habitation dates no earlier than theMiddle Paleolithicera, during the time of theNeanderthals.The oldest traces of human habitation in Austria, more than 250,000 years ago, were found in the Repolust Cave at Badl, nearPeggauin theGraz-Umgebungdistrict ofStyria.These include stone tools, bone tools, and pottery fragments together with mammalian remains. Some 70,000-year-old evidence was found in the Gudenus Cave in northwestern Lower Austria.

Upper Paleolithicremains are more numerous in Lower Austria. The best known are in theWachauregion, including the sites of the two oldest pieces of art in Austria. These are figurative representations of women, theVenus of Galgenbergfound nearStratzingand thought to be 32,000 years old, and the nearbyVenus of Willendorf(26,000 years old) found atWillendorf,nearKrems an der Donau.In 2005 in the same area, a double infant burial site was discovered at Krems-Wachtberg, dating fromGravettianculture (27,000 years old), the oldest burial ground found in Austria to date.

Mesolithic

Mesolithicremains includerock shelters(abris) fromLake Constanceand theAlpine Rhine Valley,a funeral site atElsbethenand a few other sites with microlithic artifacts which demonstrate the transition from living as hunter-gatherers and sedentary farmers and ranchers.

Neolithic

During theNeolithicera, most of those areas of Austria that were amenable toagricultureand were sources of raw materials were settled. Remains include those of theLinear pottery culture,one of the first agrarian cultures in Europe. The first recorded rural settlement from this time was atBrunn am GebirgeinMödling.Austria's first industrial monument, thechertmine atMauer-Antonshöhein theMauerneighborhood of the southern Vienna district ofLiesingdates from this period. In theLengyel culture,which followed Linear Pottery in Lower Austria,circular ditcheswere constructed.

Copper Age

Traces of theCopper Age(Chalcolithic era) in Austria were identified in theCarpathian BasinhoardatStollhof,Hohe Wand,Lower Austria. Hilltop settlements from this era are common in eastern Austria. During this time the inhabitants sought out and developed raw materials in the central Alpine areas. The most important find is considered to be the IcemanÖtzi,a well-preserved mummy of a man frozen in the Alps dating from approximately 3,300 BC, although these finds are now in Italy on the Austrian border. Another culture is theMondsee group,represented bystilt housesin the Alpine lakes.

Bronze Age

By the beginning of theBronze Agefortificationswere appearing, protecting the commercial centers of the mining, processing, and trading ofcopperandtin.This flourishing culture is reflected in the grave artifacts, such as at Pitten, inNußdorf ob der Traisen,Lower Austria. In the late Bronze Age appeared theUrnfield culture,in whichsalt miningcommenced in the northern salt mines atHallstatt.

Early history

Iron Age

Leather shoe from the Hallstatt culture, 800–400 B. C.

TheIron Agein Austria is represented by theHallstatt culture,which succeeded the Urnfield culture, under influences from the Mediterranean civilizations andSteppepeoples. This gradually transitioned into theCelticLa Tène culture.

Hallstatt culture

Hallstatt (800 BC: solid yellow; 500 BC: light yellow) and La Tène (450 BC: solid green; 50 BC light green)

This early Iron Age culture is named after Hallstatt thetype siteinUpper Austria.The culture is often described in two zones, Western and Eastern, through which flowed the riversEnns,YbbsandInn.The West Hallstatt area was in contact with the Greek colonies on theLiguriancoast. In the Alps, contacts with theEtruscansand under Greek influence regions in Italy were maintained. The East had close links with the Steppe Peoples who had passed over the Carpathian Basin from the southern Russian steppes.

The population of Hallstatt drew its wealth from the salt industry. Imports of luxury goods stretching from the North and Baltic seas to Africa have been discovered in the cemetery at Hallstatt. The oldest evidence of an Austrian wine industry was discovered inZagersdorf,Burgenlandin a grave mound. TheCult Wagon of Strettweg,Styriais evidence of contemporary religious life.

La Tène (Celtic) culture

In the laterIron Age,theCelticLa Tène culturespread to Austria. This culture gave rise to the first-recorded local tribal (Taurisci,Ambidravi,Ambisontes) and place names. Out of this aroseNoricum(2nd century toc.15b.c.) – a confederation of Alpine Celtic tribes (traditionally twelve) under the leadership of theNorici.It was confined to present-day southern and eastern Austria and part ofSlovenia.The West was settled by theRaeti.

DürrnbergandHallein(Salzburg) were Celtic salt settlements. In easternStyriaand theBurgenland(e.g.,Oberpullendorf) high-quality iron ore was mined and processed, then exported to the Romans asferrum noricum(Noric iron). This led to the creation of a Roman trading outpost on theMagdalensbergin the early 1st centuryb.c.,later replaced by the Roman town Virunum. Fortified hilltop settlements (oppida), e.g.Kulm(eastStyria), Idunum (mod.Villach), Burg (Schwarzenbach), and Braunsberg (Hainburg), were centers of public life. Some cities such asLinz(Lentos) date back to this period also.

Roman era

See also:Raetia,Noricum,andPannonia

The province ofNoricumhighlighted within theRoman Empire.

Although Noricum and Rome had been active trading partners and had formed military alliances, around 15 BC the majority of what we now know as Austria was annexed to the Roman Empire, beginning 500 years of so-called "Austria Romana" (as it became known in the 19th century).Noricumbecame aprovinceof theRoman Empire.

During the reign of theEmperor Claudius(41–54 AD), the Roman province of Noricum had as its boundaries to the north theDanube,to the north-east theVienna Woods,and in the east approximately the current eastern border ofStyria,while in the south-east and south it was bounded by theEisackandDravarivers. Later, underDiocletian(284–305), the province was divided along the main Alpine ridge into a northern (Noricum ripense) and a southern (Noricum Mediterraneum). Across theZillerin the west, corresponding to the present provinces ofVorarlbergandTyrol,lay the province ofRaetia,incorporating the earlier territory ofVindelicia.In the east layPannonia,including what is today theBurgenland.To the south was Region 10,Venetia et Histria.The Danube river formed theDanubianlimes(limes Danubii), a defensive line separating Upper and Lower Austria from theGermanic tribesof theMarcomanniandQuadi.

The Romans built many cities that survive today. They include Vindobona (Vienna), Juvavum (Salzburg), Valdidena (Innsbruck), and Brigantium (Bregenz).Other important towns wereVirunum(north of the modernKlagenfurt),Teurnia(nearSpittal), andLauriacum(Enns). Significant archaeological sites from the Roman period includeKleinklein(Styria) andZollfeld(Magdalensberg).

Christianityappeared in Austria in the 2nd century AD, prompting Church organization that can be traced back to the 4th century AD. After the arrival of theBavarii,Austria became the object of missionary efforts, such as Rupert and Virgil of theHiberno-Scottish mission.

Migration period

Routes ofBarbarian invasions, 100–500 AD.

First phase: Goths, 300–500 AD

TheGreat Migration(Völkerwanderung) sealed the decline of Roman power in Austria. In the First Phase (300–500 AD) the Roman Empire was increasingly harassed byGermanic tribesfrom the 5th Century, includingGothsandVandals.As the fabric of the Roman Empire crumbled, the ability of Raetia, Noricum, and Pannonia to defend themselves became increasingly problematic.Radagaisusoverran part of the country in 405. (Géza Alföldy pp. 213–4). After several raids on Italy, theVisigothsarrived in 408, underAlaric I.

As described byZosimus,Alaric set out fromEmona(modernLjubljana) which lay betweenPannonia SuperiorandNoricumover theCarnic Alpsarriving at Virunum in Noricum, as had been agreed to by the Roman generalStilicho,following several skirmishes between the two. Alaric was voted a large amount of money to maintain peace, by the Roman Senate, atStilicho's instigation.From there he directed his operations against Italy, demanding Noricum among another territory, finally sacking Rome in 410 but dying on the route home that year.

The Visigoths eventually moved on, allowing a short period of stability apart from domestic disturbances in 431. (Alföldy p. 214). 451 saw the Huns pour through the land, and in 433, Pannonia had had to be evacuated under the Hun attacks. The death ofAttilain 453 allowed theOstrogothsto scatter his Hunnish empire. Many tribes, formerly under the Huns now started to settle along the Danube basin and assert their independence. Among these were theRugii,who formed their own lands (Rugiland) across the Danube and started to impose their will on Noricum.

From 472OstrogothsandAlamanniinvaded the area but did not subdue it. Even afterOdoacerhad overthrown the last Western Roman Emperor in 476, there remained remnants of the Roman administration in the provinces before the final collapse of Late Antiquity in this area (seeSeverinus of Noricumand Flaccitheus). Noricum was eventually abandoned in 488,while Raetia was abandoned by the Romans to theAlamanni.

Abandoned and devastated towns and buildings slowly fell into disarray during the 4th and 5th centuries. By 493 the area was part of the lands of the Ostrogoth kingTheodoricand there were no remaining Roman influences. The collapse of the Ostrogothic empire began with his death in 526.

Second phase: Slavs and Bavarii, 500–700 AD

See also:History of Bavaria

During the second phase of theMigration Period(500–700 AD) the Langobardii (Lombards) made a brief appearance in the northern and eastern regions around 500 AD, but had been driven south into northern Italy by theAvarsby 567. The Avars and their vassal Slavs had established themselves from theBaltic Seato theBalkans.After the Avars suffered setbacks in the east in 626, the Slavs rebelled, establishing their own territories. The Alpine Slavs (Carantanii) elected a Bavarian, Odilo, as their count and successfully resisted further Avar subjugation.

TheSlavictribe of theCarantaniansmigrated westward along the Drava into the Eastern Alpsin the wake of the expansion of theirAvaroverlords during the 7th century, mixed with the Celto-Romanic population, and established the realm ofCarantania(laterCarinthia), which covered much of eastern and central Austrian territory and was the first independent Slavic state in Europe, centred atZollfeld.Together with the indigenous population they were able to resist further encroachment of the neighboringFranksand Avars in the southeastern Alps.

In the meantime, theGermanic tribeof theBavarii(Bavarians), vassals of theFranks,had developed in the 5th and 6th century in the west of the country and in what is now known asBavaria,while what is todayVorarlberghad been settled by theAlemans.In the northern alps the Bavarians had become established as a stem dukedom around 550 AD, under the rule of theAgilolfingsuntil 788 as an eastern outpost of theFrankish Empire.At that time the lands occupied by the Bavarians extended south to currentSouth Tyrol,and east to the riverEnns.The administrative center was atRegensburg.Those groups mixed with theRhaeto-Romanicpopulation and pushed it up into the mountains along thePuster Valley.

In the south of present-day Austria, the Slavic tribes had settled in the valleys of the Drava,MuraandSaveby 600 AD. The westward Slavic migration stopped further Bavarian migration eastwards by 610. Their most westward expansion was reached in 650 at the Puster Valley (Pustertal), but gradually fell back to theEnns Riverby 780.The settlement boundary between Slavs and Bavarians roughly corresponds to a line fromFreistadtthroughLinz,Salzburg(Lungau), toEast Tyrol(Lesachtal), with Avars and Slavs occupying eastern Austria and modern-dayBohemia.

Carantania, under pressure of the Avars, became a vassal state toBavariain 745 and was later incorporated into theCarolingian empire,first as a tribalmargravateunder Slavic dukes, and after the failed rebellion ofLjudevit Posavskiin the early 9th century, under Frankish-appointed noblemen. During the following centuries, Bavarian settlers went down the Danube and up the Alps, a process through which Austria was to become the mostly German-speaking country it is today. Only in southern Carinthia,the Slavic populationmaintained its language and identity until the early 20th century, when a process of assimilation reduced their number to a small minority.

Middle Ages

Early Middle Ages: Duchy of Bavaria (8th–10th centuries)

See also:List of rulers of BavariaandAvar March

Avar March in eastern Bavaria between the Danube and Drava rivers

FrankishAustrasiain 774

LombardandBavarianterritories incorporated by Charlemagne in 788

Dependencies

TheHoly Roman Empirein the 10th century showing Bavarian marches, including Carinthia.

Bavarian relationship with the Franks varied, achieving temporary independence by 717 AD, only to be subjugated byCharles Martel.FinallyCharlemagne(Emperor 800–814) deposed the last Agilolfing duke,Tassilo III,assuming directCarolingiancontrol in 788 AD, with non-hereditary Bavarian kings. Charlemagne subsequently led the Franks and Bavarians against the easternAvarsin 791, so that by 803 they had fallen back to the east of theFischaandLeitharivers.These conquests enabled the establishment of a system of defensive marches (military borderlands) from the Danube to the Adriatic.By around 800 AD, Österreich, the "Kingdom of the East," had been joined to the Holy Roman Empire.

Among these was an eastern march, theAvar March(Awarenmark), corresponding roughly to present dayLower Austria,bordered by the riversEnns,RaabandDrava,while to the south lay theMarch of Carinthia.Both marches were collectively referred to as theMarcha orientalis(Eastern March), a prefecture of the Duchy of Bavaria. In 805, the Avars, with Charlemagne's permission, led by the Avar Khagan, settled south-eastward fromVienna.

A new threat appeared in 862, theHungarians,following the pattern of displacement from more eastern territories by superior forces. By 896 the Hungarianswere present in large numbers on theHungarian Plainfrom which they raided the Frankish domains. They defeated theMoraviansand in 907 defeated the Bavarians at theBattle of Pressburgand by 909 had overrun the marches forcing theFranks and Bavariansback to theEnns River.

Bavaria became aMargraviateunderEngeldeo(890–895) and was re-established as a Duchy underArnulf the Bad(907–937) who united it with theDuchy of Carinthia,occupying most of the eastern alps. This proved short lived. His sonEberhard(937–938) found himself in conflict with the German King,Otto I(Otto the Great) who deposed him. The next Duke wasHenry I(947–955), who was Otto's brother. In 955 Otto successfully forced back the Hungarians at theBattle of Lechfeld,beginning a slow reconquest of the eastern lands, includingIstriaandCarniola.

During the reign of Henry's son,Henry II (the Quarrelsome)(955–976) Otto became the firstHoly Roman Emperor(962) and Bavaria became aduchyof theHoly Roman Empire.Otto I re-established the eastern march, and was succeeded byOtto IIin 967, and found himself in conflict with Henry who he deposed, allowing him to re-organise the duchies of his empire.

Otto considerably reduced Bavaria, re-establishing Carinthia to the south. To the east, he established a newBavarian Eastern March,subsequently known as Austria, underLeopold(Luitpold), count ofBabenbergin 976. Leopold I, also known as Leopold the Illustrious (Luitpold der Erlauchte) ruled Austria from 976 to 994.

Babenberg Austria (976–1246)

Main article:House of Babenberg

Duchy of Bavaria 976 AD

Margraviate (976–1156)

Main article:Margraviate of Austria

Ostarrîchiin document from time ofOtto III.

TheDuchy of Bavaria(Bajovaria), Margravate of Ostarrichi and the Duchy of Carantania c. 1000 AD.

Themarcheswere overseen by acomesorduxas appointed by the emperor. These terms are usually translated as count or duke, but these terms conveyed very different meanings in theEarly Middle Ages,so to avoid misunderstanding historians usually employ theLatinversions when discussing the titles and their holders. InLombardicspeaking countries, the title was eventually regularized tomargrave(German:markgraf) i.e. "count of the mark".

The first recorded instance of the name 'Austria' appeared in 996, in a document ofKing Otto IIIwritten asOstarrîchi,referring to the territory of the Babenberg March. In addition, for a long time the formOsterlant(Ostlandor 'Eastland') was in use, the inhabitants being referred to asOstermannorOsterfrau.TheLatinizednameAustriaapplied to this area appears in the 12th Century writings in the time ofLeopold III(1095–1136). (compareAustrasiaas the name for the north-eastern part of the Frankish Empire). The termOstmarkis not historically certain and appears to be a translation ofmarchia orientalisthat came up only much later.

The Babenbergs pursued a policy of settling the country, clearing forests and founding towns and monasteries. They ruled the March fromPöchlarninitially, and later fromMelk,continually expanding the territory eastward along theDanubevalley, so that by 1002 it reachedVienna.The eastward expansion was finally halted by the newly ChristianizedHungariansin 1030, whenKing Stephen(1001–1038) of Hungary defeated the Emperor,Conrad II(1024–1039) at Vienna.

A 'core' territory had finally been established. The land contained the remnant of many prior civilisations, but the Bavarians predominated, except in theLake Constancearea to the west occupied by theAlemanni(Vorarlberg). Pockets of the Celto-Romanic population (WalchenorWelsche) persisted, such as aroundSalzburg,and Roman place names persisted, such asJuvavum(Salzburg). In addition this population was distinguished by Christianity and by their language, a Latin dialect (Romansch). Salzburg was already a bishopric (739), and by 798 an archbishopric.

Although the Germanic Bavarians steadily replaced Romansch as the main language, they adopted many Roman customs and became increasingly Christianized. Similarly in the east, German replaced the Slavic language. The March of Austria's neighbours were the Duchy of Bavaria to the west, the Kingdoms of Bohemia and Poland to the North, the Kingdom of Hungary to the east and the Duchy ofCarinthiato the south. In this setting, Austria, still subject to Bavaria was a relatively small player.

The Babenberg Margraves controlled very little of modern Austria. Salzburg, historically part of Bavaria became an ecclesiastical territory, whileStyriawas part of the Carinthian Duchy. The Babenbergs had relatively small holdings, with not only Salzburg but the lands of the Diocese of Passau lying in the hands of the church, and the nobility controlling much of the rest. However they embarked on a programme of consolidating their power base. One such method was to employ indentures servants such as theKuenringernfamily asMinisterialesand given considerable military and administrative duties.They survived as a dynasty through good fortune and skill at power politics, in that era dominated by the continualstruggle between emperor and papacy.

The path was not always smooth. The fifth Margrave,Leopold II'The Fair' (Luitpold der Schöne) (1075–1095) was temporarily deposed by the EmperorHenry IV(1084–1105) after finding himself on the wrong side of theInvestiture Dispute.However Leopold's son,Leopold III'The Good' (Luitpold der Heilige) (1095–1136) backed Henry's rebellious son,Henry V(1111–1125), contributed to his victory and was rewarded with the hand of Henry's sisterAgnes von Waiblingenin 1106, thus allying himself with the Imperial family. Leopold then concentrated on pacifying the nobility. Hismonasticfoundations, particularlyKlosterneuburgandHeiligenkreuz,led to hisposthumouscanonisationin 1458, and he became Austria'spatron saint.

Union with Bavaria 1139

Leopold III was succeeded by his son,Leopold IV'The Generous' (Luitpold der Freigiebige) (1137–1141). Leopold further enhanced the status of Austria by also becomingDuke of Bavariain 1139, as Leopold I. Bavaria itself had been in the hands of theWelf(Guelph) dynasty, who were pitted against theHohenstaufen.The latter came to the imperial throne in 1138 in the person ofConrad III(1138–1152); the Duke of Bavaria,Henry the Proud,was himself a candidate for the imperial crown and disputed the election of Conrad, and was subsequently deprived of the Duchy, which was given to Leopold IV. When Leopold died, his lands were inherited by his brotherHenry II(Heinrich Jasomirgott) (1141–1177).

In the meantime, Conrad had been succeeded as emperor by his nephewFrederick I Barbarossa(1155–1190), who was descended from both the Welfs and Hohenstauffens and sought to end the conflicts within Germany. To this end he returned Bavaria to the Welfs in 1156, but as compensation elevated Austria to a duchy through an instrument known as thePrivilegium Minus.Henry II thus became Duke of Austria in exchange for losing the title of Duke of Bavaria.

Duchy of Austria (1156–1246)

See also:Austrian Walled Towns

Austria was now an independent dominion within the Holy Roman Empire, and Henry moved his official residence to Vienna that year.

Leopold the Virtuous and union with Styria (1177–1194)

In 1186 theGeorgenberg Pactbequeathed Austria's southern neighbour,the Duchy of Styriato Austria upon the death of the childless Duke of Styria,Ottokar IV,which occurred in 1192. Styria had been carved out of the northern marches ofCarinthia,and only raised to the status of Duchy in 1180. However the territory of the Duchy of Styria extended far beyond the current state ofStyria,including parts of present-daySlovenia(Lower Styria), and also parts ofUpper Austria(the Traungau, the area aroundWelsandSteyr) andLower Austria(the county ofPitten,today's districts ofWiener NeustadtandNeunkirchen).

The second Duke of Austria, Henry II's sonLeopold V the Virtuous(Luitpold der Tugendhafte) (1177–1194) became Duke of these combined territories. Leopold is perhaps best known for his imprisonment of the British king,Richard Ifollowing theThird Crusade(1189–1192), in 1192 atDürnstein.The ransom money he received helped finance many of his projects.

At that time, the Babenberg Dukes came to be one of the most influential ruling families in the region, peaking in the reign of Henry's grandsonLeopold VIthe Glorious (Luitpold der Glorreiche) (1198–1230), the fourth Duke.under whom the culture of theHigh Middle Agesflourished, including the introduction ofGothic art.

Frederick the Quarrelsome: Division of the land and end of a dynasty (1230–1246)

On Leopold's death, he was succeeded by his sonFrederick IIthe Quarrelsome (Friedrich der Streitbare) (1230–1246). In 1238 he divided the land into two areas divided by theRiver Enns.That part above the Enns becameOb(erhalb) der Enns(Above the Enns) or 'Upper Austria' (Oberösterreich), although other names such assupra anasum(from an old Latin name for the river), andAustria superiorwere also in use. Those lands below the Enns orunter der Ennsbecame known as Lower Austria (Niederösterreich). The Traungau and Steyr were made part of Upper Austria rather than Styria. Another of Frederick's achievements was a Patent of Protection forJewsin 1244.

However Frederick was killed in theBattle of the Leitha Riveragainst the Hungarians, and had no surviving children. Thus the Babenburg dynasty became extinct in 1246.

Interregnum (1246–1278)

The realms ofOttokar II.

What followed was aninterregnum,a period of several decades during which the status of the country was disputed, and during which Frederick II's duchy fell victim to a prolonged power play between rival forces. During this time there were multiple claimants to the title, includingVladislaus, Margrave of Moraviason of KingWenceslaus I of Bohemia.King Wenceslaus aimed at acquiring the Duchy of Austria by arranging the marriage of Vladislaus to the last Duke's nieceGertrud,herself a potential heir and claimant.

According to thePrivilegium Minusissued by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1156, the Austrian lands could be bequeathed through the female line. Vladislaus received the homage of the Austrian nobility, but died shortly afterwards, on 3 January 1247, before he could take possession of the duchy. Next cameHerman of Badenin 1248. He also made claim by seeking Gertrud's hand but did not have the support of the nobility. Herman died in 1250, and his claim was taken up by his sonFrederick,but his claim was thwarted by the Bohemian invasion of Austria.

In an attempt to end the turmoil a group of Austrian nobles invited the king ofBohemia,Ottokar IIPřemysl, Vladislaus' brother, to become Austria's ruler in 1251. His father had attempted to invade Austria in 1250. Ottokar then proceeded to ally himself to the Babenbergs by marryingMargaret,Duke Frederick II's sisterand daughter to Leopold VI, therefore making him a potential claimant to the throne, in 1252. He subdued the quarrelsome nobles and made himself ruler of most of the area, including Austria,Styria(which was previously under the rule ofHungary) as well asCarniolaandCarinthia,both of which he had claimed by a dubious right of inheritance.

Ottokar was a lawmaker and builder. Among his achievements was the founding of theHofburg Palacein Vienna. Ottokar was in a position to establish a new empire, given the weakness of theHoly Roman Empireon the death of Frederick II (1220–1250) particularly after theHohenstauffendynasty was ended in 1254 with the death ofConrad IVand the ensuingImperial interregnum(1254–1273). Thus Ottokar put himself forward as a candidate for the imperial throne, but was unsuccessful.

Religious persecution

During the interregnum, Austria was the scene of intense persecution ofhereticsby theInquisition.The first instances appear in 1260 in over forty parishes in the southern Danube region between theSalzkammergutand theVienna Woods,and were mainly directed against theWaldensians.

Habsburg ascent and death of Ottokar (1273–1278)

Ottokar again contested the Imperial Throne in 1273, being almost alone in this position in the electoral college. This time he refused to accept the authority of the successful candidate,Rudolf of Habsburg(Emperor 1273–1291). In November 1274 theImperial DietatNurembergruled that all crown estates seized since the death of the Emperor Frederick II (1250) must be restored, and that King Ottokar II must answer to the Diet for not recognising the new emperor, Rudolf. Ottokar refused either to appear or to restore the duchies ofAustria,StyriaandCarinthiawith theMarch of Carniola,which he had claimed through his first wife, aBabenbergheiress, and which he had seized while disputing them with another Babenberg heir, MargraveHermann VI of Baden.

Rudolph refuted Ottokar's succession to the Babenberg patrimony, declaring that the provinces must revert to the Imperial crown due to the lack of male-line heirs (a position that however conflicted with the provisions of the AustrianPrivilegium Minus). King Ottokar was placed under theimperial ban;and in June 1276 war was declared against him, Rudolf laying siege toVienna.Having persuaded Ottokar's former allyDuke Henry XIII of Lower Bavariato switch sides, Rudolph compelled the Bohemian king to cede the four provinces to the control of the imperial administration in November 1276.

Ottokar having relinquished his territories outside of the Czech lands, Rudolph re-invested him with theKingdom of Bohemia,betrothed his youngest daughter,Judith of Habsburg,(to Ottokar's sonWenceslaus II), and made a triumphal entry into Vienna. Ottokar, however, raised questions about the execution of the treaty, made an alliance with somePiastchiefs ofPoland,and procured the support of several German princes, again including Henry XIII of Lower Bavaria. To meet this coalition, Rudolph formed an alliance with KingLadislaus IV of Hungaryand gave additional privileges to the Vienna citizens.

On 26 August 1278, the rival armies met at theBattle on the Marchfeld,northeast of Vienna, where Ottokar was defeated and killed. TheMargraviate of Moraviawas subdued and its government entrusted to Rudolph's representatives, leaving Ottokar's widowKunigunda of Slavonia,in control of only the province surrounding Prague, while the young Wenceslaus II was again betrothed toJudith.

Rudolf was thus able to assume sole control over Austria, as Duke of Austria and Styria (1278–1282) which remained underHabsburgrule for over six centuries, until 1918.

The establishment of the Habsburg dynasty: Duchy of Austria (1278–1453)

See also:Habsburg Monarchy

Rudolf of Habsburg,Speyer cathedralwhere he was buried.

Thus Austria and the Empire came under a single Habsburg crown, and after a few centuries (1438) would remain so almost continuously (see below) till 1806, when the empire was dissolved, obviating the frequent conflicts that had occurred previously.

Rudolph I and primogeniture (1278–1358)

Rudolf Ispent several years establishing his authority in Austria, finding some difficulty in establishing his family as successors to the rule of the province. At length the hostility of the princes was overcome and he was able to bequeath Austria to his two sons. In December 1282, at the Diet ofAugsburg,Rudolph invested the duchies of Austria and Styria on his sons,Albert I(1282–1308) andRudolph II the Debonair(1282–1283) as co-rulers "jointly and severally", and so laid the foundation of the House of Habsburg. Rudolf continued his campaigns subduing and subjugating and adding to his domains, dying in 1291, but leaving dynastic instability in Austria, where frequently the Duchy of Austria was shared between family members. However Rudolf was unsuccessful in ensuring the succession to the imperial throne for the Dukes of Austria and Styria.

The conjoint dukedom lasted only a year until theTreaty of Rheinfelden(Rheinfelder Hausordnung) in 1283 established the Habsburgorder of succession.Establishing primogeniture, then eleven-year-old Duke Rudolph II had to waive all his rights to the thrones of Austria and Styria to the benefit of his elder brother Albert I. While Rudolph was supposed to be compensated, this did not happen, dying in 1290, and his sonJohnsubsequently murdered his uncle Albert I in 1308. For a brief period, Albert I also shared the duchies withRudolph IIIthe Good (1298–1307), and finally achieved the imperial throne in 1298.

On Albert I's death, the duchy but not the empire passed to his son,Frederick the Fair(1308–1330), at least not until 1314 when he became co-ruler of the empire withLouis IV.Frederick also had to share the duchy with his brotherLeopold Ithe Glorious (1308–1326). Yet another brother,Albert IIthe Lame (1330–1358) succeeded Frederick.

The pattern of corule persisted, since Albert had to share the role with another younger brotherOtto Ithe Merry (1330–1339), although he did attempt to unsuccessfully lay down the rules of succession in the "Albertinian House Rule" (Albertinische Hausordnung). When Otto died in 1339, his two sons, Frederick II and Leopold II replaced him, making three simultaneous Dukes of Austria from 1339 to 1344 when both of them died in their teens without issue. Single rule in the Duchy of Austria finally returned when his son, Rudolph IV succeeded him in 1358.

In the 14th century the Habsburgs began to accumulate other provinces in the vicinity of the Duchy of Austria, which had remained a small territory along the Danube, and Styria, which they had acquired with Austria from Ottokar. In 1335 Albert II inherited theDuchy of Carinthiaand theMarch of Carniolafrom the then rulers, theHouse of Gorizia.

Rudolph IV and thePrivilegium Maius(1358–1365)

Rudolf IVthe Founder (1358–1365) was the first to claim the title of Archduke of Austria, through thePrivilegium Maiusof 1359, which was actually aforgeryand not recognized outside of Austria till 1453. However it would have placed him on a level footing with the otherPrince-electorsof the Holy Roman Empire. Rudolph was one of the most active rulers of his time, initiating many measures and elevating the importance of the City of Vienna.

At that time Vienna was ecclesiastically subordinate to theDiocese of Passau,which Rudolph subverted by foundingSt Stephen's Cathedraland appointing theprovostas theArchchancellorof Austria. he also founded theUniversity of Vienna(Alma Mater Rudolphina). He improved the economy and established a stable currency, the Vienna Penny (Wiener Pfennig). When he died in 1365 he was without issue and the succession passed to his brothers jointly under the Rudolfinian House Rules (Rudolfinische Hausordnung).

In 1363, theCounty of Tyrolwas acquired by Rudolph IV fromMargaret of Tyrol.Thus Austria was now a complex country in the Eastern Alps, and these lands are often referred to as the Habsburg Hereditary Lands, as well as simply Austria, since the Habsburgs also began to accumulate lands far from their Hereditary Lands.

Albert III and Leopold III: A house divided (1365–1457)

See also:Albertinian LineandLeopoldian line

Almost the entire 15th Century was a confusion of estate and family disputes, which considerably weakened the political and economic importance of the Habsburg lands. It was not until 1453 in the reign ofFrederick Vthe Peaceful (1457–1493) that the country (at least the core territories) would be finally united again. Rudolph IV's brothersAlbert IIIthe Pigtail andLeopold IIIthe Just quarreled ceaselessly and eventually agreed to split the realm in theTreaty of Neubergin 1379, which was to result in further schisms later. Altogether this resulted in three separate jurisdictions.

• Lower Austrian Territories orNiederösterreich(UpperandLower Austria)
  • Albertinian Line – extinct 1457, passed to Leopoldians
• Inner Austrian TerritoriesorInnerösterreich(Styria,Carinthia,Carniola,and theAustrian LittoralofIstriaandTrieste)
  • Leopoldian Line then Elder Ernestine Line 1406–1457, continuing asArchduchy of Austria.
• Further Austrian TerritoriesorVorderösterreich(Tyrol,Vorarlbergand theSwabianandAlsatianterritories)
  • Leopoldian Line then Junior Tyrolean Line 1406–1490, passed back to Leopoldians

Albertinian line (1379–1457)

In 1379 Albert III retained Austria proper, ruling till 1395. He was succeeded by his sonAlbert IV(1395–1404) and grandsonAlbert V(1404–1439) who regained the imperial throne for the Habsburgs and through his territorial acquisitions was set to become one of the most powerful rulers in Europe had he not died when he did, leaving only aposthumousheir, born four months later (Ladislaus the Posthumous1440–1457). Instead it was Ladislaus' guardian and successor, the LeopoldianFrederick Vthe Peaceful (1457–1493) who benefited. The Albertinian line having become extinct, the title now passed back to the Leopoldians. Frederick was so aware of the potential of being the young Ladislaus' guardian that he refused to let him rule independently upon reaching majority (12 in Austria at the time)and had to be forced to release him by the Austrian Estates (League of Mailberg 1452).

Leopoldian line (1379–1490)

Leopold III took the remaining territories, ruling till 1386. He was succeeded by two of his sons jointly,William the Courteous(1386–1406) andLeopold IV the Fat(1386–1411). In 1402 yet another split in the Duchy occurred, since Leopold III had had four sons and neither Leopold IV or William had heirs. The remaining brothers then divided the territory.

Ernest the Iron(1402–1424) took Inner Austria, whileFrederick IV of the Empty Pockets(1402–1439) took Further Austria. Once William died in 1406, this took formal effect with two separate ducal lines, theElder Ernestine LineandJunior Tyrolean Linerespectively.

Ernestine line (Inner Austria 1406–1457)

Frederick V(1415–1493) byHans Burgkmair,c. 1500 (Kunsthistorisches Museum,Vienna). Duke 1424, King 1440, Emperor 1452, Archduke 1457.

The Ernestine line consisted of Ernest and a joint rule by two of his sons upon his death in 1424,Albert VIthe Prodigal (1457–1463) andFrederick Vthe Peaceful (1457–1493). They too quarreled and in turn divided what had now become both Lower and Inner Austria upon the death of Ladislaus in 1457 and extinction of the Albertinians. Albert seized Upper Austria in 1458, ruling fromLinz,but in 1462 proceeded to besiege his elder brother in theHofburg Palacein Vienna, seizing lower Austria too. However, since he died childless the following year (1463) his possessions automatically reverted to his brother, and Frederick now controlled all of the Albertinian and Ernestine possessions.

Frederick's political career had advanced in a major way, since he inherited the Duchy of Inner Austria in 1424. From being a Duke, he becameGerman Kingas Frederick IV in 1440 and Holy Roman Emperor as Frederick III (1452–1493).

Tyrolean line (Further Austria) 1406–1490

The Tyrolean line consisted of Frederick IV and his son,Sigismund the Rich(1439–1490). Frederick moved his court toInnsbruckbut lost some of his possessions to Switzerland. Sigismund who succeeded him sold some of his lands toCharles the Boldin 1469 and was elevated to Archduke by Emperor Frederick III in 1477. He died childless, but in 1490, he abdicated in the face of unpopularity and Further Austria reverted to the then Archduke,Maximilian Ithe Last Knight (1490–1493), Frederick V's son who now effectively controlled all the Habsburg territory for the first time since 1365.

Religious persecution

1997 Monument to those burned by Petrus Zwicker inSteyrin 1397.

The inquisition was also active under the Habsburgs, particularly between 1311 and 1315 when inquisitions were held inSteyr,Krems,St. Pöltenand Vienna. The Inquisitor,Petrus Zwicker,conducted severe persecutions in Steyr,Enns,Hartberg,Sopronand Vienna between 1391 and 1402. In 1397 there were some 80–100Waldensiansburnt in Steyr alone, now remembered in a 1997 monument.

Duchy and Kingdom

During the Habsburg Duchy, there were 13 consecutive Dukes, of whom four were also crownedKing of Germany,Rudolf I,Albert I,Frederick the Fair,andAlbert V(Albert II as King of Germany), although none were recognised asHoly Roman Emperorsby thePope.

When Duke Albert V (1404–1439) was elected as emperor in 1438 (as Albert II), as the successor to his father-in-law,Sigismund von Luxemburg(1433–1437) the imperial crown returned once more to the Habsburgs. Although Albert himself only reigned for a year (1438–1439), from then on, every emperor was a Habsburg (with only one exception:Charles VII1742–1745), and Austria's rulers were also the Holy Roman Emperors until its dissolution in 1806.

Archduchy of Austria: Becoming a Great Power (1453–1564)

Main article:Archduchy of Austria

Frederick V (1453–1493): Elevation of the duchy

Frederick V (Duke 1424 Archduke 1453, died 1493) the Peaceful (Emperor Frederick III1452-–1493) confirmed thePrivilegium Maiusof Rudolph IV in 1453, and so Austria became an officialarchduchyof the Holy Roman Empire, the next step in its ascendancy within Europe, andLadislaus the Posthumous(1440–1457) the first official archduke for a brief period, dying shortly after. The document was a forgery, purportedly written by the EmperorFrederick Iand "rediscovered". Frederick had a clear motive for this. He was a Habsburg, he was Duke of Inner Austria in addition to being Emperor, and, up till the previous year, had been guardian of the young Duke of Lower Austria, Ladislaus. He also stood to inherit Ladislaus's title, and did so when Ladislaus died four years later, becoming the second Archduke.

The Austrian Archdukes were now of equal status to the otherPrince Electorsthat selected the emperors. Austrian governance was now to be based on primogeniture and indivisibility. Later Austria was to become officially known as "Erzherzogtum Österreich ob und unter der Enns"(The Archduchy of Austria above and below the Enns). In 1861 it was again divided intoUpperandLower Austria.

The relative power of the emperor in the monarchy was not great, as many other aristocratic dynasties pursued their own political power inside and outside the monarchy. However Frederick, although lackluster, pursued a tough and effective rule. He pursued power through dynastic alliances. In 1477Maximilian(Archduke and Emperor 1493–1519),Frederick'sonly son, marriedMary,Duchess of Burgundy,thus acquiring most of theLow Countriesfor the family. The strategic importance of this alliance was that Burgundy, which lay on the western border of the empire, was demonstrating expansionist tendencies, and was at that time one of the richest and most powerful of the Western European nation states, with territories stretching from the south of France to theNorth Sea.

The alliance was achieved at no small cost, since France, which also claimed Burgundy, contested this acquisition, and Maximilian had to defend his new wife's territories fromLouis XI,finally doing so upon Mary's death in 1482 at thePeace of Arras.Relationships with France remained difficult, Louis XI being defeated at theBattle of Guinegatein 1479. Matters with France were only concluded in 1493 at theTreaty of Senlisafter Maximilian had become emperor.

This and Maximilian's later dynastic alliances gave rise to the saying:

Bella gerant alii, tu felix Austria nube,
Nam quae Mars aliis, dat tibi regna Venus

which became a motto of the dynasty. Frederick's reign was pivotal in Austrian history. He united the core lands by simply outliving the rest of his family. From 1439, when Albert V died and the responsibilities for both of the core territories lay with Frederick, he systematically consolidated his power base. The next year (1440) he marched on Rome asKing of the Romanswith his ward, Ladislaus the last Albertinian duke, and when he was crowned in Rome in 1452 he was not only the first Habsburg but also the last German king to be crowned in Rome by the Pope.

The dynasty was now en route to become a world power. The concept ofpietas austriacae(the divine duty to rule) had originated with Rudolph I, but was reformulated by Frederick asAEIOU,Alles Erdreich ist Österreich untertanorAustriae est imperare orbi universo(Austria's destiny is to rule the world), which came to symbolise Austrian power.However, not all events proceeded smoothly for Frederick. TheAustrian-Hungarian War (1477–1488)resulted in the Hungarian king,Matthias Corvinussetting himself up inVienna in 1485till his death in 1490. Hungary occupied the entire Eastern Austria. Frederick therefore found himself with an itinerant court, predominantly in the Upper Austrian capital ofLinz.

Maximilian I (1493–1519): Reunification

Maximilian IbyAlbrecht Dürer1519

Maximilian I shared rule with his father during the latter year of Frederick's reign, being elected King of the Romans in 1486. By acquiring the lands of the Tyrolean line of the Habsburgs in 1490 he finally reunited all the Austrian lands, divided since 1379. He also needed to deal with the Hungarian problem whenMathias Idied in 1490. Maximilian reconquered the lost parts of Austria and established peace with Mathias's successorVladislaus IIat thePeace of Pressburgin 1491. However the dynastic pattern of division and unification would be one that kept repeating itself over time. With unsettled borders Maximilian foundInnsbruckin theTyrola safer place for a capital, between his Burgundian and Austrian lands, although he was rarely in any place for very long, being acutely aware of how his father had been repeatedly besieged in Vienna.

Maximilian raised the art of dynastic alliance to a new height and set about systematically creating a dynastic tradition, albeit through considerable revisionism. His wife Mary, was to die in 1482, only five years after they were married. He then marriedAnne, Duchess of Brittany(by proxy) in 1490, a move that would have broughtBrittany,at that time independent, into the Habsburg fold, which was considered provocative to the French monarchy.Charles VIII of Francehad other ideas and annexed Brittany and married Anne, a situation complicated further by the fact that he was already betrothed to Maximilian's daughterMargaret,Duchess ofSavoy.Maximilian's son,Philip the Fair(1478–1506) marriedJoanna,heiress ofCastileandAragonin 1496, and thus acquired Spain and its Italian (Naples,Kingdom of SicilyandSardinia), African, and New Worldappendagesfor the Habsburgs.

HoweverTu felix Austria nubewas perhaps more romantic than strictly realistic, since Maximilian was not slow to wage war when it suited his purpose. Having settled matters with France in 1493, he was soon involved in the longItalian Warsagainst France (1494–1559). In addition to the wars against the French, there were the wars forSwissindependence. TheSwabian Warof 1499 marked the last phase of this struggle against the Habsburgs. Following defeat at theBattle of Dornachin 1499, Austria was forced to recogniseSwissindependence at theTreaty of Baselin 1499, a process that was finally formalised by thePeace of Westphaliain 1648. This was significant as the Habsburgs had originated inSwitzerland,their ancestral home beingHabsburg Castle.

In domestic policy, Maximilian launched a series of reforms at the 1495Diet of Worms,at which the Imperial Chamber Court (Reichskammergericht) was launched as the highest court. Another new institution of 1495 was theReichsregimentor Imperial government, meeting atNuremberg.This preliminary exercise in democracy failed and was dissolved in 1502. Attempts at creating a unified state were not very successful, but rather re-emerged the idea of the three divisions of Austria that existed prior to the unification of Frederick and Maximilian.

Short of funds for his various schemes he relied heavily on banking families such as theFugger's, and it was these bankers that bribed the prince electors to choose Maximilian's grandson Charles as his successor. One tradition he did away with was the centuries-old custom that the Holy Roman Emperor had to be crowned by the Pope in Rome. Unable to reach Rome, due to Venetian hostility, in 1508, Maximilian, with the assent ofPope Julius II,took the titleErwählter Römischer Kaiser( "Elected Roman Emperor" ). Thus his father Frederick was the last emperor to be crowned by the Pope in Rome.

Charles I and Ferdinand I (1519–1564)

Charles I,attrib.Lambert Sustris1548,Museo del Prado,Madrid,Spain

Since Philip the Fair (1478–1506) died before his father, Maximilian, the succession passed to Philip's son,Charles I(1519–1521) who became the Emperor Charles V, on Maximilian's death in 1519. He reigned as emperor from 1519 to 1556, when in poor health he abdicated, dying in 1558. Although crowned byPope Clement VIIinBolognain 1530 (Charles hadsacked Romein 1527) he was the last emperor ever to be crowned by a Pope. Although he eventually fell short of his vision of universal monarchy, Charles I is still considered the most powerful of all the Habsburgs. His Chancellor,Mercurino Gattinararemarked in 1519 that he was "on the path to universal monarchy... unite all Christendom under one sceptre"bringing him closer to Frederick V's vision of AEIOU, and Charles' mottoPlus ultra(still further) suggested this was his ambition.

Having inherited his father's possessions in 1506, he was already a powerful ruler with extensive domains. On Maximilian's death these domains became vast. He was now ruler of three of Europe's leading dynasties—theHouse of Habsburgof theHabsburg monarchy;theHouse of Valois-Burgundyof theBurgundian Netherlands;and theHouse of Trastámaraof the Crowns ofCastileandAragon.This made him ruler over extensive lands in Central, Western, and Southern Europe; and theSpanish coloniesin the Americas and Asia. As the first king to rule Castile,León,and Aragon simultaneously in his own right, he became the firstKing of Spain.His empire spanned nearly four million square kilometers across Europe, the Far East, and the Americas.

A number of challenges stood in Charles's way, and were to shape Austria's history for a long time to come. These were France, the appearance of theOttoman Empireto its East, andMartin Luther(see below).

Following the dynastic tradition the Habsburgs' hereditary territories were separated from this enormous empire at theDiet of Wormsin 1521, when Charles I left them to the regency of his younger brother,Ferdinand I(1521–1564), although he then continued to add to the Habsburg territories. Since Charles left his Spanish Empire to his sonPhilip II of Spain,the Spanish territories became permanently alienated from the northern Habsburg domains, although remained allies for several centuries.

By the time Ferdinand also inherited the title of Holy Roman Emperor from his brother in 1558 the Habsburgs had effectively turned an elective title into ade factohereditary one. Ferdinand continued the tradition of dynastic marriages by marryingAnne of Bohemia and Hungaryin 1521, effectively adding those two kingdoms to the Habsburg domains, together with the adjacent territories ofMoravia,SilesiaandLusatia.This took effect when Anne's brotherLouis II, King of Hungary and Bohemia(and hence theJagiellon dynasty) died without heir at theBattle of Mohácsin 1526 againstSuleiman the Magnificentand the Ottomans. However, by 1538 theKingdom of Hungarywas divided into three parts:

• The Kingdom of Hungary (Royal Hungary) (today Burgenland, parts of Croatia, mostly Slovakia and parts of present-day Hungary) recognised the Habsburgs as Kings.
• Ottoman Hungary(the center of the country).
• Eastern Hungarian Kingdom,later the Principality of Transylvania under counter kings to the Habsburgs, but also under Ottoman protection.

Ferdinand's election to emperor in 1558 once again reunited the Austrian lands. He had had to cope with revolts in his own lands, religious turmoil, Ottoman incursions and even contest for the Hungarian throne fromJohn Sigismund Zápolya.His lands were by no means the most wealthy of the Habsburg lands, but he succeeded in restoring internal order and keeping the Turks at bay, while enlarging his frontiers and creating a central administration.

When Ferdinand died in 1564, the lands were once more divided up between his three sons, a provision he had made in 1554.

Austria in the Reformation and Counter-Reformation (1517–1564)

Martin Luther and the Protestant Reformation (1517–1545)

Much of eastern Austria adoptedLutheranismuntil counterreformational efforts changed it in the late 16th century.

WhenMartin Lutherposted hisninety-five thesesto the door of theCastle ChurchinWittenbergin 1517, he challenged the very basis of the Holy Roman Empire, Catholic Christianity, and hence Habsburg hegemony. After theEmperor Charles Vinterrogated and condemned Luther at the 1521Diet of Worms,Lutheranism and the ProtestantReformationspread rapidly in the Habsburg territories. Temporarily freed from war with France by the 1529Treaty of Cambraiand the denouncement of the ban on Luther by theProtestant princes at Speyerthat year, the Emperor revisited the issue next at theDiet of Augsburgin 1530, by which time it was well-established.

Archduke Ferdinand I, 1521–1564

With the Ottoman threat growing (see below), he needed to ensure that he was not facing a major schism within Christianity. He refuted the Lutheran position (Augsburg Confession) (Confessio Augustana) with theConfutatio Augustana,and had Ferdinand electedKing of the Romanson 5 January 1531, ensuring his succession as a Catholic monarch. In response, the Protestant princes and estates formed theSchmalkaldic Leaguein February 1531 with French backing. Further Turkish advances in 1532 (which required him to seek Protestant aid) and other wars kept the emperor from taking further action on this front until 1547 when imperial troops defeated the League at theBattle of Mühlberg,allowing him to once more impose Catholicism.

In 1541 Ferdinand's appeal to the estates general for aid against the Turks was met by demand for religious tolerance. The triumph of 1547 turned out to be short lived with French and Protestant forces again challenging the emperor in 1552 culminating in thePeace of Augsburgin 1555. Exhausted, Charles started to withdraw from politics and hand over the reins. Protestantism had proved too firmly entrenched to enable it to be uprooted.

Austria and the other Habsburg hereditary provinces (and Hungary and Bohemia, as well) were much affected by the Reformation, but with the exception ofTyrolthe Austrian lands shut out Protestantism. Although the Habsburg rulers themselves remained Catholic, the non-Austrian provinces largely converted to Lutheranism, which Ferdinand I largely tolerated.

Counter-Reformation (1545–1563)

The Catholic response to the Protestant Reformation was a conservative one, but one that did address the issues raised by Luther. In 1545 the long runningCouncil of Trentbegan its work of reform and aCounter-Reformationon the borders of the Habsburg domains. The Council continued intermittently until 1563. Ferdinand and the Austrian Habsburgs were far more tolerant than their Spanish brethren, and the process initiated atTrent.However his attempts at reconciliation at the Council in 1562 was rejected, and although a Catholic counteroffensive existed in the Habsburg lands from the 1550s it was based on persuasion, a process in which the Jesuits andPeter Canisiustook the lead. Ferdinand deeply regretted the failure to reconcile religious differences before his death (1564).

The arrival of the Ottomans (1526–1562)

Main articles:Ottoman–Habsburg warsandOttoman–Hungarian Wars

WhenFerdinand Imarried into the Hungarian dynasty in 1521 Austria first encountered the westwardOttomanexpansion which had first come into conflict with Hungary in the 1370s. Matters came to a close when his wifeAnne's brother the young kingLouiswas killed fighting the Turks underSuleiman the Magnificentat theBattle of Mohácsin 1526, the title passing to Ferdinand. Louis' widowMaryfled to seek protection from Ferdinand.

The Turks initially withdrew following this victory, reappearing in 1528 advancing onViennaand layingsiege to itthe following year. They withdrew that winter till 1532 when their advance was stopped byCharles V,although they controlled much of Hungary. Ferdinand was then forced to recognizeJohn ZápolyaFerdinand and the Turks continued to wage war between 1537 and a temporary truce in 1547 when Hungary was partitioned. However hostilities continued almost immediately till the Treaty of Constantinople of 1562 which confirmed the 1547 borders. The Ottoman threat was to continue for 200 years.

Redivision of the Habsburg lands (1564–1620)

Ferdinand Ihad three sons who survived to adulthood, and he followed the potentially disastrous Habsburg tradition of dividing up his lands between them on his death in 1564. This considerably weakened Austria, particularly in the face of the Ottoman expansion. It was not until the reign ofFerdinand III(Archduke 1590–1637) that they were reunited again in 1620—albeit briefly until 1623. It was not to be until 1665, underLeopold Ithat the Austrian lands were definitively united.

During the next 60 years the Habsburg monarchy was divided into three jurisdictions:

• "Lower Austria" – The Austrian Duchies, Bohemia passed to Charles II's line 1619.
  • Maximilian II(1564–1576);Rudolf V(1576–1608);Mathias(1608–1619)
• "Upper Austria" – Tyrol andFurther Austria,passed to Maximilian II's line 1595 (under administration ofMaximilian III,1595–1618).
  • Ferdinand II(1564–1595)
• "Inner Austria"
  • Charles II(1564–1590);Ferdinand II(1590–1637)

As the eldest son, Maximilian II and his sons were granted the "core" territories of Lower and Upper Austria. Ferdinand II dying without living issue, his territories reverted to the core territories on his death in 1595, then underRudolf V(1576–1608), Maximilian II's son.

Maximilian II was succeeded by three of his sons none of whom left living heirs, so the line became extinct in 1619 upon the abdication ofAlbert VII(1619–1619). Thus Charles II's son Ferdinand III inherited all of the Habsburg lands. However he promptly lostBohemiawhich rebelled in 1619 and was briefly (1619–1620) under the rule ofFrederick I.Thus all the lands again came under one ruler again in 1620 when Ferdinand III invaded Bohemia, defeating Frederick I.

Although technically an elected position, the title of Holy Roman Emperor was passed down through Maximilian II and the two sons (Rudolf V and Mathias) that succeeded him. Albert VII was Archduke for only a few months before abdicating in favour of Ferdinand III, who also became emperor.

"Lower Austria"

The Crown of EmperorRudolf II.

Rudolf V (Archduke, Emperor Rudolf II 1576–1612), Maximilian's eldest son, moved his capital from Vienna to the safer venue of Prague, in view of the Ottoman threat. He was noted as a great patron of the arts and sciences but a poor governor. Among his legacies is theImperial Crown of the Habsburgs.He preferred to parcel out his responsibilities among his many brothers (of whom six lived to adulthood), leading to a great heterogeneity of policies across the lands. Among these delegations was making his younger brother Mathias, Governor of Austria in 1593.

In acquiring "Upper Austria" in 1595, his powers were considerably increased, since the remaining Inner Austria territories were in the hands of Ferdinand III who was only 17 at the time. However he handed over the administration toMaximilian III,another younger brother. In 1593 he instigated a new conflict with the Ottomans, who had resumed raids in 1568, in the so-calledLong or Fifteen-Year Warof 1593 to 1606. Unwilling to compromise, and envisioning a newcrusadethe results were disastrous, the exhausted Hungarians revolting in 1604. The Hungarian problem was further exacerbated by attempts to impose a counterreformation there. As a result, he handed over Hungary to Mathias who concluded thePeace of Viennawith the Hungarians, andPeace of Zsitvatorokwith the Turks in 1606. As a result,Transylvaniabecame both independent and Protestant.

These events led to conflict (Bruderzwist) between the brothers.Melchior Kleslengineered a conspiracy of the archdukes to ensure Mathias' ascendancy. By 1608 Rudolf had ceded much of his territory to the latter. Further conflict led to Mathias imprisoning his brother in 1611, who now gave up all power except the empty title of emperor, dying the following year and being succeeded by Mathias.

Thus Mathias succeeded to the Archduchy in 1608, and became emperor in 1612, until his death in 1619. His reign was marked by conflict with his younger brotherMaximilian IIIwho was a more intransigent Catholic and backed the equally fervent Ferdinand II of "Inner Austria" as successor, having served as his regent between 1593 and 1595, before taking over "Upper Austria". The conflicts weakened the Habsburgs relative to both the estates and the Protestant interests. Mathias moved the capital back to Vienna from Prague and bought further peace from Turkey, by a treaty in 1615. Meanwhile, religious fervor in the empire was mounting, and even Klesl by now Bishop of Vienna (1614) and Cardinal (1615) was considered too moderate by extremist Catholics, including Ferdinand II. War was in the air, and the assault on two roral officials in Prague on 23 May 1618 (The Defenestration of Prague) was to spark all out war. Mathias, like his brother Rudolf, became increasingly isolated by Ferdinand who had imprisoned Klesl.

The next brother in line for succession in 1619 was Albert VII, but he was persuaded to step down in favour of Ferdinand II within a few months.

Reformation and Counter-Reformation

Archduke Ferdinand II1619–1637, architect ofCounter-Reformation

Religion played a large part in the politics of this period, and even tolerance had its limits faced with the incompatible demands of both camps. As the Archduke closest to the Turkish threat, Maximilian II was to continue his father's policy of tolerance and reconciliation, grantingAssekuration(legalisation of Protestantism for the nobles) in 1571, as did Charles II withReligionspazifikationin 1572, while in distant Tyrol, Ferdinand II could afford to be more aggressive. Maximilian II's policies were continued by his sons, Rudolf V and Mathias. The strength of the Reformation in Upper Austria was blunted by internal schisms, while in Lower AustriaMelchior Khleslled a vigorous Catholic response, expelling Protestant preachers and promoting reconversion.A further concession by Charles II in 1578, theBrucker Pazifikation,met with more resistance.

The Catholic Revival started in earnest in 1595 whenFerdinand II,who wasJesuit-educatedcame of age. He had succeeded his father, Charles II in Inner Austria in 1590 and was energetic in suppressing heresy in the provinces which he ruled. Reformation Commissions initiated a process of forced recatholicisation and by 1600 was being imposed onGrazandKlagenfurt.Unlike previous Austrian rulers, Ferdinand II was unconcerned about the effect of religious conflict on the ability to withstand the Ottomans. The Counter-Reformation was to continue to the end of theThirty Year Warin 1648.

Austria and the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648)

Ferdinand II (1619–1637) and Habsburg over-reach

When the ultra-pious and intransigentFerdinand II(1619–1637) was elected Emperor (as Ferdinand II) in 1619 to succeed his cousin Mathias, he embarked on an energetic attempt to re-Catholicize not only the Hereditary Provinces, but Bohemia and Habsburg Hungary as well as most of Protestant Europe within the Holy Roman Empire.

Outside his lands, Ferdinand II's reputation for strong headed uncompromising intolerance had triggered the religiousThirty Years' Warin May 1618 in the polarizing first phase, known as the Revolt in Bohemia. Once the Bohemian Revolt had been put down in 1620, he embarked on a concerted effort to eliminate Protestantism in Bohemia and Austria, which was largely successful as was his efforts to reduce the power of the Diet. The religious suppression of thecounter-reformationreached its height in 1627 with the Provincial Ordinance (Verneuerte Landesordnung).

After several initial reverses, Ferdinand II had become more accommodating but as the Catholics turned things around and began to enjoy a long string of successes at arms he set forth theEdict of Restitutionin 1629 in an attempt to restore thestatus quoof 1555 (Peace of Augsburg), vastly complicating the politics of settlement negotiations and prolonging the rest of the war. Encouraged by the mid-war successes, Ferdinand II became even more forceful, leading to infamies by his armies such as theFrankenburg Lottery(Frankenburger Würfelspiel) (1625), suppression of the consequentPeasants' Revoltof 1626, and theSack of Magdeburg(1631).Despite concluding thePeace of Prague (1635)withSaxony,and hence the internal, or civil, war with the Protestants, the war would drag on due to the intervention of many foreign states.

Ferdinand III and the peace process (1637–1648)

By the time of Ferdinand II's death in 1637, the war was progressing disastrously for the Habsburgs, and his sonFerdinand III(1637–1657) who had been one of his military commanders was faced with the task of salvaging the consequences of his father's extremism. Ferdinand III was far more pragmatic and had been considered the leader of the peace party at court and had helped negotiate the Peace of Prague in 1635. However, with continuing losses in the war he was forced to make peace in 1648 with thePeace of Westphalia,concluding the war. One of his acts during the latter part of the war was to give further independence to the German states (ius belli ac pacis—rights in time of war and peace) which would gradually change the balance of power between emperor and states in favour of the latter.

Assessment

While its ultimate causes prove to be elusive, the war was to prove a roller-coaster as Habsburg over-reach led to it spreading from a domestic dispute to involve most of Europe, and which while at times appearing to aid the Habsburg goal of political hegemony and religious conformity, ultimately eluded them except in their own central territories.

The forced conversions or evictions carried out in the midst of theThirty Years' War,together with the later general success of the Protestants, had greatly negative consequences for Habsburg control of the Holy Roman Empire itself. Although territorial losses were relatively small for the Habsburgs, the Empire was greatly diminished, the power of the ruler reduced and the balance of power in Europe changed with new centres emerging on the empire's borders. The estates were now to function more like nation states.

While deprived of the goal of universal monarchy, the campaigns within the Habsburg hereditary lands were relatively successful in religiously purification, although Hungary was never successfully re-Catholicized. Only in Lower Austria, and only among the nobility, was Protestantism tolerated. Large numbers of people either emigrated or converted, while others compromised as crypto-Protestants, ensuing relative conformity. The crushing of the Bohemian Revolt also extinguished Czech culture and established German as the tool of Habsburg absolutism. The Austrian monarchs thereafter had much greater control within the hereditary power base, the dynastic absolutism grip was tightened and the power of the estates diminished. On the other hand, Austria suffered demographically and financially, therefore becoming less vigorous as anation-state.

The Baroque Austrian Monarchy was established. Despite the dichotomy between outward reality and inner conviction, the rest of the world saw Austria as the epitome of forcible conformity, and conflation of church and state.

Impact of war

In terms of human costs, theThirty Years' warsmany economic, social, and population dislocations caused by the hardline methods adopted by Ferdinand II's strict counter-reformation measures and almost continual employment of mercenary field armies contributed significantly to the loss of life and tragic depopulation of allthe German states,during a war which some estimates put the civilian loss of life as high as 50% overall. Studies mostly cite the causes of death due to starvation or as caused (ultimately by the lack-of-food induced) weakening of resistance to endemic diseases which repeatedly reached epidemic proportions among the general Central European population—the German states were the battle ground and staging areas for the largest mercenary armies theretofore, and the armies foraged among the many provinces stealing the food of those people forced onto the roads as refugees, or still on the lands, regardless of their faith and allegiances. Both townsmen and farmers were repeatedly ravaged and victimized by the armies on both sides leaving little for the populations already stressed by the refugees from the war or fleeing the Catholic counter-reformation repressions under Ferdinand's governance.

Dynastic succession and redivision of the lands

The Austrian lands finally came under one archduchy in 1620, but Ferdinand II quickly redivided them in 1623 in the Habsburg tradition by parcelling out "Upper Austria" (Further Austria and Tirol) to his younger brotherLeopold V(1623–1632) who was already governor there. Upper Austria would remain under Leopold's successors till 1665 when it reverted to the senior line underLeopold I.

Leopold V's sonFerdinand Charlessucceeded him in Upper Austria in 1632. However he was only four at the time, leaving his motherClaudia de' Medicias regent till 1646.

Establishing the monarchy: Austria's rise to power (1648–1740)

Despite the setbacks of the Thirty Years' War, Austria was able to recover economically and demographically and consolidate the new hegemony often referred to as Austrian Baroque.By 1714 Austria had become a great power again. Yet the roots of Habsburg legitimacy, with its reliance on religious and political conformity, was to make it increasinglyanachronisticin theAge of Enlightenment.Nevertheless, in the arts and architecture thebaroqueflourished in Austria. In peacetimeFerdinand III(1637–1657) proved to be a great patron of the arts and a musician.

Upon Ferdinand's death in 1657 he was succeeded by his sonLeopold I(1657–1705), whose reign was relatively long. Meanwhile, in "Upper Austria"Ferdinand Charles(1632–1662) although also an arts patron ruled in an absolutist and extravagant style. His brotherSigismund Francis(1662–1665) succeeded him briefly in 1662, but dying without heir in 1665 his lands reverted to Leopold I. Thus from 1665 Austria was finally reunited under one archduchy.

Leopold I (1657–1705): Final unification and liberation from Ottoman Empire

Main articles:Great Turkish War,Battle of Vienna,andLeopold I

Leopold I,1657–1705.

Leopold I's reign was marked by a return to a succession of wars. Even before he succeeded his father in 1657, he was involved in theSecond Northern War(1655–1660) a carry over from Sweden's involvement in the Thirty Years' War, in which Austria sided with Poland, defeatingTransylvania,a Swedish ally and Ottoman protectorate.

At the end of that war the Ottomans overranNagyváradin Transylvania in 1660, which would mark the beginning of the decline of that principality and increasing Habsburg influence. In vain the Transylvanians appealed to Vienna for help, unaware of secret Ottoman-Habsburg agreements.

Fortunately for Austria, Turkey was preoccupied elsewhere during theThirty Years' Warwhen she would have been vulnerable to attack on her eastern flanks. It was not until 1663 that the Turks developed serious intentions with regard to Austria, which let to a disastrous event for the Ottoman army, being defeated at theBattle of Saint Gotthardthe following year.

The terms, dictated by the need to deal with the French in the west, were so disadvantageous that they infuriated the Hungarians who revolted. To make matters worse, after executing the leaders, Leopold attempted to impose a counter-reformation, starting a religious civil war, although he made some concessions in 1681. Thus by the early 1680s Leopold was facing Hungarian revolt, backed by the Ottomans and encouraged by the French on the opposite flank.

TheBattle of Vienna,1683.

Meanwhile, Austria became involved elsewhere with theFranco-Dutch War(1672–1678) which was concluded with theTreaties of Nijmegengiving the French considerable opportunities (reunions), indeed the activities of the French, now also a major power, distracted Leopold from following up his advantage with the Turks, and Austro-Ottoman relationships were governed by thePeace of Vasvárwhich would grant some twenty years relief. However the reunions bought a badly needed French neutrality while Austria kept watch to the east. The Ottomans next moved against Austria in 1682 in retaliation against Habsburg raids, reaching Vienna in 1683, which proved well fortified, and set about besieging it. The allied forces eventually proved superior and the lifting of the siege was followed by a series of victories in 1686, 1687 and 1697, resulting in theTreaty of Karlowitz(1699),Belgradehaving fallen in 1688 (but recaptured in 1690). This provided Austrian hegemony over southern Central Europe and introduced a large number ofSerbsinto the Empire, who were to have a major impact on policies over the ensuing centuries.

With the eastern frontier now finally secured, Vienna could flourish (Vienna gloriosa) and expand beyond its traditional limits. In the east Leopold was learning that there was little to be gained by harsh measures, which policy bought his acceptance and he granted the Hungarian diet rights through theDiploma Leopoldianumof 1691. However, on the military front, this merely freed up Austria to engage in further western European wars. Austria was becoming more involved in competition with France in Western Europe, fighting the French in theWar of the League of Augsburg(1688–1697).

On the domestic front, Leopold's reign was marked by the expulsion of the Jews from Vienna in 1670, the area being renamedLeopoldstadt.While in 1680 Leopold adopted the so-calledPragmatica,which re-regulated the relationship between landlord and peasant.

War of Spanish Succession (1701–1714): Joseph I and Charles III

Main article:War of Spanish Succession

Most complex of all was theWar of the Spanish Succession(1701–1714), in which the French and Austrians (along with their British, Dutch and Catalan allies) fought over the inheritance of the vast territories of the Spanish Habsburgs. The ostensible cause was the future Charles III of Austria (1711–1740) claiming the vacant Spanish throne in 1701. Leopold engaged in the war but did not live to see its outcome, being succeeded by hisJoseph Iin 1705. Joseph's reign was short and the war finally came to an end in 1714 by which time his brotherCharles IIIhad succeeded him.

Although the French secured control of Spain and its colonies for a grandson ofLouis XIV,the Austrians also ended up making significant gains in Western Europe, including the formerSpanish Netherlands(now called the Austrian Netherlands, including most of modern Belgium), theDuchy of Milanin Northern Italy, and Naples and Sardinia in Southern Italy. (The latter was traded for Sicily in 1720).By the conclusion of the war in 1714 Austria had achieved a pivotal position in European power politics.

The end of the war saw Austria's allies desert her in terms of concluding treaties with the French, Charles finally signing off in theTreaty of Rastattin 1714. While the Habsburgs may not have gained all they wanted, they still made significant gains through both Rastatt and Karlowitz, and established their power. The remainder of his reign saw Austria relinquish many of these fairly impressive gains, largely due to Charles's apprehensions at the imminent extinction of the House of Habsburg.

Charles III: Succession and the Pragmatic Sanction (1713–1740)

Main article:Charles III

Charles III, 1713–1740

For Charles now had succession problems of his own, having only two surviving daughters. His solution was to abolish sole male inheritance by means of thePragmatic Sanction of 1713.In 1703 his father Leopold VI had made a pact with his sons that allowed for female inheritance but was vague on details, and left room for uncertainty. The Pragmatic Sanction strengthened this and in addition made provision for the inseparability (indivisibiliter ac inseparabiliter) of the Habsburg lands.

This was to form the legal basis for the union with Hungary and to legitimise the Habsburg monarchy. It would be confirmed by theAustro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867and would last to 1918. He then needed to strengthen the arrangement by negotiating with surrounding states. Internal negotiation proved to be relatively simple and it became law by 1723.

Charles was now willing to offer concrete advantages in territory and authority in exchange for other powers' worthless recognitions of thePragmatic Sanctionthat made his daughterMaria Theresahis heir. Equally challenging was the question of the heir apparent's marital prospects and how they might influence the European balance of power. The eventual choice ofFrancis Stephen of Lorrainein 1736 proved unpopular with the other powers, particularly France.

War continued to be part of European life in the early 18th century. Austria was involved in theWar of the Quadruple Allianceand the resulting 1720Treaty of The Haguewas to see the Habsburg lands reach their greatest territorial expansion. War with France had broken out again in 1733 with theWar of the Polish Successionwhose settlement at theTreaty of Viennain 1738 saw Austria cede Naples and Sicily to the Spanish InfanteDon Carlosin exchange for the tiny Duchy ofParmaand Spain and France's adherence to the Pragmatic Sanction. The later years of Charles's reign also saw further wars against the Turks, beginning with a successful skirmish in 1716–1718, culminating in theTreaty of Passarowitz.Less successful was the war of 1737–1739 which resulted in the Austrian loss of Belgrade and other border territories at theTreaty of Belgrade.

On the domestic front military and political gains were accompanied by economic expansion and repopulation (Schwabenzug), as Austria entered the period of High Baroque with a profusion of new buildings, including theBelvedere(1712–1783) andKarlskirche(1716–1737), exemplified by the great architects of the period, such asFischer,HildebrandtandPrandtauer.However the Habsburgs' finances were fragile. They had relied on Jewish bankers such asSamuel Oppenheimerto finance their wars, and subsequently bankrupted him. However the financial system in Austria remained antiquated and inadequate. By the time of Charles' death in 1740 the treasury was almost depleted.

Religious intolerance in Austria, once unquestioned in the Erblande and the neighbouring catholic territories became the subject of more intense scrutiny by 1731 when 22,000 suspected crypto-Protestants were expelled fromSalzburgand theSalzkammergutby thePrince-Archbishop of Salzburg.Similar intolerance was displayed to the Jewish population in Bohemia and surrounding areas under theFamilianten(Familiantengesetze) in 1726 and 1727. Worse would have followed had there not also been a realisation that there were economic consequences and that some accommodation was required to the morerationalistideas of western Europe. Among these wascameralismwhich encouraged economic self-sufficiency in the nation state. Thus domestic industries such as theLinzer Wollzeugfabrikwere founded and encouraged, but often such ideas were subjugated by vested interests such as aristocracy and church. Rationalist emphasis on the natural and popular were the antithesis of Habsburg elitism and divine authority. Eventually external powers forced rationalism on Austria.

By the time of his death in 1740, Charles III had secured the acceptance of the Pragmatic Sanction by most of the European powers. The remaining question was whether it was realistic in the complicated power games of European dynasties.

Maria Theresa and reform (1740–1780)

Main article:Maria Theresa

Maria Theresa of Austriaas a young woman in 1727.

Charles III died on 20 October 1740, and was succeeded by his daughter Maria Theresa. However she did not become Empress immediately, that title passing toCharles VII(1742–1745) the only moment in which the imperial crown passed outside of the Habsburg line from 1440 to 1806, Charles VII being one of many who repudiated the 1713 Pragmatic Sanction. As many had anticipated all those assurances from the other powers proved of little worth to Maria Theresa.

War of Austrian Succession (1740–1748)

Main article:War of Austrian Succession

On 16 December 1740Prussiantroops invadedSilesiaunder KingFrederick the Great.This was the first of threeSilesian Warsfought between Austria and Prussia in this period (1740–1742, 1744–1745 and 1756–1763). Soon other powers began to exploit Austria's weakness. Charles VII claimed the inheritance to the hereditary lands and Bohemia, and was supported by the King of France, who desired the Austrian Netherlands. The Spanish and Sardinians hoped to gain territory in Italy, and the Saxons hoped to gain territory to connect Saxony with the Elector's Polish Kingdom. France even went so far as to prepare for a partition of Austria.

Austria's allies, Britain, the Dutch Republic, and Russia, were all wary of getting involved in the conflict; ultimately, only Britain provided significant support. Thus began theWar of the Austrian Succession(1740–1748), one of the more confusing and less eventful wars of European history, which ultimately saw Austria holding its own, despite the permanent loss of most of Silesia to the Prussians. That represented the loss of one of its richest and most industrialised provinces. For Austria the War of Succession was more a series of wars, the first concluding in 1742 with theTreaty of Breslau,the second (1744–1745) with theTreaty of Dresden.The overall war however continued until theTreaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748).

In 1745, following the reign of theBavarianElectorasEmperor Charles VII,Maria Theresa's husbandFrancis of Lorraine,Grand Duke of Tuscany,was elected Emperor, restoring control of that position to the Habsburgs (or, rather, to the new composite house ofHabsburg-Lorraine),Francis holding the titular crown until his death in 1765, but his empress consort Maria Theresa carrying out the executive functions. The Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 applied to the hereditary possessions of the Habsburgs and Archduchy of Austria but not the position of Holy Roman Emperor, which could not be held by women, thus Maria Theresa wasEmpress ConsortnotEmpress Regnant.

Seven Years' War and Third Silesian War (1756–1763)

Main article:Third Silesian War

For the eight years following the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle that ended the War of the Austrian Succession, Maria Theresa plotted revenge on the Prussians. The British and Dutch allies who had proved so reluctant to help her in her time of need were dropped in favour of the French in the so-calledReversal of Alliances(bouleversement) of 1756, under the advice ofKaunitz,Austrian Chancellor (1753–1793). This resulted in theTreaty of Versailles of 1756.That same year, war once again erupted on the continent as Frederick, fearing encirclement, launched a pre-emptive invasion of Saxony and the defensive treaty became offensive. The ensuingThird Silesian War(1756–1763, part of the largerSeven Years' War) was indecisive, and its end saw Prussia holding onto Silesia, despite Russia, France, and Austria all combining against him, and with only Hanover as a significant ally on land.

The end of the war saw Austria, poorly prepared at its start, exhausted. Austria continued the alliance with France (cemented in 1770 with the marriage of Maria Theresa's daughterArchduchess Maria Antoniato theDauphin), but also facing a dangerous situation in Central Europe, faced with the alliance ofFrederick the GreatofPrussiaandCatherine the Greatof Russia. TheRusso-Turkish Warof 1768–1774 caused a serious crisis in east-central Europe, with Prussia and Austria demanding compensation for Russia's gains in the Balkans, ultimately leading to theFirst Partition of Polandin 1772, in which Maria Theresa tookGaliciafrom Austria's traditional ally.

War of Bavarian Succession (1778–1779)

Over the next several years, Austro-Russian relations began to improve. When theWar of Bavarian Succession(1778–1779) erupted between Austria and Prussia following the extinction of the Bavarian line of theWittelsbachdynasty, Russia refused to support Austria, its ally from the Seven Years' War, but offered to mediate and the war was ended, after almost no bloodshed, on 13 May 1779, when Russian and French mediators at theCongress of Teschennegotiated an end to the war. In the agreement Austria received theInnviertelfrom Bavaria, but for Austria it was a case ofstatus quo ante bellum.This war was unusual for this era in that casualties from disease and starvation exceeded wounds, and is considered the last of theCabinet wars(Kabinettskriege) in which diplomats played as large a part as troops, and as the roots ofGerman Dualism(Austria–Prussia rivalry).

Reform

Francis I (1740–1765) with Maria Theresa (1740–1780).

Although Maria Theresa and her consort were Baroque absolutist conservatives, this was tempered by a pragmatic sense and they implemented a number of overdue reforms. Thus these reforms were pragmatic responses to the challenges faced by archduchy and empire, not ideologically framed in theAge of Enlightenmentas seen by her successor, Joseph II.

The collision with other theories of nation states and modernity obliged Austria to perform a delicate balancing act between accepting changing economic and social circumstances while rejecting their accompanying political change. The relative failure to deal with modernity produced major changes in Habsburg power and Austrian culture and society. One of the first challenges that Maria Theresa and her advisers faced was to restore the legitimacy and authority of the dynasty, although was slowly replaced by a need to establish the needs of State.

Governance and finance

Maria Theresapromulgatedfinancial and educational reforms, with the assistance of her advisers, notablyCount Friedrich Wilhelm von HaugwitzandGerard van Swieten.Many reforms were in the interests of efficiency. Her financial reforms considerably improved the state finances, and notably introduced taxation of the nobility for the first time, and achieved a balanced budget by 1775. At an administrative level, under Haugwitz she centralised administration, previously left to the nobility and church, along Prussian models with a permanent civil service. Haugwitz was appointed head of the newDirectorium in publicis und cameralibusin 1749. By 1760 it was clear this was not solving Austria's problems and further reform was required.Kaunitz' proposal for a consultative body was accepted by Maria Theresa. ThisCouncil of State(Staatsrat) was to be based on the FrenchConseil d'Étatwhich believed that an absolutist monarch could still be guided by Enlightenment advisors. The council was inaugurated in January 1761, composed of Kaunitz the state chancellor (Staatskanzler), three members of the high nobility (Staatsminister), including von Haugwitz as chair (Erster Staatsminister), and three knights (Staatsrat), which served as a committee of experienced people who advised her. The council of state lacked executive or legislative authority. This marked Kaunitz' ascendency over von Haugwitz. The Directory was abolished and its functions absorbed into the new united Austrian and Bohemian chancelleries (Böhmisch-Österreichische Hofkanzlei) in 1761.

Education

While Von Haugwitz modernised the army and government, van Swieten reformed health care and education. Educational reform included that ofVienna Universityby Swieten from 1749, the founding of theTheresianum(1746) as a civil service academy as well as military and foreign service academies. An Education Commission (Studienhofkommission) was established in 1760 with a specific interest in replacing Jesuitical control, but it was the papal dissolution of the order in 1773 that accomplished this. The confiscation of their property enabled the next step. Aware of the inadequacy of bureaucracy in Austria and, in order to improve it, Maria Theresa and what was now referred to as the Party of Enlightenment radically overhauled the schools system. In the new system, based on the Prussian one, all children of both genders from the ages of 6 to 12had to attend school,while teacher training schools were established. Education reform was met with hostility from many villages and the nobility to whom children represented labour. Maria Theresa crushed the dissent by ordering the arrest of all those opposed. Although the idea had merit, the reforms were not as successful as they were expected to be; in some parts of Austria, half of the population was illiterate well into the 19th century. However widespread access to education, education in the vernacular language, replacement of rote learning and blind obedience with reasoning was to have a profound effect on the relationship between people and state.

Civil rights, industry and labour relations

Other reforms were in civil rights which were defied under theCodex Theresianus,begun in 1752 and finished in 1766. Specific measures included abolition oftorture,andwitch burning.Also in industrial and agrarian policy along cameralist lines, the theory was to maximise the resources of the land to protect the integrity of the state. Widespread problems arising from war, famine unrest and abuse made implementation of landlord-peasant reforms both reasonable and reasonable. Maria Theresa and her regime had sought a new more direct link with the populace, now that administration was no longer to be farmed out, and this maternalism combined with cameralist thinking required taking a closer interest in the welfare of the peasantry and their protection, which transpired in the 1750s. However these had been more noted than observed. In the 1770s more meaningful control of rents became practical, further eroding privilege.

While reforms assisted Austria in dealing with the almost constant wars, the wars themselves hindered the implementation of those reforms.

Religion

A pious Catholic, her reforms which affected the relation between state and church in favour of the former, did not extend to any relaxation of religious intolerance, but she preemptedPope Clement XIV's suppression of theJesuitsin 1773by issuing a decree which removed them from all the institutions of the monarchy. There was both a suspicion of their excesses and of their tendency to political interference which brought them into conflict with the progressive secularisation of culture. Thus they were removed from control of censorship in 1751, and the educational reforms threatened their control over education. She was hostile to Jews and Protestants but eventually abandoned efforts for conversion, but continued her father's campaign to exile crypto-Protestants (mainly toTransylvaniaas in 1750). In 1744 she even ordered the expulsion of Jews, but relented under pressure by 1748. In her later years though she took some measures to protect the Jewish population.

Succession and co-regency

Maria Theresa had a large family,sixteen in all,of whom six were daughters that lived to adulthood. They were only too aware that their fate was to be used as political pawns. The best known of these was the tragic figure ofMaria Antonia(1755–1793).

When Maria Theresa's consort Francis died in 1765, he was succeeded by his sonJoseph IIas emperor (1765–1790) because of male primogeniture. Joseph was also made co-ruler or co-regent with his mother. Joseph, 24 at the time, was more ideologically attuned to modernity and frequently disagreed with his mother on policy, and was often excluded from policy making. Maria Theresa always acted with a cautious respect for the conservatism of the political and social elites and the strength of local traditions. Her cautious approach repelled Joseph, who always sought the decisive, dramatic intervention to impose the one best solution, regardless of traditions or political opposition. Joseph and his mother's quarrels were usually mediated by ChancellorWenzel Anton von Kaunitzwho served for nearly 40 years as the principal minister to both Maria Theresa and Joseph.

Joseph frequently used his position as leverage, by threatening resignation. The one area he was allowed more say on was in foreign policy. In this, he showed similar traits to Austria's arch-enemyFrederick II of Prussia(1740–1786),also his intellectual model. He was successful in siding with Kaunitz inRealpolitik,undertaking thefirst partition of Polandin 1772 over his mother's principled objections. However his enthusiasm for interfering in Bavarian politics by invoking his ties to his former brother in law,Maximilian III,ended Austria in the War of Bavarian Succession in 1778. Although largely shut out of domestic policy, he used his time to acquire knowledge of his lands and people, encouraged policies he was in accord with and made magnanimous gestures such as opening the Royal Parks ofPraterandAugartento the public in 1766 and 1775 (Alles für das Volk, nichts durch das Volk—Everything for the people, nothing by the people).

On her husband's death Maria Theresa was therefore no longer empress, the title of which fell to her daughter-in-lawMaria Josepha of Bavariauntil her death in 1767 when the title fell vacant. When Maria Theresa died in 1780 she was succeeded in all her titles by Joseph II.

The Habsburg-Lorraine Dynasty: Joseph II and Leopold VII (1780–1792)

Joseph II (1780–1790): Josephinism and enlightened despotism

Joseph II(right) with his brother and successorLeopold VII(left)

As the first of the Habsburg-Lorraine (Habsburg-Lothringen) DynastyJoseph IIwas the archetypical embodiment ofThe Enlightenmentspirit of the 18th century reforming monarchs known as the"enlightened despots".When his motherMaria Theresadied in 1780, Joseph became the absolute ruler over the most extensive realm of Central Europe. There was no parliament to deal with. Joseph was always positive that the rule of reason, as propounded in the Enlightenment, would produce the best possible results in the shortest time. He issued edicts—6,000 in all, plus 11,000 new laws designed to regulate and reorder every aspect of the empire. The spirit was benevolent and paternal. He intended to make his people happy, but strictly in accordance with his own criteria.

Josephinism(or Josephism) as his policies were called, is notable for the very wide range of reforms designed to modernize the creaky empire in an era when France and Prussia were rapidly upgrading. Josephinism elicited grudging compliance at best, and more often vehement opposition from all sectors in every part of his empire. Failure characterized most of his projects. Joseph set about building a rational, centralized, and uniform government for his diverse lands, a pyramid with himself as supreme autocrat. He expected government servants to all be dedicated agents of Josephinism and selected them without favor for class or ethnic origins; promotion was solely by merit. To impose uniformity, he made German the compulsory language of official business throughout the Empire. The Hungarian assembly was stripped of its prerogatives, and not even called together.

As President of the Court Audit Office (Hofrechenkammer), CountKarl von Zinzendorf(1781–1792)introducedAppalt,a uniform system of accounting for state revenues, expenditures, and debts of the territories of the Austrian crown. Austria was more successful than France in meeting regular expenditures and in gaining credit. However, the events of Joseph II's last years also suggest that the government was financially vulnerable to the European wars that ensued after 1792.Joseph reformed the traditional legal system, abolished brutal punishments and the death penalty in most instances, and imposed the principle of complete equality of treatment for all offenders. He ended censorship of the press and theatre.

To equalize the incidence of taxation, Joseph ordered a fresh appraisal of the value of all properties in the empire; his goal was to impose a single and egalitarian tax on land. The goal was to modernize the relationship of dependence between the landowners and peasantry, relieve some of the tax burden on the peasantry, and increase state revenues. Joseph looked on the tax and land reforms as being interconnected and strove to implement them at the same time. The various commissions he established to formulate and carry out the reforms met resistance among the nobility, the peasantry, and some officials. Most of the reforms were abrogated shortly before or after Joseph's death in 1790; they were doomed to failure from the start because they tried to change too much in too short a time, and tried to radically alter the traditional customs and relationships that the villagers had long depended upon.

In the cities the new economic principles of the Enlightenment called for the destruction of the autonomous guilds, already weakened during the age of mercantilism. Joseph II's tax reforms and the institution ofKatastralgemeinde(tax districts for the large estates) served this purpose, and new factory privileges ended guild rights while customs laws aimed at economic unity. The intellectual influence of thePhysiocratsled to the inclusion of agriculture in these reforms.

Civil and criminal law

In 1781–82 he extended full legal freedom to serfs. Rentals paid by peasants were to be regulated by imperial (not local) officials and taxes were levied upon all income derived from land. The landlords saw a grave threat to their status and incomes, and eventually reversed the policy. In Hungary and Transylvania, the resistance of the landed nobility was so great that Joseph compromised with halfway measures—one of the few times he backed down. After the great peasant revolt of Horea, 1784–85, however, the emperor imposed his will by fiat. His Imperial Patent of 1785 abolished serfdom but did not give the peasants ownership of the land or freedom from dues owed to the landowning nobles. It did give them personal freedom. Emancipation of the Hungarian peasantry promoted the growth of a new class of taxable landholders, but it did not abolish the deep-seated ills of feudalism and the exploitation of the landless squatters.

Capital punishmentwas abolished in 1787, although restored in 1795. Legal reforms gained comprehensive "Austrian" form in the civil code (ABGB: Allgemeine Bürgerliche Gesetzbuch) of 1811 and have been seen as providing a foundation for subsequent reforms extending into the 20th century. The first part of the ABGB appeared in 1786, and the criminal code in 1787. These reforms incorporated the criminological writings ofCesare Beccaria,but also first time made all people equal in the eyes of the law.

Education and medicine

To produce a literate citizenry, elementary education was made compulsory for all boys and girls, and higher education on practical lines was offered for a select few. He created scholarships for talented poor students, and allowed the establishment of schools for Jews and other religious minorities. In 1784 he ordered that the country change its language of instruction from Latin to German, a highly controversial step in a multilingual empire.

By the 18th century, centralization was the trend in medicine because more and better educated doctors requesting improved facilities; cities lacked the budgets to fund local hospitals; and the monarchies wanted to end costly epidemics and quarantines. Joseph attempted to centralize medical care in Vienna through the construction of a single, large hospital, the famous Allgemeines Krankenhaus, which opened in 1784. Centralization worsened sanitation problems causing epidemics a 20% death rate in the new hospital, which undercut Joseph's plan, but the city became preeminent in the medical field in the next century.

Religion

Joseph's Catholicism was that of Catholic Reform and his goals were to weaken the power of the Catholic Church and introduce a policy of religious toleration that was the most advanced of any state in Europe. In 1789 he issued a charter of religious toleration for the Jews ofGalicia,a region with a large,Yiddish-speaking, traditional Jewish population. The charter abolished communal autonomy whereby the Jews controlled their internal affairs; it promoted "Germanization"and the wearing of non-Jewish clothing.

Probably the most unpopular of all his reforms was his attempted modernization of the highly traditional Roman Catholic Church. Calling himself the guardian of Catholicism, Joseph II struck vigorously atpapal power.He tried to make the Catholic Church in his empire the tool of the state, independent of Rome. Clergymen were deprived of the tithe and ordered to study in seminaries under government supervision, while bishops had to take a formal oath of loyalty to the crown. He financed the large increase in bishoprics, parishes, and secular clergy by extensive sales of monastic lands. As a man of theEnlightenmenthe ridiculed the contemplative monastic orders, which he considered unproductive, as opposed to the service orders. Accordingly, he suppressed a `` of the monasteries (over 700 were closed) and reduced the number of monks and nuns from 65,000 to 27,000.Church courtswere abolished and marriage was defined as a civil contract outside the jurisdiction of the Church. Joseph sharply cut the number of holy days and reduced ornamentation in churches. He greatly simplified the manner of celebration. Critics alleged that these reforms caused a crisis of faith, reducedpietyand adecline in morality,hadProtestanttendencies, promoted Enlightenmentrationalismand a class of liberalbourgeoisofficials, and led to the emergence and persistence ofanti-clericalism.Many traditional Catholics were energized in opposition to the emperor.

Foreign policy

The Habsburg Empire developed a policy of war and trade as well as intellectual influence across the borders. While opposing Prussia and Turkey, Austria was friendly to Russia, though tried to remove Romania from Russian influence.

In foreign policy, there was no Enlightenment, only hunger for more territory and a willingness to undertake unpopular wars to get the land. Joseph was a belligerent, expansionist leader, who dreamed of making his Empire the greatest of the European powers. Joseph's plan was to acquire Bavaria, if necessary in exchange for Belgium (the Austrian Netherlands). Thwarted by KingFrederick II of Prussiain 1778 in theWar of Bavarian Succession,he renewed his efforts again in 1785 but Prussian diplomacy proved more powerful. This failure caused Joseph to seek territorial expansion in the Balkans, where he became involved in an expensive and futilewar with the Turks(1787–1791), which was the price to be paid for friendship with Russia.

The Balkan policy of both Maria Theresa and Joseph II reflected theCameralismpromoted by Prince Kaunitz, stressing consolidation of the border lands by reorganization and expansion of the military frontier.Transylvaniahad been incorporated into the frontier in 1761 and the frontier regiments became the backbone of the military order, with the regimental commander exercising military and civilian power.Populationistikwas the prevailing theory of colonization, which measured prosperity in terms of labor. Joseph II also stressed economic development. Habsburg influence was an essential factor in Balkan development in the last half of the 18th century, especially for the Serbs and Croats.

Reaction

The nobility throughout his empire disliked Joseph's taxes, egalitarianism, despotism and puritanism. In Belgium and Hungary, his attempts to subordinate everything to his own personal rule in Vienna were not well received. Even commoners were affected by Joseph's reforms, such as a ban on bakinggingerbreadbecause Joseph thought it bad for the stomach, or a ban on corsets. Only a few weeks before Joseph's death, the director of the Imperial Police reported to him: "All classes, and even those who have the greatest respect for the sovereign, are discontented and indignant."

In Lombardy (in northern Italy) the cautious reforms of Maria Theresa in Lombardy had enjoyed support from local reformers. Joseph II, however, by creating a powerful imperial officialdom directed from Vienna, undercut the dominant position of the Milanese principate and the traditions of jurisdiction and administration. In the place of provincial autonomy he established an unlimited centralism, which reduced Lombardy politically and economically to a fringe area of the Empire. As a reaction to these radical changes the middle class reformers shifted away from cooperation to strong resistance. From this basis appeared the beginnings of the later Lombard liberalism.

By 1788 Joseph's health but not his determination was failing. By 1789 rebellion had broken out in protest against his reforms in Belgium (Brabant Revolution) and Hungary, and his other dominions were restive under the burdens of his war with Turkey. His empire was threatened with dissolution, and he was forced to sacrifice some of his reform projects. The emperor died on 20 February 1790 at 48, mostly unsuccessful in his attempts to curtail feudal liberties.

Behind his numerous reforms lay a comprehensive program influenced by the doctrines of enlightened absolutism, natural law, mercantilism, and physiocracy. With a goal of establishing a uniform legal framework to replace heterogeneous traditional structures, the reforms were guided at least implicitly by the principles of freedom and equality and were based on a conception of the state's central legislative authority. Joseph's accession marks a major break since the preceding reforms under Maria Theresa had not challenged these structures, but there was no similar break at the end of the Josephinian era. The reforms initiated by Joseph II had merit despite the way they were introduced. They were continued to varying degrees under his successors. They have been seen as providing a foundation for subsequent reforms extending into the 20th century.

Upon his death in 1790, Joseph was briefly succeeded by his younger brotherLeopold VII.

Leopold II (1790–1792)

Joseph's death proved a boon for Austria, as he was succeeded by his younger brother,Leopold II,previously the more cautiously reformingGrand Duke of Tuscany.Leopold knew when to cut his losses, and soon cut deals with the revolting Netherlanders and Hungarians. He also managed to secure a peace with Turkey in 1791, and negotiated an alliance with Prussia, which had been allying with Poland to press for war on behalf of the Ottomans against Austria and Russia. While restoring relative calm to what had been a crisis situation on his accession in 1790, Austria was surrounded by potential threats. While many reforms were by necessity rescinded, other reforms were initiated including more freedom of the press and restriction on the powers of the police. He replaced his brother's police minister,Johann Anton von Pergen,withJoseph Sonnenfelsan advocate of social welfare rather than control.

Leopold's reign also saw the acceleration of theFrench Revolution.Although Leopold was sympathetic to the revolutionaries, he was also the brother of the French queen. Furthermore, disputes involving the status of the rights of various imperial princes inAlsace,where the revolutionary French government was attempting to remove rights guaranteed by various peace treaties, involved Leopold as Emperor in conflicts with the French. TheDeclaration of Pillnitz,made in late 1791 jointly with the Prussian KingFrederick William IIand theElector of Saxony,in which it was declared that the other princes of Europe took an interest in what was going on in France, was intended to be a statement in support of Louis XVI that would prevent the need from taking any kind of action. However, it instead inflamed the sentiments of the revolutionaries against the Emperor. Although Leopold did his best to avoid war with the French, he died in March 1792. The French declared war on his inexperienced eldest sonFrancis IIa month later.

The Arts

Vienna and Austria dominated European music during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, typified by theFirst Viennese School(Wiener Klassik). This was the era ofHaydn,andMozart's Vienna period extended from 1781 to 1791 during which he was court composer. Opera, particularly German opera was flourishing. Mozart wrote many German operas including the Magic Flute. Initially the pillars of the establishment—the monarchy, such as Joseph II and to a lesser extent his mother, the aristocracy and the religious establishment were the major patrons of the arts, until rising middle class aspirations incorporated music into the lives of thebourgeoisie.Meanwhile, the Baroque was evolving into the less grandiose form, theRococo.

The virtual abolition of censorship under van Swieten also encouraged artistic expression and the themes of artistic work often reflected enlightenment thinking.

Francis II: French Revolution and wars (1792–1815)

Main article:Francis II

Francis II 1792–1835

Francis II(1792–1835) was only 24 when he succeeded his father Leopold VII in 1792, but was to reign for nearly half a century and a radical reorganisation of European politics. He inherited a vast bureaucracy created by his uncle whose legacy of reform and welfare was to last throughout the next two centuries. The image of the monarch had profoundly changed, as had the relationship between monarch and subject. His era was overshadowed by events in France, both in terms of the evolving Revolution and the onset of a new form of European warfare with mass citizen armies. Austria recoiled in horror at the execution of Francis' auntMaria Antoniain 1793 (despite futile attempts at rescue and even negotiation for release), leading to a wave of repression to fend off such dangerous sentiments influencing Austrian politics. At the same time Europe was consumed by theFrench Revolutionary(1792–1802) andNapoleonic Wars(1803–1815). The French Revolution effectively ended Austria's experiment with modernity and reform from above, and marked a retreat to legitimacy.

Domestic policy

Francis started out cautiously. The bureaucracy was still Josephist and the legal reforms under the guidance ofSonnenfelsresulting in the Criminal Code of 1803 and the Civil Code of 1811. On the other hand, he restoredPergento his position of Chief of Police. The discovery of a Jacobin plot in 1794 was a catalyst to the onset of repression. The leaders were executed or imprisoned, but there was little evidence of a tangible threat to the Habsburgs. Suppression of dissent with the Recensorship Commission of 1803 created a void in cultural and intellectual life, yet some of the world's greatest music comes from this time (see below). There were still elements of Josephism abroad, andStadion,the foreign minister with his propagandistFriedrich von Gentzwas able to appeal to popular nationalism to defeat Napoleon.

What exactly such nationalism actually represented is difficult to precisely identify—certainly it was directed to German culture within the Habsburg lands, but it is not clear to what degree it differentiated between 'Austrian' and 'German'. Certainly many of those such nationalism appealed to were German romantics such asKarl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel,such that patriotism rather than true nationalism appeared to be the goal. Cultural museums were established and citizens militia (Landwehr) established—but in the German-speaking lands.

Josephism remained alive and well in the other members of Francis' generation.Archduke Johann(1782–1859) was a nationalism advocate who was behind theLandwehrmovement, and withJoseph Hormayrincited revolt in Bavarian occupied Tyrol, whileArchduke Charlescarried out reform of the military. A statue to Joseph was even set up in Josephsplatz in 1807 to rally the populace. In this way the Archdukes' centralism contrasted with Stadion's decentralisation and attempt to give more say to the estates. Nevertheless, such nationalism was successful in rebuilding Austria throughout its various military and political setbacks of the French wars.

Following Austria's resounding defeat in 1809, Francis blamed reform, and removed the Archdukes from their position. Stadion was replaced byMetternich,who, although a reformer, placed loyalty to the monarch above all. TheLandwehrwas abolished, and following the discovery of yet another planned Tyrolean uprising Hormayr and Archduke Johann were interned, and Johann exiled toStyria.

Revolutionary wars (1792–1802)

Main article:French Revolutionary Wars

War of the First Coalition (1792–1797)

Main article:War of the First Coalition

France declared war on Austria on 20 April 1792. The increasing radicalization of the French Revolution (including the execution of the king on 21 January 1793), as well as the French occupation of the Low Countries, brought Britain, the Dutch Republic, and Spain into the war, which became known as theWar of the First Coalition.This first war with France, which lasted until 1797, proved unsuccessful for Austria. After some brief successes against the utterly disorganized French armies in early 1792, the tide turned, and the French overran theAustrian Netherlandsin the last months of 1792. By theBattle of Valmyin September it was evident to Austria and their Prussian allies that victory against France would elude them, and Austria suffered a further defeat in November atJemappes,losing the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium). While the Austrians were so occupied, their erstwhile Prussian allies stabbed them in the back with the 1793Second Partition of Poland,from which Austria was entirely excluded. This led to the dismissal of Francis's chief minister,Philipp von Cobenzl,and his replacement withFranz Maria Thugutin March 1793.

Once again, there were initial successes against the disorganized armies of the French Republic in 1793, and the Netherlands were recovered. But in 1794 the tide turned once more, and Austrian forces were driven out of the Netherlands again—this time for good. Meanwhile, the Polish Crisis again became critical, resulting in aThird Partition(1795), in which Austria managed to secure important gains. The war in the west continued to go badly, as most of the coalition made peace, leaving Austria with only Britain andPiedmont-Sardiniaas allies. In 1796, theFrench Directoryplanned a two-pronged campaign in Germany to force the Austrians to make peace, with a secondary thrust planned into Italy. French forces enteredBavariaand the edge of the Tyrol, before encountering Austrian forces underArchduke Charles,the Emperor's brother, atAmberg(24 August 1796) who was successful in driving the French back in Germany. Meanwhile, theFrench Army of Italy,under the command of the young Corsican GeneralNapoleon Bonaparte,was brilliantly successful, forcing Piedmont out of the war, driving the Austrians out ofLombardyand besiegingMantua.Following the capture of Mantua in early 1797, Bonaparte advanced north through the Alps against Vienna, while new French armies moved again into Germany. Austria sued for peace. By the terms of theTreaty of Campo Formioof 1797, Austria renounced its claims to the Netherlands and Lombardy, in exchange for which it was granted the territories of theRepublic of Venicewith the French. The Austrians also provisionally recognized the French annexation of the Left Bank of the Rhine, and agreed in principle that the German princes of the region should be compensated with ecclesiastical lands on the other side of the Rhine.

War of the Second Coalition (1798–1801)

Main article:War of the Second Coalition

The peace did not last for long. Soon, differences emerged between the Austrians and French over the reorganization of Germany, and Austria joined Russia, Britain, and Naples in theWar of the Second Coalitionin 1799. Although Austro-Russian forces were initially successful in driving the French from Italy, the tide soon turned—the Russians withdrew from the war after a defeat atZürich(1799) which they blamed on Austrian recklessness, and the Austrians were defeated by Bonaparte who was now theFirst Consul,atMarengo,which forced them to withdraw from Italy, and then in Germany atHohenlinden.These defeats forced Thugut's resignation, and Austria, now led byLudwig Cobenzl,to make peace atLunévillein early 1801. The terms were mild—the terms of Campo Formio were largely reinstated, but now the way was clear for a reorganization of the Empire on French lines. By theImperial Deputation Report of 1803,the Holy Roman Empire was entirely reorganized, with nearly all of the ecclesiastical territories and free cities, traditionally the parts of the Empire most friendly to the House of Austria, eliminated.

Napoleonic wars and end of Empire (1803–1815)

Main article:Napoleonic Wars

With Bonaparte's assumption of the title of Emperor of theFirst French Empireon 18 May 1804, Francis II, seeing the writing on the wall for the old Empire, and arbitrarily took the new title of "Emperor of Austria"as Francis I, in addition to his title of Holy Roman Emperor. This earned him the title of Double Emperor (Doppelkaiser) (Francis II of the Holy Roman Empire, Francis I of Austria). The arrival of a new, French, emperor on the scene and the restructuring of the old presented a larger threat to the Habsburgs than their territorial losses to date, for there was no longer any certainty that they would continue to be elected. Francis had himself made emperor of the new Austrian Empire on 11 August not long after Napoleon. The new empire referred to not a new state but to the lands ruled by Austria, that is the Habsburgs, which was effectively many states.

War of the Third Coalition (1805)

Main article:War of the Third Coalition

Soon, Napoleon's continuing machinations in Italy, including the annexation ofGenoaandParma,led once again to war in 1805—theWar of the Third Coalition,in which Austria, Britain, Russia, and Sweden took on Napoleon. The Austrian forces began the war by invadingBavaria,a key French ally in Germany, but were soon outmaneuvered and forced to surrender by Napoleon atUlm,before the main Austro-Russian force was defeated atAusterlitzon 2 December. Napoleon entered Vienna itself, as much a celebrity as conqueror. By theTreaty of Pressburg,Austria was forced to give up large amounts of territory—Dalmatiato France,Venetiato Napoleon's Kingdom of Italy, theTyrolto Bavaria, and Austria's various Swabian territories toBadenandWürttemberg,althoughSalzburg,formerly held by Francis's younger brother, the previous Grand Duke of Tuscany, was annexed by Austria as compensation.

The defeat meant the end of the old Holy Roman Empire. Napoleon's satellite states in southern and Western Germany seceded from the Empire in the summer of 1806, forming theConfederation of the Rhine,and a few days later Francis proclaimed the Empire dissolved, and renounced the old imperial crown on 6 August 1806.

War of the Fifth Coalition (1809)

Main article:War of the Fifth Coalition

VictoriousArchduke Charles of Austriaduring theBattle of Aspern-Essling(21–22 May 1809)

Over the next three years Austria, whose foreign policy was now directed byPhilipp Stadion,attempted to maintain peace with France, avoiding theWar of the Fourth Coalition(1806–1807) but obliged to do France's bidding. The overthrow of the Spanish Bourbons in 1808 was deeply disturbing to the Habsburgs, who rather desperately went to war once again in 1809, theWar of the Fifth Coalitionthis time with no continental allies, but the United Kingdom. Stadion's attempts to generate popular uprisings in Germany were unsuccessful, and the Russians honoured their alliance with France, so Austria was once again defeated at theBattle of Wagram,although at greater cost than Napoleon, who had suffered his first battlefield defeat in this war, atAspern-Essling,had expected. However Napoleon had already re-occupied Vienna. The terms of the subsequentTreaty of Schönbrunnwere quite harsh. Austria lost Salzburg to Bavaria, some of its Polish lands to Russia, and its remaining territory on the Adriatic (including much of Carinthia and Styria) to Napoleon'sIllyrian Provinces.Austria became a virtual subject state of France.

War of the Sixth Coalition (1812–1814)

Main article:War of the Sixth Coalition

Europe in 1812 after several French victories

Klemens von Metternich,the new Austrian foreign minister, aimed to pursue a pro-French policy.Francis II's daughterMarie Louise,was married to Napoleon in 1810. Austria was effectivelybankruptby 1811 and the paper money (Bancozettel) lost considerable value, but contributed an army to Napoleon's invasion of Russia in March 1812. With Napoleon's disastrous defeat in Russia at the end of the year, and Prussia's defection to the Russian side in March 1813, Metternich began slowly to shift his policy. Initially he aimed to mediate a peace between France and its continental enemies, but when it became apparent that Napoleon was not interested in compromise, Austria joined the allies and declared war on France in August 1813 in theWar of the Sixth Coalition(1812–1814). The Austrian intervention was decisive. Napoleon was defeated atLeipzigin October, and forced to withdraw into France itself. As 1814 began, the Allied forces invaded France. Initially, Metternich remained unsure as to whether he wanted Napoleon to remain on the throne, a Marie Louise regency for Napoleon's young son, or a Bourbon restoration, but he was eventually brought around by British Foreign SecretaryLord Castlereaghto the last position. Napoleon abdicated on 3 April 1814, andLouis XVIIIwas restored, soon negotiating a peace treaty with the victorious allies atParisin June, while Napoleon was exiled toElba.

War of the Seventh Coalition (1815)

Main article:War of the Seventh Coalition

Napoleon escaped in February 1815, Louis fled and thus the final phase of the war, theWar of the Seventh Coalition,ensued—the so-calledHundred Daysof Napoleon's attempt at restoration. This culminated with the decisiveBattle of Waterlooin June. The Napoleonic wars ended with the secondTreaty of Paristhat year, and Napoleon's final exile toSt Helena.

Congress of Vienna (1815)

Main article:Congress of Vienna

Europe after the Congress of Vienna

With the completion of the long running French wars a new order was required in Europe and the heads of the European states gathered in Vienna for a prolonged discussion of Europe's future, although the Congress was actually convened in September 1814 prior to Napoleon's attempted return, and completed on 9 June 1815, nine days before theBattle of Waterloo.At the completion of the Napoleonic wars, Austria found itself on the winning side as a new European leader, largely due toMetternich's diplomatic skills. It was as much a grand social event of the representatives of thegreat powersas a true Congress and was chaired by Metternich. Its purpose was to restore a new European order to emerge from the chaos of the Napoleonic wars. While Austria was the diplomatic leader, the military victory was largely that of Russia and Prussia, aided by Britain and Spain, and Austria had little to add to the final defeat of Napoleon on 18 June 1815 at Waterloo.Metternich's intent was to create abalance of powerin Europe, under a new entity, theGerman Confederationwith Austrian leadership, out of the ashes of theHoly Roman Empire.

The resulting order was referred to as theConcert of Europe,which would now meet regularly to resolve outstanding differences. In addition to redrawing the political map, it establishedspheres of influence.Achieving the presidency of this new entity was Austria's greatest gain from the Congress. What the Congress could not do was to recover the old order orancien régimeon which Austrian and Habsburg authority had rested. In the new order, aHoly Alliancewas created between Austria, Russia and Prussia. This was subsequently enlarged to include most European nations. Notable exceptions were Great Britain, wary of Metternich's strategy of repressive interventionism, and the Ottoman Empire. In the redrawing of the European map, Austrian gains were modest compared to Russia and Prussia, reflecting its relatively weak negotiating position. Austria regained most of the territory it had lost to Napoleon in the western part of the nation (Tyrol,SalzburgandVoralberg). In Italy it gained theKingdom of Lombardy-Venetia,Tuscany,Modena,ParmaandPiacenza.These latter political entities were ruled by various branches of the Habsburgs. It did not, however, regain Belgium and theAustrian Netherlands,but the trading of territories restored a contiguous territory, as envisaged by Joseph II, and gave Austria control over Italy. The Emperor Francis was unwilling to adapt to this new order, requiring diplomacy on Metternich's part, depicting it as conservative Romanticism, religion and order versus the revolutionary spirit of 1789. Thus, the Holy Alliance became a mechanism for countering any moves against legitimate order. Metternich has therefore been portrayed Europe's fireman, extinguishing any signs of revolutionary spirit. The resultant onset of peace provided the opportunity for both reforms and prosperity in Austria, but its backward looking policies within a Europe characterised by rapid change set the scene for eventual failure.

The arts

Napoleonic Vienna was the Vienna ofBeethoven,whose single operaFideliowas premiered there in 1805, attended by the French military. It was also the era of thethird (Eroica)(1805) with its ambivalent relation to Napoleon, and thefifth (Schicksals-)and thesixth (Pastorale)symphonies (1808).

The 19th century (1815–1914)

Austrian Empire after Congress of Vienna, 1816

Biedermaier period (1815–1848)

Main articles:Austrian EmpireandGerman Confederation

Prince Metternich,byThomas Lawrencec. 1820

The period following the Congress of Vienna was one of relative political stability and is better known for its culture (Biedermeier). Other names for the years 1815–1848 includeVormärz( "before March" ) referring to period before the revolution of March 1848 and "The Age of Metternich" referring to his dominant position in European politics. Under the control ofMetternich(who becameChancellorin 1821), the Austrian Empire entered a period ofcensorshipand apolice state,with surveillance spying and imprisonment of the opposition, while others emigrated. For Europe it was a period characterised by increasingindustrialisation,the social consequences of economic cycles, population mobility andnationalism.All of these were regarded warily by governments intent on preserving the existing order.

In 1823, the Emperor of Austria made the fiveRothschildbrothers barons.Nathan Mayer Rothschildin London chose not to take up the title. The family became famous as bankers in the major countries of Europe.

Foreign policy

The Congress of Vienna was followed by a series of other congresses, referred to as theCongress System,including the Congresses ofAix-la-Chapelle(1818),Troppau(1820),Laibach(1821) andVerona(1822). These largely served to further suppress change, though a notable exception was the reintegration of France at the first of these, resulting in theQuintuple Allianceof the five great powers (Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia and then France). Within the Quintuple Alliance, the more conservative Holy Alliance of Russia, Austria and Prussia tended to dominate the discourse. The Congress System of dispute resolution did not survive the 1820s, and in particular the intervention in theWar of Greek Independence(1821-1832) over Metternich's objections, revealed the limits of his power. Further cracks in the old order appeared as South America broke away from Spain and Portugal, a liberal regime appeared in Portugal, andFrench Revolutionand theindependence of Belgiumin 1830. Throughout there had been a division within the Quintuple Alliance between the more liberal western nations of Britain and France and the more conservative Holy Alliance in the east. TheLondon conference of 1830to decide on Belgian independence from the Netherlands effectively led to Britain's withdrawal from the Alliance. 1840 saw a number of related events that reflected on the unity of the Great Powers. Austria relied on Russia over theEastern Question,and theOriental crisisof that year split those powers, at least temporarily. While in the west, theRhine crisisbetween France and the German Confederation, further fuelled the nascent German nationalism movement, typified byDie Wacht am Rhein

Closer to home, Metternich exerted his influence in suppressingGerman nationalism.TheWartburg Festivalof 1817 with its calls for German unity and condemnation of conservatism created alarm. Metternich prevented Austrian universities participating and further activism in 1819 with the assassination ofAugust von Kotzebuein 1819 resulted in theCarlsbad Decreesof that year, suppressing free speech, and theVienna Final Actof 1820 empowering the German Confederation to act against member states. Neither fully succeeded in delaying the nationalist movement for long.

Domestic policy and the rise of nationalism

Early efforts among the Italians tocreate a unified nation,including theCarbonariin Lombardy-Venetia were put down by Metternich with military intervention, similarly in Poland. Meanwhile, the minority populations within the empire, such as the Slavs and Poles were seeking national identities, distinct from Austria. Metternich sought to deflect these movements into cultural identity. Similarly in Germany, a Prussian ledGerman Customs Union(Zollverein) of the German states was formed in 1833, but Austria did not join, identifying within it German nationalism.One of the few administrative reforms was the granting of adiettoGalicia.

Metternich kept a firm hand on government resisting the constitutional freedoms demanded by the liberals. Government was by custom and by imperial decree (Hofkanzleidekrete). He was both an oppressive reactionary opportunist but also a true conservative politician. His role in directing European affairs gave the Habsburgs a disproportionate influence relative to their actual powers.The extensive security mechanism was headed by CountJoseph Sedlnitzky,under Metternich's personal supervision, while religion was seen merely as a tool for supporting authority.

Economy

State intervention in fiscal matters was relatively restrained, although theNational Bank of Austriawas established in 1816 to restore the nation's credit status. Taxation was largely left to the provinces and uneven within the empire, Hungary paying disproportionally less. The aristocrats were also undertaxed. One of the results was that the military budget was relatively small, and thus unable to give much force to Metternich's foreign policies. Economic growth was relatively small and did not keep pace with population growth.Industrialisation in Austria began around 1830, primarily in Vienna and Voralberg. 1838 saw the first railway, connecting Vienna andDeutsch-Wagram,a distance of about 15 km, and construction on theAustrian Southern Railway(Österreichische Südbahn) started the following year. In shipping, theDanube Steam Navigation Companywas established in 1829, whileAustrian Lloydbecame the largest shipping company in the Mediterranean. These economic developments came at a cost as large numbers of farm workers migrated to the growing urban industries to form an expandingproletariat.

Monarchy

Main articles:FrancisandFerdinand I

Francis firmly resisted Metternich's proposals for overhauling the Monarchy.When Francis died in 1835, his son Ferdinand I (1835-1848) "Ferdinand the Benign" succeeded him, but proved unfit to govern due to illness, with much of the decision making falling to his uncleArchduke Louis of Austriaand Metternich. Consequently, Austria entered a period of political stagnation with Francis being unwilling to make reforms and Ferdinand being incapable of so doing, and Metternich committed to preserving the status quo.

1848 Revolution

During this period bothliberalismandnationalismwere on the rise, which resulted in theRevolutions of 1848.Metternich and the mentally handicapped EmperorFerdinand Iwere forced to resign to be replaced by the emperor's young nephewFranz Joseph.

Franz Joseph I and the Belle Époque (1848–1914)

Post-revolutionary Austria (1848–1866)

Separatist tendencies (especially inLombardyand Hungary) were suppressed by military force. A constitution was enacted in March 1848, but it had little practical impact, althoughelectionswere held in June. The 1850s saw a return toneoabsolutismand abrogation of constitutionalism. However, one of the concessions to revolutionaries with a lasting impact was the freeing ofpeasantsin Austria. This facilitatedindustrialization,as many flocked to the newly industrializing cities of the Austrian domain (in the industrial centers ofBohemia,Lower Austria,Vienna,andUpper Styria). Social upheaval led to increased strife in ethnically mixed cities, leading to mass nationalist movements.

On the foreign policy front, Austria with its non-German constituencies, was faced with a dilemma in 1848 when Germany's Constituent National Assembly (Deutsche Konstituierende Nationalversammlung), of which Austria was a member, stated that members could not have a state connection with non-German states, leaving Austria to decide between Germany or its Empire and Hungarian union. However these plans came to nothing for the time being, but the concept of a smaller Germany that excluded Austria (Kleindeutschland) was to re-emerge as the solution in 1866. Austria's neutrality during theCrimean War(1853–1856), while the emperor was preoccupied with his wedding, antagonized both sides and left Austria dangerously isolated, as subsequent events proved.

The Italian question (1859–1860)

See also:Italian unificationandSecond Italian War of Independence

Italy in 1859. The Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia is colored cyan at the top-right.

While Austria and the Habsburgs held hegemony over northernItaly,the south was theKingdom of the Two Sicilies,with thePapal Statesintervening. Italy had been in a turmoil since theCongress of Viennain 1815, with insurrections starting in 1820 (Carbonari).King Ferdinand IIof the Two Sicilies, an absolutist monarch, sought to strengthen his position by a further dynastic alliance with Austria. He already had a connection through his second wife,Maria Theresa,granddaughter of the emperorLeopold IIThis he achieved by marrying his son,Francis II,to DuchessMaria Sophie of Bavariain February 1859. Marie was a younger sister of the EmpressElisabeth of Austria,making Francis brother in law to the Emperor. Ferdinand died a few months later in May, and Francis and Maria Sophie ascended the throne.

In the meantime Austria had fallen into a trap set by the Italianrisorgimento.Piedmont,jointly ruled with Sardinia had been the site of earlier insurrections. This time they formed a secret alliance with France (Patto di Plombières), whose emperor,Napoleon IIIwas a previousCarbonari.Piedmont then proceeded to provoke Vienna with a series of military manoeuvres, successfully triggering an ultimatum toTurinon 23 April. Its rejection was followed by an Austrian invasion, and precipitated war with France (Second Italian War of Independence 1859). Austria mistakenly expected support and received none, and the country was ill-prepared for war, which went badly. The Habsburg rulers inTuscanyandModenawere forced to flee to Vienna.

In May 1859 Austria suffered a military defeat at theBattle of Vareseand in June atMagentaagainst the combined forces of France and Sardinia. The emperor refused to acknowledge the seriousness of the situation which was causing great hardship at home, and took over direct command of the army, though not a professional soldier. Later that month a further defeat atSolférinosealed Austria's fate, and the emperor found himself having to accept Napoleon's terms atVillafranca.Austria agreed to cede Lombardy, and the rulers of the central Italian states were to be restored. However the latter never happened, and the following year in plebiscites, all joined the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont. By April 1860Garibaldihad invaded and quickly subdued Sicily, and by February 1861 the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies ceased to exist, Francis and Maria fled to Austria.

Aftermath—constitutional concessions

These events severely weakened the emperor's position. The government's absolutist policies were unpopular and these setbacks led to domestic unrest, Hungarian secessionism, criticism of Austria's governance and allegations of corruption. The first casualties were the emperor's ministers. The Finance Minister,Karl Ludwig von Bruckkilled himself. Other casualties wereCount Karl Ferdinand von Buol(Foreign Minister), Interior MinisterBaron Alexander von Bach,Police MinisterJohann Freiherr von Kempen von Fichtenstamm,Adjutant GeneralKarl Ludwig von Grünne,together with army generals.

The result was a reluctant undertaking by the emperor and his chief advisorGoluchowskito return to constitutional government, culminating in theOctober Diploma(October 1860) establishing constitutional monarchy through a legislative assembly and provincial autonomy. This was never completely implemented due to Hungarian resistance, demanding the full autonomy lost in 1849. Consequently, the October Diploma (Oktoberdiplom) was replaced by theFebruary Patent(Februarpatent), in 1861 establishing abicamerallegislative body, theReichsrat.The upper house (Herrenhaus) consisted of appointed and hereditary positions, while the lower house, the House of Deputies (Abgeordnetenhaus) was appointed by the provincialdiets.TheReichsratwould meet with or without the Hungarians, depending on the issues being considered. This was a first step towards the establishment of a separate Cisleithanian legislature, on the other hand the more limited role of the diets in the February Patent, compared to the October Diploma, angered the champions of regionalism. TheReichsratwas dominated by liberals, who were to be the dominant political force for the next two decades.

The Danish question (1864–66)

The Prussian lion circling the Austrian elephant.Adolph Menzel,1846

Prussia and Denmark had already foughtone warin 1848–51 over the territories that lined their common border,Schleswig-Holsteinwhich resulted in Denmark retaining them. By 1864 Austria was at war again, this time allying itself with Prussia against Denmark in theSecond Schleswig War,which although successful this time, turned out to be Austria's last military victory. The war concluded with theTreaty of Viennaby which Denmark ceded the territories. The following year theGastein Conventionresolved the control of the new territories,Holsteinbeing allocated to Austria, after initial conflicts between the allies. However this did little to ease theAustria–Prussia rivalryover the German question. The ongoing efforts byOtto von Bismarck,the Prussian Minister President, to revoke the agreement and wrest control of the territories would soon lead to all out conflict between the two powers and achieve the desired weakening of Austria's position in central Europe.

The Hungarian question

From the 1848 revolution, in which much of the Hungarian aristocracy had participated,Hungaryremained restless, restoration of the constitution and de-throne the House of Habsburg, opposing the centralist trials of Vienna and refusing to pay taxes.Hungary had little support in the court at Vienna which was strongly Bohemian and considered the Hungarians as revolutionaries. From the loss of the Italian territories in 1859, the Hungarian question became more prominent. Hungary was negotiating with foreign powers to support it, and most significantly withPrussia.Therefore, Hungary represented a threat to Austria in any opposition to Prussia within theGerman Confederationover theGerman Question.Therefore, cautious discussions over concessions, referred to asConciliationby the Hungarians,started to take place. Emperor Franz Joseph traveled toBudapestin June 1865 and made a few concessions, such as abolishing the military jurisdiction, and granting an amnesty to the press. However these fell far short of the demands of the Hungarian liberals whose minimal demands were restoration of the constitution and the emperor's separate coronation as King of Hungary. Chief among these wereGyula AndrássyandFerenc Deák,who endeavoured to improve their influence at the court in Vienna.In January 1866 a delegation of the Hungarian parliament traveled to Vienna to invite the imperial family to make an official visit to Hungary, which they did, at some length from January to March.

Austro-Prussian War (1866)

While Andrássy was making frequent visits to Vienna from Budapest during early 1866, relations withPrussiawere deteriorating. There was talk of war. Prussia had signed a secret treaty with the relatively newKingdom of Italyon 8 April, while Austria concluded one with France on 12 June, in exchange for Venetia.

While the motives for the war, Prussian masterplan or opportunism, are disputed, the outcome was a radical re-alignment of power in Central Europe. Austria brought the continuing dispute over Holstein before the German diet and also decided to convene the Holstein diet. Prussia, declaring that the Gastein Convention had thereby been nullified, invaded Holstein. When the German diet responded by voting for a partial mobilization against Prussia, Bismarck declared that theGerman Confederationwas ended. Thus this may be considered a Third Schleswig War.

Hostilities broke out on 14 June as theAustro-Prussian War(June–August 1866), in which Prussia and the north German states faced not only Austria but much of the rest of Germany, especially the southern states. Three days later Italy declared war on Austria in theThird Italian War of Independence,Italy now being Prussia's ally. Thus Austria had to fight on two fronts. Their first engagement resulted in a minor victory against the Italians atCustozanear Verona on 24 June. However, on the northern front Austria suffered a major military defeat at theBattle of Königgrätzin Bohemia on 3 July. Although Austria had a further victory against the Italians in a naval battle atLissaon 20 July, it was clear by then that the war was over for Austria, Prussian armies threatening Vienna itself, forcing the evacuation of the court to Budapest. Napoleon III intervened resulting in an armistice atNikolsburgon 21 July, and a peace treaty inPragueon 23 August. In the meantime the Italians who had had a series of successes throughout July, and signed anarmisticeatCormonson 12 August rather than face the remaining Austrian army freed from its northern front.

As a result of these wars Austria had now lost all its Italian territory and was now excluded from further German affairs, that were now reorganised underPrussiandominance in the newNorth German Confederation.TheKleindeutschlandconcept had prevailed. For the Austrians in Italy, the war had been tragically pointless, since Venetia had already been ceded.

Dual Monarchy (1867–1918)

See also:Austria-HungaryandCisleithania

Conciliation

Empress Elisabeth,known as "Sisi"

While Austria was reeling from the effects of war, the Hungarians increased the pressure for their demands. Andrássy was regularly in Vienna, as wasFerenc Deákand the Hungarian position was backed by constitutionalists and liberals. While anti-Hungarian sentiments ran high at the court, the Emperor's position was becoming increasingly untenable, with the Prussian army now atPressburg(now Bratislava), and Vienna crammed with exiles, while hope for French intervention proved to be fruitless. The Hungarians recruitedEmpress Elisabethwho became a strong advocate for their cause.György Klapkahad organised a legion fighting for the Prussians, which Bismarck had supported, that entered Hungary and agitated for Hungarian independence.

EmperorFranz Joseph I.

However the needs of the other provinces had to be considered before entering into any form of Hungarian dualism which would give Hungary special privileges, and started to fan the flames of Czech nationalism, since Slavic interests were likely to be submerged. People started to talk about the events of 1848 again. By February 1867Count Belcrediresigned as Minister President over his concerns about Slavic interests, and was succeeded by foreign ministerFerdinand Beust,who promptly pursued the Hungarian option which had become a reality by the end of the month.

Ausgleich(Compromise) 1867

Austria-Hungarywas created through the mechanism of theAustro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867(Ausgleich). Thus the Hungarians finally achieved much of their aims. The western half of the realm known as (Cisleithania) and the eastern Hungarian (Transleithania), that is the realms lying on each side of theLeithatributaryof theDanuberiver, now became two realms with different interior policy - there was no common citizenship and dual-citizenship was banned either -, but with a common ruler and a common foreign and military policy. The empire now had two capitals, two cabinets and two parliaments. Only three cabinet positions served both halves of the monarchy, war, foreign affairs and finance (when both sectors were involved). Costs were assigned 70:30 to Cisleithania, however the Hungarians represented a single nationality while Cisleithania included all the other kingdoms and provinces. Andrássy was appointed as the first Minister President of the new Hungary on 17 February. Feelings ran high in the provinces, and the Diets in Moravia and Bohemia were shut down in March.

Emperor Franz Joseph made a speech from the throne in May to theReichsrat(Imperial Council) asking for retroactive ratification and promising further constitutional reforms and increased autonomy to the provinces. This was a major retreat from absolutism. On 8 June, the Emperor and Empress were crownedKing and Queen of Hungaryin a ceremony whose pomp and splendour seemed out of keeping with Austria's recent military and political humiliation and the extent of financial reparations. As part of the celebrations the emperor announced further concessions that aggravated relationships between Hungary and the rest of the monarchy. An amnesty was declared for all political offences since 1848 (includingKlapkaandKossuth) and reversal of the confiscation of estates. In addition the coronation Gift was directed to the families and veterans of the revolutionaryHonvéds, which was revived as theRoyal Hungarian Honvéd.

In return for the Liberals support of theAusgleich,concessions were made to parliamentary prerogatives in the new constitutional law. The law of 21 December 1867, although frequently amended, was the foundation of Austrian governance for the remaining 50 years of the empire, and was largely based on the February Patent, the Imperial Council and included a bill of rights. Ultimately the political balance of the dual monarchy represented a compromise between authoritarianism (Obrigkeitsstaat) and parliamentarianism(Rechtsstaat)(Hacohen 2002). Like most compromises it was rejected by extremists on both sides, including Kossuth.

Austria-Hungary, 1867–1914

Small coat of arms of theAustro-Hungarian Empire1867–1915, with the HabsburgOrder of the Golden Fleecesuperimposed on the Austrian Doubleheaded Eagle, and crested by the Crown ofRudolf II

1873 marked theSilver Jubileeof Franz Joseph, and provided not only an occasion for celebration but also one of reflection on the progress of the monarchy since 1848.Viennahad grown from a population of 500,000 to over a million, the walls and fortifications had been demolished and theRingstrasseconstructed with many magnificent new buildings along it. The Danube was being regulated to reduce the risk of flooding, a new aqueduct constructed to bring fresh water into the city, and many new bridges, schools, hospitals, churches and a new university built.

Foreign policy

See also:List of foreign ministers of Austria-Hungary

What was supposed to be a temporary emergency measure was to last for half a century. Austria succeeded in staying neutral during theFranco Prussian Warof 1870–1 despite those who saw an opportunity for revenge on Prussia for the events of 1866. However Austria's allies among the South German States were now allied with Prussia, and it was unlikely that Austria's military capacity had significantly improved in the meantime. Any residual doubts were rapidly dispelled by the speed of the Prussian advance and the subsequent overthrow of theSecond Empire.

In November 1871 Austria made a radical change in foreign policy.Ferdinand Beust,the First Prime Minister (to 1867), Chancellor and Foreign Minister (1866–1871) of the Dual Monarchy, was dismissed. Beust was an advocate ofrevancheagainst Prussia, but was succeeded by the Hungarian Prime Minister, the liberalGyula AndrássyasForeign Minister(1871–1879), although both opposed the federalist policies of Prime MinisterKarl Hohenwart(1871) whilePrince Adolf of Auerspergbecame the new Prime Minister (1871–1879). Andrássy 's appointment caused concern among the conservative Court Party (Kamarilla), but he worked hard to restore relationships between Berlin and Vienna, culminating in theDual Alliance(Zweibund) of 1879.

In 1878,Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina,which had been cut off from the rest of theOttoman Empireby the creation of new states in theBalkansfollowing theRusso-Turkish War of 1877–78and the resultingCongress of Berlin(June–July 1878). The territory was ceded to Austria-Hungary, and Andrássy prepared to occupy it. This led to a further deterioration of relations withRussiaand was to lead to tragic consequences in the next century. Austrian troops encountered stiff resistance and suffered significant casualties. The occupation created controversy both within and without the empire and led to Andrássy's resignation in 1879. This territory was finallyannexed in 1908and put under joint rule by the governments of both Austria and Hungary.

Map showingAustrian German–inhabited areas (in rose) in western Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1911

The departure of the Liberal Government and of Andrássy from the Foreign Office (k. u. k. Ministerium des Äußern) marked a sharp shift in Austria-Hungary's foreign policy, particularly in relation to Russia,Count Gustav Kálnoky(1881–1895) Andrássy's Conservative replacement pursuing a new rapprochement.

Economy

The second half of the 19th century saw a lot of construction, expansion of cities and railway lines, and development of industry. During the earlier part of this period, known asGründerzeit,Austria became an industrialized country, even though the Alpine regions remained characterized by agriculture. Austria was able to celebrate its newfound grandeur in theVienna World Exhibition (Weltausstellung) of 1873,attended by all the crowned heads of Europe, and beyond. This period of relative prosperity was followed by the1873 Stock market crash.

Politics and governance

Liberalism in Cisleithania 1867–1879

See also:Liberalism in Austria

Political parties became legitimate entities in Austria from 1848, apart from a brief lapse in the 1850s. However the structure of the legislative body created by the 1861 February Patent provided little scope for party organisation. Initial political organisation resembled the cleavages in Austrian culture. Since the time of theCounter-ReformationtheCatholic Churchhad assumed a major role in the political life of the empire, in conjunction with the aristocracy and conservative rural elements. Allied against these forces were a more secular urban middle class, reflecting theEnlightenmentand theFrench Revolutionwith its anti-clericism(Kulturkampf).Other elements on the left were German nationalism, defendingGreater Germaninterests against theSlavs,and found support among urban intelligentsia. However party structure was far from cohesive and both groupings contained factions which either supported or opposed the government of the day. These parties reflected the traditional right/left split of political vision. The left, orLiberal(Deutschliberale Partei) factions were known as theConstitutional Party(Verfassungspartei), but both left and right were fragmented into factions (Klubs). Without direct elections there was no place for constituency organisation, and affinities were intellectual not organisational. Nor, without ministerial responsibility, was there a need for such organisation. The affinities were driven by respective visions of the representative institutions. The left derived its name from its support in principle of the 1861–7 constitution and were the driving elements of the 1848 revolution, the right supported historic rights. The left drew its support from the propertied bourgeoisie (Besitzbürgertum), affluent professionals and the civil service. These were longstanding ideological differences (Pulzer 1969). The 1867 elections saw the Liberals take control of the lower house underKarl Auersperg(1867–1868) and were instrumental in the adoption of the 1867 constitution and in abrogating the 1855Concordat(1870).

Suffrage progressively improved during the period 1860–1882. The selection of deputies to theReichsratby provincial legislatures proved unworkable particularly once theBohemiandiet effectively boycotted the Reichsrat in an attempt to acquire equal status with the Hungarians in a tripartite monarchy. As a result, suffrage was changed to direct election to theReichsratin 1873.

Even then by 1873 only six percent of the adult male population were franchised (Hacohen 2002). The initial divisions into Catholic,liberal,national,radicalandagrarianparties differed across ethnic grounds further fragmenting the political culture. However, there was now emerging the presence of extra-parliamentary parties whereas previously parties were purely intra-parliamentary. This provided an opportunity for the disenfranchised to find a voice. These changes were taking place against a rapidly changing backdrop of an Austrian economy that was modernising and industrialising and economic crises such asthat of 1873and its resultantdepression(1873–1879), and the traditional parties were slow to respond to the demands of the populace. By the election of 1901, the last election under the defined classes of franchisement (Curia) extraparliamentary parties won 76 of the 118 seats.

This era saw anti-liberal sentiments and declining fortunes of the Liberal party which had held power since 1867 apart from a brief spell of conservative government in 1870–1. In 1870 Liberal support for Prussia in the 1870Franco-Prussian Wardispleased the Emperor and he turned to the Conservatives to form a government underCount Karl Sigmund von Hohenwart(1871). Hohenwart was the conservative leader in parliament, and the Emperor believed his more sympathetic views to Slavic aspirations and federalism would weaken the Austro-German Liberals. Hohenwart appointedAlbert Schäffleas his commerce minister and drew up a policy known as theFundamental Articles of 1871(Fundamentalartikel). The policy failed, the Emperor withdrew his support and the Liberals regained power.

The Liberal party became progressively unliberal and more nationalistic, and against whose social conservatism the progressive intellectuals would rebel (Hacohen 2002). During their 1870–1 opposition they blocked attempts to extend the dual monarchy to a tripartite monarchy including the Czechs, and promoted the concept ofDeutschtum(the granting of all rights of citizenship to those who displayed the characteristics of the solid GermanBürger). They also opposed the extension of suffrage because restricted suffrage favoured their electoral base (Hacohen 2002). In 1873 the party fragmented, with a radical faction of the Constitutional Party forming the Progressive Club (Fortschrittsklub), while a right-wing faction formed the conservative Constitutionalist Landlordism (Verfassungstreue Grossgrundbesitz) leaving a rump of 'Old Liberals' (Altliberale). The result was a proliferation of German Liberal (Deutschfreiheitlichkeit) andGerman National(Deutschnationalismus) groups.

Political realignment 1879

While Liberal achievements had included economic modernisation, expanding secular education and rebuilding the fabric and culture of Vienna, while collaborating with the Administration(Verwaltung),after 1873 a progressive series of schisms and mergers continued to weaken the party which effectively disappeared by 1911.

The Liberal cabinet ofAdolf Auersperg(1871–1879) was dismissed in 1879 over its opposition toForeign MinisterGyula Andrássy's (1871–1879) Balkan policy and the occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina, which added more Slavs and further diluted German nationalism and identity (Staatsnation). In the ensuing elections theLiberalslost control of parliament and went into opposition, the incoming government underCount Edward Taaffe(1879–1893) basically consisting of a group of factions (farmers, clergy and Czechs), the "Iron Ring" (Der eiserne Ring), united in a determination to keep the Liberals out of power.

Andrássy, who had nothing in common with Taaffe, tended his resignation on the grounds of poor health and to his surprise it was accepted. His name was raised again when the new Foreign minister,Haymerledied in office in 1881, but Taaffe and his coalition had no time for a Liberal foreign minister (let alone a Hungarian andFreemason), and he was passed over in favour ofCount Gustav Kálnoky(1881–1895).

However the Liberal oppositionfilibusteredleading the government to seek electoral reform as a strategy to weaken their position, which was enacted in 1882. Despite this, the coalition, nominally conservative and committed to anti-socialism passed a series of social reforms over the decade 1880–1890, following the examples of Germany and Switzerland. These were reforms which the Liberals had been unable to get past a government strongly tied to the concept of individual's rights to self-determination free from government interference (Grandner 1997). Such measures had the support of both the Liberals, now the United Left (Vereinigte Linke1881) and the German National Party (Deutsche Nationalpartei1891), an offshoot of theGerman National Movement(Deutschnationale Bewegung). The electoral reforms of 1882 were the most influential in that it enfranchised proportionally more Germans.

Social reform now moved to become a platform of conservative Catholics likePrince Aloys de Paula Maria of Liechtenstein,Baron Karl von Vogelsang,and Count Egbert Belcredi (Boyer 1995). The era of electoral reform saw the emergence ofGeorg von Schonerer'sPan-German League(Alldeutsche Vereinigung) (1882), appealing to an anti-clerical middle class, and Catholic social reformers such as L. Psenner and A. Latschka created the Christian Social Association (Christlich-Sozialer Verein) (1887). Around the same time F. Piffl, F. Stauracz, Ae. Schoepfer, A. Opitz,Karl Luegerand Prince Aloys Liechtenstein formed the United Christians (Vereinigten Christen) to advocate Christian social reform.These two organisations merged in 1891 under Karl Lueger to form theChristian Social Party(Christlichsoziale Partei,CS).

However the Taaffe government's policy of ethnic inclusiveness fuelled nationalism among the German-speaking population. The Liberals had maintained the strong centralism of the absolutist era (with the exception ofGaliciain 1867) while the Conservatives attempted a more federalist state that ultimately led to the fall of the Taaffe government in 1893, including a second attempt at BohemianAusgleich(Tripartite monarchy) in 1890 (Grandner 1997).

On the left the spread of anarchical ideas and oppressive government saw the emergence of a MarxistSocial Democratic Party(Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei Österreichs,SDAPÖ) in 1889 which succeeded in winning seats in the 1897 elections which followed further extension of suffrage in 1896 to include peasants and the working classes, establishing universal male suffrage, though not equal.

Direct and equal suffrage for the Reichsrat (1907)

2007 Austrian coin depicting 100 Years of Universal Male Suffrage,showing Parliament in 1907

Theuniversal male suffrage introduced in 1907by Minister-PresidentFreiherr von Beckchanged the balance of power, formally tilted towards German Austrians, and revealed that they were now a minority in a predominantly Slavic empire. In the 1900 census, Germans were 36% of the Cisleithanian population but the largest single group, but never acted as a cohesive group (nor did any other national group), although they were the dominant group in the political life of the monarchy. Germans were followed by Czechs and Slovaks (23%), Poles (17), Ruthenians (13), Slovenes (5), Serbo-Croats (3), Italians (3) and Romanians 1%. However these national groups, especially the Germans were often scattered geographically. The Germans also dominated economically, and in level of education.

Ethnic groups of Austria-Hungary in 1910

The post reform 1907 parliament (Reichsrat) was elected along national lines, with only the Christian-Social and Social Democrat parties predominantly German. However Austria was governed by the Emperor who appointed the Imperial Council of Ministers (Ministerrat), who in turn answered to him, parliament being left free to criticise government policy. Technically it had the power to legislate from 1907, but in practice the Imperial government generated its own legislation, and the Emperor could veto his own minister's bills. The major parties were divided geographically and socially, with the social democrats base being the towns, predominantly Vienna, and having a very different perspective to the devout but illiterate peasantry in the countryside. The latter were joined by the aristocracy and bourgeoisie in supporting thestatus quoof the monarchy.

The1911 electionselected a parliament that would carry Austria through the war and the end of the empire in 1918. However, the effectiveness of parliamentarism was hampered by conflicts between parties representing different ethnic groups, and meetings of the parliament ceased altogether duringWorld War I.

The arts

See also:Biedermeier,Vienna Secession,Wiener Werkstätte,andJugendstil

TheSecession Building,Vienna, built in 1897 byJoseph Maria Olbrichfor exhibitions of the Secession group

The initial years of the 19th century following theCongress of Vienna,up until therevolution of 1848was characterised by theBiedermeierperiod of design and architecture, partly fueled by the repressive domestic scene that diverted attention to domesticity and the arts.

With the reign ofFranz Joseph(1848–1916) came a new era of grandeur, typified by theBelle Époquestyle, with extensive building and the construction of theRingstrassein Vienna with its monumental buildings (officially opened 1 May 1865, after seven years). Architects of the period includedHeinrich Ferstel(Votivkirche,Museum für angewandte Kunst Wien),Friedrich von Schmidt(Rathaus),Theophil Hansen(Parliament),Gottfried Semper(Kunsthistorisches Museum,Kunsthistorisches Museum,Burgtheater),Eduard van der Nüll(Opera) andAugust Sicardsburg(Opera).

1897 saw the resignation of a group of artists from the Association of Austrian Artists (Gesellschaft bildender Künstler Österreichs), headed byGustav Klimtwho became the first president of this group which became known as theVienna Secessionor Wiener Secession (Vereinigung Bildender Künstler Österreichs). The movement was a protest against thehistoricismand conservatism of the former organisation, following similar movements inBerlinandMunich.Partly this was a revolt against the perceived excesses of the earlierRingstrasseera, and a yearning to return to the relative simplicity of Biedermaier. From this groupJosef HoffmanandKoloman Moserformed the Vienna Arts and Crafts Workshop (Wiener Werkstätte) in 1903 to promote the development ofapplied arts.The Secession became associated with a specific building, theSecession Building(Wiener Secessionsgebäude) built in 1897 and which housed their exhibitions, starting in 1898. The Secession as originally conceived splintered in 1905 when Klimt and others left over irreconcilable differences. The group however lasted until 1939 and the outbreak of theSecond World War.

Architecturally this was the era ofJugendstil(Art Nouveau) and the contrasting work of men likeOtto Wagner(Kirche am Steinhof) known for embellishment andAdolf Loos,who represented restraint. Art Nouveau and the modern style came relatively late to Austria, around 1900, and was distinguishable from the earlier movement in other European capitals.

One of the prominent literary figures wasKarl Kraus,the essayist and satirist, known for his newspaper "The Torch" (Die Fackel), founded in 1899.

On the musical scene,Johan Straussand his family dominated the Viennese scene over the entire period, which also producedFranz Schubert,Ludwig van Beethoven,Anton Bruckner,Johannes Brahms,Arnold Schoenberg,Franz LehárandGustav Mahleramong others.

By the opening years of the 20th century (Fin de siècle) theavant gardewere beginning to challenge traditional values, often shocking Viennese society, such asArthur Schnitzler's playReigen,the paintings of Klimt, and the music of Schoenberg,Anton WebernandAlban Bergand theSecond Viennese School(Zweite Wiener Schule).

Austria in the First World War 1914–1918

Main article:History of Austria-Hungary during World War I

Austro-Hungarianprisoners of warinRussia,1915

Nationalist strife increased during the decades until 1914. The assassination inSarajevoby aSerbnationalist group of ArchdukeFranz Ferdinand,the heir to Franz Joseph as Emperor, helped to triggerWorld War I.In November 1916 the Emperor died, leaving the relatively inexperiencedCharles (Karl)in command. The defeat of theCentral Powersin 1918 resulted in the disintegration of Austria-Hungary, and the Emperor went into exile.

German Austria and the First Republic (1918–1933)

Republic of German-Austria (1918–1919)

Main article:German Austria

1918

Karl Rennerin 1905,Chancellor12 November 1918 – 7 July 1920, President of theNational Council1931–1933

The First World War effectively ended for Austria on 3 November 1918, when the defeated army signed theArmistice of Villa GiustiatPaduafollowing theBattle of Vittorio Veneto.(Technically this applied to Austria-Hungary, butHungaryhad withdrawn from the conflict on 31 October 1918. Austria was forced to cede all territory occupied since 1914, plus accept the formation of new nations across most of the Empire's pre-war territory, and the allies were given access to Austria. The empire was thus dissolved.

The Provisional National Assembly (Provisorische Nationalversammlung für Deutschösterreich) met in Vienna from 21 October 1918 to 19 February 1919, as the first parliament of the new Austria, in theLower Austriaparliamentary buildings (Niederösterreichische Landhaus). It consisted of those members of theReichsrat(Imperial Council) elected in 1911 from German speaking territories with three presidents, Franz Dinghofer (German National Movement,GDVP), Jodok Fink (Christian Social Party,CS) andKarl Seitz(Social Democratic Workers' Party of Austria,SDAPÖ). The National Assembly continued its work till 16 February 1919 when elections were held. On 30 October it adopted a provisional constitution and on 12 November it adoptedGerman Austria(Deutschösterreich) as the name of the new state. Since the Emperor,Charles I (Karl I)had stated on 11 November that he no longer had "auf jeden Anteil an den Staatsgeschäften"(any share in the affairs of state), although he always said that he never abdicated, Austria was now a republic.

Territorial claims of Austria 1918/19

However the provisional constitution stated that it was to be part of the newGerman Republicproclaimed three days earlier. Article 2 stated:Deutschösterreich ist ein Bestandteil der Deutschen Republik(German Austria is part of the German Republic).

Karl Rennerwas proclaimedChancellor of Austria,succeedingHeinrich Lammaschand led the first threecabinets(12 November 1918 – 7 July 1920) as a grand coalition of the SDAPÖ, CS, and GDVP. The latter was composed of a large number of splinter groups of the German National and German Liberal movements, and were numerically the largest group in the assembly.

On 22 November Austria laid claim to the German speaking territories of the former Habsburg Empire inCzechoslovakia(German Bohemia and parts of Moravia),Poland(Austrian Silesia) and theSouth Tyrol,annexed byItaly.However Austria was in no position to enforce these claims against either the victorious allies or the new nation states that emerged from the dissolution of the Empire and all the lands in question remained separated from the new Austria.

In the words of the then French premierGeorges Clemenceau"ce qui reste, c'est l'Autriche" ( "Austria is what's left" ). An empire of over 50 million had been reduced to a state of 6.5 million.

1919

On19 February electionswere held for what was now called the Constituent National Assembly (Konstituierende Nationalversammlung). Although the Social Democrats won the most seats (41%) they did not have an absolute majority and formed agrand coalitionwith the second-largest party, the Christian Socialists. On 12 March the National Assembly declared "German Austria" to be part of the "German Republic".

Large sections of the population and most representatives of political parties were of the opinion that this "residual" or "rump state"– without Hungary's agriculture sector and Bohemia's industry – would not be economically viable. The journalistHellmut Andics(1922–1998) expressed this sentiment in his book entitledDer Staat, den keiner wollte(The state that nobody wanted) in 1962.

Austria's exact future remained uncertain until formal treaties were signed and ratified. This process began with the opening of thePeace Conference in Parison 18 January 1919 and culminated in the signing of theTreaty of Saint Germainon 10 September that year, although the National Assembly initially rejected the draft treaty on 7 June.

The First Republic, 1919–1933

Main article:First Austrian Republic

Treaty of Saint Germain 1919

The fledgling Republic of German-Austria was to prove short lived. The proposed merger with the German Empire (Weimar Republic) was vetoed by the Allied victors in theTreaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (10 September 1919) under Article 88 which prohibited economic or political union. The allies were fearful of the long-heldMitteleuropadream—a union of all German-speaking populations. The treaty was ratified by parliament on 21 October 1919. Austria was to remain independent, and was obliged to be so for at least 20 years.

The treaty also obliged the country to change its name from the "Republic of German Austria" to the "Republic of Austria" (Republik Österreich), i.e., theFirst Republic,a name that persists to this day. The German-speaking bordering areas ofBohemiaandMoravia(later called the "Sudetenland") were allocated to the newly foundedCzechoslovakia.Many Austrians and Germans regarded this as hypocrisy since U.S. presidentWoodrow Wilsonhad proclaimed in his famous "Fourteen Points"the" right of self-determination "for all nations. In Germany, the constitution of theWeimar Republicexplicitly stated this in article 61:Deutschösterreich erhält nach seinem Anschluß an das Deutsche Reich das Recht der Teilnahme am Reichsrat mit der seiner Bevölkerung entsprechenden Stimmenzahl. Bis dahin haben die Vertreter Deutschösterreichs beratende Stimme.— "German Austria has the right to participate in theGerman Reichsrat(the constitutional representation of the federal German states) with a consulting role according to its number of inhabitants until unification with Germany. "In Austria itself, almost all political parties together with the majority of public opinion continued to cling to the concept of unification laid out in Article 2 of the 1918 constitution.

Although Austria-Hungary had been one of the Central Powers, the allied victors were much more lenient with a defeated Austria than with either Germany or Hungary. Representatives of the new Republic of Austria convinced the allies that it was unfair to penalize Austria for the actions of a now dissolved Empire, especially as other areas of the Empire were now perceived to be on the "victor" side, simply because they had renounced the Empire at the end of the war. Austria never did have to pay reparations because allied commissions determined that the country could not afford to pay.

However, the Treaty of Saint Germain also confirmed Austria's loss of significant German-speaking territories, in particular the southern part of theCounty of Tyrol(nowSouth Tyrol) to Italy and the German-speaking areas withinBohemiaandMoraviatoCzechoslovakia.In compensation (as it were) it was to be awarded most of the German-speaking part of Hungary in theTreaty of Trianonconcluded between the Allies and that country; this was constituted the new federal state ofBurgenland.

End of grand coalition and new constitution (1920–1933)

The grand coalition was dissolved on 10 June 1920, being replaced by a CS- SDAPÖ coalition underMichael Mayras Chancellor (7 July 1920 – 21 June 1921), necessitatingnew elections which were held on 17 October,for what now became theNational Council(Nationalrat), under the newconstitutionof 1 October. This resulted in the Christian Social party now emerging as the strongest party, with 42% of the votes and subsequently forming Mayr's second government on 22 October as a CS minority government (with the support of the GDVP) without the Social Democrats. The CS were to continue in power until the end of the first republic, in various combinations of coalitions with the GDVP andLandbund(founded 1919).

The borders continued to be somewhat uncertain because of plebiscites in the tradition of Woodrow Wilson. Plebiscites in the regions ofTyrolandSalzburgbetween 1919 and 1921 (Tyrol 24 April 1921, Salzburg 29 May 1921) yielded majorities of 98% and 99% in favour of unification with Germany, fearing that "rump" Austria was not economically viable. However such mergers were not possible under the treaty.

On 20 October 1920, a plebiscite in part of the Austrian state ofCarinthiawas held in which the population chose to remain a part of Austria, rejecting the territorial claims of theKingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenesto the state. Mostly German-speaking parts of western Hungary was awarded to Austria as the newprovinceBurgenland in 1921, with the exception of the city ofSopronand adjacent territories, whose population decided in a referendum (which is sometimes considered by Austrians to have been rigged) to remain with Hungary. The area had been discussed as the site of aSlavic corridoruniting Czechoslovakia to Yugoslavia. This made Austria the only defeated country to acquire additional territory as part of border adjustments.

Hyper inflation led to a change of currency from the oldKrone(here marked as German-Austrian) to the newSchillingin 1925

Despite the absence of reparations, Austria under the coalition sufferedhyperinflationsimilar to that of Germany, destroying some of the financial assets of the middle and upper classes, and disrupting the economy. Adam Ferguson attributes hyperinflation to the existence of far too many people on the government payroll, failure to tax the working class, and numerous money losing government enterprises. The fascists blamed the left for the hyperinflation; Ferguson blames policies associated with the left.Massive riots ensued in Vienna in which the rioters demanded higher taxes on the rich and reduced subsidies to the poor. In response to the riots, the government increased taxes but failed to reduce subsidies.

The terms of the Treaty of Saint Germain were further underlined by the Geneva Protocols of theLeague of Nations(which Austria joined on 16 December 1920) on 4 October 1922 between Austria and the Allies. Austria was given a guarantee of sovereignty provided it did not unite with Germany over the following 20 years. Austria also received a loan of 650 million Goldkronen which was successful in halting hyperinflation, but required major restructuring of the Austrian economy. The Goldkrone was replaced by the more stable Schilling, but resulted in unemployment and new taxes, loss of social benefits and major attrition of the public service.

TheFirst World Congress of Jewish Womenwas held in Vienna in May 1923.

Politics and government

Emerging from the war, Austria had two main political parties on the right and one on the left. The right was split between clericalism and nationalism. TheChristian Social Party,(Christlichsoziale Partei,CS), had been founded in 1891 and achievedpluralityfrom1907–1911before losing it to the socialists. Their influence had been waning in the capital, even before 1914, but became the dominant party of the First Republic, and the party of government from 1920 onwards. The CS had close ties to theRoman Catholic Churchand was headed by a Catholic priest namedIgnaz Seipel(1876–1932), who served twice asChancellor(1922–1924 and 1926–1929). While in power, Seipel was working for an alliance between wealthy industrialists and theRoman Catholic Church.The CS drew its political support from conservative rural Catholics. In 1920 theGreater German People's Party(Großdeutsche Volkspartei,GDVP) was founded from the bulk of liberal and national groups and became the junior partner of the CS.

On the left theSocial Democratic Workers' Party of Austria(Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei Österreichs,SDAPÖ) founded in 1898, which pursued a fairly left-wing course known asAustromarxismat that time, could count on a secure majority in "Red Vienna"(as the capital was known from 1918 to 1934), while right-wing parties controlled all other states. The SDAPÖ were the strongest voting bloc from 1911 to 1918.

Between 1918 and 1920, there was agrand coalitiongovernment including both left and right-wing parties, the CS and theSocial Democratic Workers' Party(Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei Österreichs,SDAPÖ). This gave the Social Democrats their first opportunity to influence Austrian politics. The coalition enacted progressive socio-economic and labour legislation such as the vote for women on 27 November 1918, but collapsed on 22 October 1920. In 1920, the modernConstitution of Austriawas enacted, but from 1920 onwards Austrian politics were characterized by intense and sometimes violent conflict between left and right. The bourgeois parties maintained their dominance but formed unstable governments while socialists remained the largest elected party numerically.

Both right-wing and left-wingparamilitaryforces were created during the 20s. TheHeimwehr(Home Resistance) first appeared on 12 May 1920 and became progressively organised over the next three years and theRepublikanischer Schutzbundwas formed in response to this on 19 February 1923. From 2 April 1923 to 30 September there were violent clashes between Socialists and Nazis in Vienna. That on 2 April, referred to asSchlacht auf dem Exelberg(Battle of Exelberg), involved 300 Nazis against 90 Socialists (Steininger 2008). Further episodes occurred on 4 May and 30 September 1923. A clash between those groups inSchattendorf,Burgenland,on 30 January 1927 led to the death of a man and a child. Right-wingveteranswere indicted at a court in Vienna, but acquitted in ajury trial.This led to massive protests and a fire at theJustizpalastin Vienna. In theJuly Revolt of 1927,89 protesters were killed by the Austrian police forces.

Political conflict escalated until the early 1930s. Theelections of 1930which returned the Social Democrats as the largest bloc turned out to be the last till after World War II. On 20 May 1932,Engelbert Dollfuß,Christian Social Party Agriculture Minister becameChancellor,with a majority of one.

Dictatorship: Federal State of Austria (1933–1938)

Main article:Federal State of Austria

Engelbert Dollfuss (1933–1934)

Main article:Engelbert Dollfuss

1933: Dissolution of parliament and the formation of the Patriotic Front

Main article:Austrofascism

Dollfuss and theChristian Social Party,moved Austria rapidly towards centralized power in theFascistmodel. He was concerned thatGerman National SocialistleaderAdolf Hitlerhad becomeChancellor of Germanyon 30 January 1933, after his party had become the largest group in theparliamentand was quickly assuming absolute power. Similarly theAustrian National Socialists(DNSAP) could easily become a significant minority in future Austrian elections. Fascism scholarStanley G. Payne,estimated that if elections had been held in 1933, the DNSAP could have secured about 25% of the votes.Timemagazinesuggested an even higher level of support of 50%, with a 75% approval rate in theTyrolregion bordering Nazi Germany.The events in Austria during March 1933 echoed those ofGermany,where Hitler also effectively installed himself as dictator in the same month.

March coup d'état

On 4 March 1933, there occurred an irregularity in the parliamentary voting procedures.Karl Renner(Social Democratic Party of Austria,Sozialdemokratische Partei ÖsterreichsSPÖ), president of theNational Council(Nationalrat:lower house of parliament) resigned in order to be able to cast a vote on a controversial proposal to deal with the railroad strike that was likely to pass by a very small margin, which he was not able to do while holding that office. Consequently, the two vice-presidents representing the other parties,Rudolf Ramek(Christian Social Party) andSepp Straffner(Greater German People's Party) also resigned for the same reason. In the absence of the President the session could not be concluded.

Although there were procedural rules which could have been followed in this unprecedented and unforeseen event, theDollfusscabinet seized the opportunity to declare the parliament unable to function. While Dollfuss described this event as "self-elimination of Parliament"(Selbstausschaltung des Parliaments) it was actually the beginning of acoup d'etatthat would establish the "Ständestaat"(Austrofascism,Austrofaschismus) lasting to 1938.

Using an emergency provision enacted during theFirst World War,the Economic War Powers Act (Kriegswirtschaftliches Ermächtigungsgesetz,KWEG 24. Juli 1917 RGBl.Nr. 307) the executive assumed legislative power on 7 March and advised President Wilhelm Miklas to issue a decree adjourning it indefinitely. TheFirst Republicand democratic government therefore effectively ended in Austria, leaving Dollfuss to govern as a dictator with absolute powers. Immediate measures included removing the right of public assembly and freedom of the press. The opposition accused him of violating the constitution.

An attempt by the Greater German People's Party and the Social Democrats to reconvene the council on 15 March was prevented by barring the entrance with police and advisingPresidentWilhelm Miklasto adjourn it indefinitely. Dollfuss would have been aware thatNazitroops had seized power in neighbouringBavariaon 9 March. Finally, on 31 March, theRepublikanischer Schutzbund(paramilitary arm of the Social Democratic Party) was dissolved (but continued illegally).

Subsequent events

Dollfuss then met withBenito Mussolinifor the first time inRomeon 13 April. On 23 April, the National Socialists (DNSAP) gained 40 per cent of the vote in theInnsbruckcommunal elections, becoming the largest voting bloc, so in May all state and communal elections were banned.

On 20 May 1933, Dollfuss replaced the "Democratic Republic" with a new entity, merging his Christian Social Party with elements of other nationalist and conservative groups, including theHeimwehr,which encompassed many workers who were unhappy with the radical leadership of the socialist party, to form thePatriotic Front(Vaterländische Front), though the Heimwehr continued to exist as an independent organization until 1936, when Dollfuss' successorKurt von Schuschniggforcibly merged it into the Front, instead creating the unabidingly loyalFrontmilizas a paramilitary task force. The new entity was allegedly bipartisan and represented those who were "loyal to the government".

The DNSAP was banned in June 1933. Dollfuss was also aware of the Soviet Union's increasing influence in Europe throughout the 1920s and early 1930s, and also banned the communists, establishing a one-party Austrofascist dictatorship largely modeled after Italian fascism, tied toCatholiccorporatismandanti-secularism.He dropped all pretence of Austrian reunification with Germany so long as the Nazi Party remained in power there.

Although all Austrian parties, including the Social Democratic Labour Party (SDAPÖ) were banned, Social Democrats continued to exist as an independent organization, including its paramilitaryRepublikaner Schutzbund,which could muster tens of thousands against Dollfuss' government.

In August 1933, Mussolini's government issued a guarantee of Austrian independence ( "if necessary, Italy would defend Austria's independence by force of arms" ). Dollfuss also exchanged 'Secret Letters' with Benito Mussolini about ways to guarantee Austrian independence. Mussolini was interested in Austria forming a buffer zone against Nazi Germany. Dollfuss always stressed the similarity of the regimes of Hitler in Germany andJoseph Stalinin the Soviet Union, and was convinced that Austrofascism and Italian fascism could countertotalitariannational socialism and communism in Europe.

Dollfuss escaped an assassination attempt in October 1933 by Rudolf Dertil, a 22-year-old who had been ejected from the military for his national socialist views.

1934: Civil war and assassination

Main article:Austrian Civil War

Despite the March coup d'état, the SPÖ continued to seek a peaceful resolution, but when the newAustrofascistregime tried to search the party's office in Linz for weapons on 12 February 1934, members of theSchutzbundfought back. The resistance spread and became the Austrian Civil War, in which the weakened party and its supporters were quickly defeated and the party and its various ancillary organisations were banned.

On 1 May 1934, the Dollfuss cabinet approved a new constitution that abolished freedom of the press, established one party system and created a total state monopoly on employer-employee relations. This system remained in force until Austria became part ofNazi Germanyin 1938. The Patriotic Front government frustrated the ambitions of pro-Hitlerite sympathizers in Austria who wished both political influence and unification with Germany, leading to Dollfuss' assassination by a group of Nazis on 25 July 1934.

Kurt Schuschnigg (1934–1938)

His successorKurt Schuschniggmaintained the ban on pro-Hitlerite activities in Austria, but was forced to resign on 11 March 1938 following a demand byAdolf Hitlerfor power-sharing with pro-German circles. Following Schuschnigg's resignation, German troops occupied Austria with no resistance.

Anschluss and unification with Germany (1938–1945)

Main articles:Anschluss,Nazi Germany,andAustria under National Socialism

Although theTreaty of Versaillesand theTreaty of St. Germainhad explicitly forbidden the unification of Austria and Germany, the nativeAustrianHitlerwas vastly striving to annex Austria during the late 1930s, which was fiercely resisted by the AustrianSchuschniggdictatorship. When the conflict was escalating in early 1938, Chancellor Schuschnigg announced a plebiscite on the issue on 9 March, which was to take place on 13 March. On 12 March,German troops entered Austria,who met celebrating crowds, in order to install Nazi puppetArthur Seyss-Inquartas Chancellor. With a Nazi administration already in place the country was now integrated into Nazi Germany renamed as "Ostmark"until 1942, when it was renamed again as" Alpen-und Donau-Reichsgaue "(" Alpine and Danubian Gaue "). A riggedreferendumon 10 April was used to demonstrate the alleged approval of the annexation with a majority of 99.73% for the annexation.

As a result, Austria ceased to exist as an independent country. This annexation was enforced by military invasion but large parts of the Austrian population were in favour of the Nazi regime, and many Austrians participated in its crimes. The Jews, Communists, Socialist and hostile politicians were sent to concentration camps, murdered or forced into exile.

Just before the end of the war, on 28 March 1945, American troops set foot on Austrian soil and the Soviet Union's Red Army crossed the eastern border two days later, taking Vienna on 13 April. American and British forces occupied the western and southern regions, preventing Soviet forces from completely overrunning and controlling the country.

The Second Republic (since 1945)

Allied occupation

Main article:Allied-occupied Austria

According to the plans byWinston Churchill,a south German state would be formed includingAustriaandBavaria.

Occupation zones in Austria

However, in April 1945Karl Renner,an Austrian elder statesman, declared Austria separate from the other German-speaking lands and set up a government which included socialists, conservatives and communists. A significant number of these were returning from exile or Nazi detention, having thus played no role in the Nazi government. This contributed to the Allies' treating Austria more as a liberated, rather than defeated, country, and the government was recognized by the Allies later that year. The country was occupied by the Allies from 9 May 1945, and under theAllied Commission for Austriaestablished by an agreement on 4 July 1945, it was divided into Zones occupied respectively by American, British, French and Soviet Army personnel, with Vienna being also divided similarly into four sectors, with an International Zone at its heart.

Though under occupation, this Austrian government was officially permitted to conduct foreign relations with the approval of the Four Occupying Powers under the agreement of 28 June 1946. As part of this trend, Austria was one of the founding members of theDanube Commission,which was formed on 18 August 1948. Austria would benefit from theMarshall Plan,but economic recovery was slow.

Unlike the First Republic, which had been characterized by sometimes violent conflict between the different political groups, theSecond Republicbecame a stable democracy. The two largest leading parties, theChristian-democraticAustrian People's Party(ÖVP) and theSocial Democratic Party(SPÖ), remained in a coalition led by the ÖVP until 1966. TheCommunist Party of Austria(KPÖ), who had hardly any support in the Austrian electorate, remained in the coalition until 1950 and in parliament until the1959 election.For much of the Second Republic, the only opposition party was theFreedom Party of Austria(FPÖ), which includedGerman nationalistandliberalpolitical currents. It was founded in 1955 as a successor organisation to the short-livedFederation of Independents(VdU).

The United States countered starvation in 1945–46 with emergency supplies of food delivered by the US Army, by the United Nations Relief and Recovery Administration, (UNRRA), and by the privately organized Cooperative for American Remittances to Europe (CARE). Starting in 1947, it funded the Austrian trade deficit. Large-scale Marshall Plan aid began in 1948 and operated in close cooperation with the Austrian government. However, tensions arose when Austria—which never joined NATO—was ineligible for the American shift toward rearmament in military spending.The US was also successful in helping Austrian popular culture adopt American models. In journalism, for example, it sent in hundreds of experts (and controlled the newsprint), closed down the old party-line newspapers, introduced advertising and wire services, and trained reporters and editors, as well as production workers. It founded theWiener Kurier,which became popular, as well as many magazines such asMedical News from the United States,which informed doctors on new treatments and drugs. The Americans also thoroughly revamped the radio stations, in part with the goal of countering the Soviet-controlled stations. On an even larger scale the education system was modernized and democratized by American experts.

Independence and political development during the Second Republic

Kurt Waldheim,Secretary General ofUnited Nations.He became a president of Austria (1986–92).

The two major parties strove towards ending allied occupation and restoring a fully independent Austria. TheAustrian State Treatywas signed on 15 May 1955. Upon the termination of allied occupation, Austria wasproclaimedaneutral country,and everlasting neutrality was incorporated into theConstitutionon 26 October 1955.

The political system of the Second Republic came to be characterized by the system ofProporz,meaning that posts of some political importance were split evenly between members of the SPÖ and ÖVP. Interest group representations with mandatory membership (e.g., for workers, businesspeople, farmers etc.) grew to considerable importance and were usually consulted in the legislative process, so that hardly any legislation was passed that did not reflect widespread consensus. The Proporz and consensus systems largely held even during the years between 1966 and 1983, when there were non-coalition governments.

The ÖVP-SPÖ coalition ended in1966,when the ÖVP gained a majority in parliament. However, it lost it in1970,when SPÖ leaderBruno Kreiskyformed aminority governmenttolerated by the FPÖ. In theelections of 1971,1975and1979he obtained an absolute majority. The 70s were then seen as a time of liberal reforms insocial policy.Today, the economic policies of the Kreisky era are often criticized, as the accumulation of a largenational debtbegan, and non-profitablenationalized industrieswere strongly subsidized.

Following severe losses in the1983 elections,the SPÖ entered into a coalition with the FPÖ under the leadership ofFred Sinowatz.In Spring 1986,Kurt Waldheimwaselectedpresidentamid considerable national and international protest because of his possible involvement with theNazisandwar crimesduringWorld War II.Fred Sinowatzresigned, andFranz Vranitzkybecame chancellor.

In September 1986, in a confrontation between the German-national and liberal wings,Jörg Haiderbecame leader of the FPÖ. Chancellor Vranitzky rescinded the coalition pact between FPÖ and SPÖ, and afternew elections,entered into a coalition with the ÖVP, which was then led byAlois Mock.Jörg Haider's populism and criticism of theProporzsystem allowed him to gradually expand his party's support in elections, rising from 4% in 1983 to 27% in1999.TheGreen Partymanaged to establish itself in parliament from 1986 onwards.

Recent years

The SPÖ–ÖVP coalition persisted until 1999. Austria joined theEuropean Unionin 1995 (Video of the signing in 1994), and Austria was set on the track towards joining theEurozone,when it was established in 1999.

In 1993, theLiberal Forumwas founded by dissidents from the FPÖ. It managed to remain in parliament until 1999. Viktor Klimasucceeded Vranitzky as chancellor in 1997.

In 1999, the ÖVP fell back to third place behind the FPÖ in theelections.Even though ÖVP chairman andVice ChancellorWolfgang Schüsselhad announced that his party would go into opposition in that case, he entered into a coalition with the FPÖ—with himself as chancellor—in early 2000 under considerable national and international outcry.Jörg Haiderresigned as FPÖ chairman, but retained his post asgovernorofCarinthiaand kept substantial influence within the FPÖ.

In 2002, disputes within the FPÖ resulting from losses in state elections caused theresignation of several FPÖ government membersand a collapse of the government. Wolfgang Schüssel's ÖVP emerged as the winner of thesubsequent election,ending up in first place for the first time since 1966. The FPÖ lost more than half of its voters, but reentered the coalition with the ÖVP. Despite the new coalition, the voter support for the FPÖ continued to dwindle in all most all local and state elections. Disputes between "nationalist" and "liberals" wings of the party resulted in a split, with the founding of a new liberal party called theAlliance for the Future of Austria(BZÖ) and led by Jörg Haider. Since all FPÖ government members and most FPÖ members of parliament decided to join the new party, the Schüssel coalition remained in office (now in the constellation ÖVP–BZÖ, with the remaining FPÖ in opposition) until the next elections. On 1 October 2006 the SPÖ won ahead on head electionsand negotiated a grand coalition with the ÖVP.This coalition started its term on 11 January 2007 withAlfred Gusenbaueras Chancellor of Austria.For the first time, theGreen Party of Austriabecame the third-largest party in a nationwide election, overtaking the FPÖ by a narrow margin of only a few hundred votes.

The grand coalition headed by Alfred Gusenbauer collapsed in the early summer of 2008 over disagreements about the country's EU policy. Theearly electionsheld on 28 September resulted in extensive losses for the two ruling parties and corresponding gains forHeinz-Christian Strache's FPÖ andJörg Haider's BZÖ (the Green Party was relegated to the 5th position). Nevertheless, SPÖ and ÖVP renewed their coalition under the leadership of the new SPÖ party chairmanWerner Faymann.In 2008Jörg Haiderdied in a controversial car accidentand was succeeded as BZÖ party chairman byHerbert Scheibnerand as governor ofCarinthiabyGerhard Dörfler.

In thelegislative elections of 2013,SPÖ received 27% of the vote and 52 seats; ÖVP 24% and 47 seats, thus controlling together the majority of the seats. FPÖ received 40 seats and 21% of the votes, while the Greens received 12% and 24 seats. Two new parties, Stronach and the NEOS, received less than 10% of the vote, and 11 and nine seats respectively.

On 17 May 2016,Christian Kernfrom SPÖ was sworn in as new chancellor. He continued governing in a "grand coalition" with ÖVP. He took the office after former chancellor, also from SPÖ,Werner Faymann's resignation.

On 26 January 2017,Alexander Van der Bellenwas sworn into as the mostly ceremonial - but symbolically significant - role of Austrian president.

After the Grand Coalition broke in Spring 2017 a snap election was proclaimed forOctober 2017.ÖVP with its new young leaderSebastian Kurzemerged as the largest party in the National Council, winning 31.5% of votes and 62 of the 183 seats. SPÖ finished second with 52 seats and 26.9% votes, slightly ahead of FPÖ, which received 51 seats and 26%. NEOS finished fourth with 10 seats (5.3 percent of votes), and PILZ (which split from the Green Party at the start of the campaign) entered parliament for the first time and came in fifth place with 8 seats and 4.4% The Green Party failed with 3.8% to cross the 4% threshold and was ejected from parliament, losing all of its 24 seats.The ÖVP decided to form a coalition with the FPÖ. The new government between the centre-right wing and the right-wing populist party under the new chancellor Sebastian Kurz was sworn in on 18 December 2017,but the coalition government later collapsed in the wake of the“Ibiza” corruption scandalandnew electionswere called for 29 September 2019. The elections lead to another landslide victory (37.5%) of the Austrian People's Party (ÖVP) who formed a coalition-government with the reinvigorated (13.9%) Greens, which was sworn in with Kurz as chancellor on January 7, 2020.

On 11 October 2021, Chancellor Sebastian Kurz resigned, after pressure triggered by a corruption scandal. Foreign MinisterAlexander Schallenbergof ÖVP succeeded him as chancellor.Following a corruption scandal involving the ruling ÖVP, Austria got its third conservative chancellor in two months afterKarl Nehammerwas sworn into office on 6 December 2021. His predecessor Alexander Schallenberg had left the office after less than two months. ÖVP and the Greens continued to govern together.

See also

Articles

Austria

• Archduchy of Austria
• Austria-Hungary
• Austria under National Socialism
• Austrian Empire
• Duchy of Austria
• Elections in Austria
• Habsburg monarchy
• History of Vienna
• Name of Austria
• Politics of Austria
• Timeline of Austrian history

Other

• History of Bavaria
• History of Croatia
• History of the Czech Republic
• History of Europe
• History of Germany
• History of Hungary
• History of Italy
• History of Serbia
• History of Slovenia
• History of Slovakia
• History of Switzerland
• Holy Roman Empire
• Holy Roman Emperors
• Kingdom of Germany
• King of the Romans

Lists

• List of famous Austrians
• List of German monarchs
• List of rulers of Austria
• List of Austrian consorts
• List of Holy Roman emperors
• List of Holy Roman empresses
• List of chancellors of Austria
• List of presidents of Austria
• List of ministers-president of Austria
• List of foreign ministers of Austria-Hungary
• List of political parties in Austria

Bibliography

General

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• Brook-Shepherd, Gordon (1996).The Austrians: A Thousand-Year Odyssey.New York:Carroll & Graf Publishers.ISBN978-0-7867-0520-7.(AvailablehereatInternet Archive)
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Early

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• Oakes, Elizabeth and Eric Roman.Austria-Hungary and the Successor States: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present(2003)

Eighteenth century

• Bassett, Richard,For God and Kaiser: The Imperial Austrian Army, 1619–1918(2015)
• Beales, Derek.Joseph II vol 1: In the shadow of Maria Theresa, 1741–1780(1987);Joseph II: Volume 2, Against the World, 1780–1790(2009)
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Nineteenth century

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Modern era

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• Bukey, Evan.Hitler's Austria: Popular Sentiment in the Nazi Era, 1938–1945(2002)
• Kann, Robert A.et al.,eds.The Habsburg Empire in World War I: Essays on the Intellectual, Military, Political, and Economic Aspects of the Habsburg War Effort(1979); 12 essays by experts
• Pulzer, Peter."The Legitimizing Role of Political Parties: the Second Austrian Republic"Archived12 July 2015 at theWayback Machine,Government and Opposition(1969) Volume 4, Issue 3 July, pp. 324–344,doi:10.1111/j.1477-7053.1969.tb00804.x
• Rathkolb, Oliver.The Paradoxical Republic: Austria, 1945–2005(Berghahn Books; 2010) 301 pages). Translation of 2005 study of paradoxical aspects of Austria's political culture and society.
• Secher, H. Pierre.Bruno Kreisky, Chancellor of Austria: A political biography(Dorrance Publ., 1993).
• Steininger, Rolf, Günter Bischof, Michael Gehler (eds.)Austria In the Twentieth CenturyTransaction Publishers, 2008excerpt and text searchArchived27 December 2022 at theWayback Machine
• Thaler, Peter.The Ambivalence of Identity: The Austrian Experience of Nation-Building in a Modern Society.West Lafayette: Purdue University Press, 2001.
• University of Minnesota Center for Austrian Studies Working PapersArchived2 October 2012 at theWayback Machine

Culture

• Barzun, Jacques(18 October 2022).The Aufklärung.Encyclopædia Britannica.Retrieved10 December2022.

Politics

• Malachi Haim Hacohen.Karl Popper – The Formative Years, 1902–1945: Politics and Philosophy in Interwar Vienna.Cambridge University Press, 2002.ISBN0-521-89055-1,9780521890557
• Kirk, Timothy.Nazism and the Working Class in Austria: Industrial Unrest and Political Dissent in the 'National Community'.Cambridge University Press, 2002.ISBN0-521-52269-2,9780521522694
• Mangham, Arthur Neal.The Social Bases of Austrian Politics: the German Electoral Districts of Cisleithania, 1900–1914Archived27 December 2022 at theWayback Machine.Ph.D. thesis 1974
• Stanley Z. Pech."Political Parties among Austrian Slavs: A Comparative Analysis of the 1911 Reichsrat Election Results"Archived27 December 2022 at theWayback Machine.Canadian Slavonic Papers,Vol. 31, No. 2, Essays in Honour of Peter Brock (June, 1989), pp. 170–193
• "Demokratiezentrum Wien: Politische Entwicklung in Österreich 1918–1938"Archived4 March 2016 at theWayback Machine( "Political development in Austria 1918–1938" )
• Austria's political parties and their historyArchived14 January 2013 at theWayback Machine.City of Vienna.

European history

• The Cambridge Modern HistoryCambridge Histories Online
  • XII: The Shifting Balance of World Forces 1898–1945
• Bascom Barry Hayes.Bismarck and Mitteleuropa.Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, 1994.ISBN0-8386-3512-1,9780838635124
• L. Prakke, C. A. J. M. Kortmann (eds.)Constitutional Law of 15 EU Member States.Kluwer 2004.ISBN90-13-01255-8,9789013012552
• Norman Stone.Europe Transformed 1878–1919.Fontana, 1983ISBN0-00-634262-0,9780006342625

Habsburg Empire

• Erbe, Michael (2000).Die Habsburger 1493–1918.Urban.Kohlhammer Verlag.ISBN978-3-17-011866-9.
• Evans, R. J. W. (2006).Austria, Hungary, and the Habsburgs: Central Europe c.1683-1867.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-153586-4.
• Ingrao, Charles W.The Habsburg Monarchy, 1618–1815(2nd ed. 2000)
• Ingrao, Charles W., ed.State and Society in Early Modern Austria(1994) (Sixteenth-Eighteenth Century)
• Jelavich, Barbara (1987).Modern Austria: Empire and Republic, 1815-1986.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-31625-5.(AvailablehereatInternet Archive)
• Judson, Pieter M.The Habsburg Empire: A New History(2016). Downplays the disruptive impact of ethnic nationalism.
• Kann, Robert A.A History of the Habsburg Empire, 1526–1918(2nd ed. 1980)
• Mamatey Victor S.Rise of the Habsburg Empire: 1526–1815(1994)
• Kann, Robert A.A History of the Habsburg Empire: 1526–1918(U of California Press, 1974)
• Macartney, Carlile AylmerThe Habsburg Empire, 1790–1918,New York, Macmillan 1969.
• Ingrao, Charles.The Habsburg Monarchy, 1618–1815(2000)excerpt and text searchArchived29 March 2017 at theWayback Machine
• Kahn, Robert A.A History of the Habsburg Empire: 1526–1918(U of California Press, 1974)
• Robert John Weston Evans,The Making of the Habsburg Monarchy, 1550–1700: An Interpretation,Oxford University Press, 1979.ISBN0-19-873085-3.
• Schönbrunn (2022)."Die Welt der Habsburger"[The World of the Habsburgs].Die Welt der Habsburger.Schönbrunn Group.Retrieved8 December2022.
  • Gruber, Stephan (2022)."The peace-loving mother-figure versus the neurotic megalomaniac?".,inSchönbrunn (2022)
  • Mutschlechner, Martin (2022)."The dark side of Maria Theresa".,inSchönbrunn (2022)

External links

• History of Austria: Primary Documents
• HABSBURG,an e-mail discussion list dealing with the culture and history of the Habsburg monarchy and its successor states in central Europe since 1500, with discussions, syllabi, book reviews, queries, conferences; edited daily by scholars since 1994
• Gustav Spann: Fahne, Staatswappen und Bundeshymne der Republik ÖsterreichArchived21 February 2016 at theWayback Machine(Flag, Coat of Arms and Federal Hymn of the Republic of Austria) (pdf; 4.7 MB)
• www.akustische-chronik.at – Multimedia Chronicle of Austria 1900–2000 (Österreichische Mediathek)
• www.staatsvertrag.at – An acoustic web exhibition (Österreichische Mediathek)
• DieOstarrichi-Urkunde,"digitalised image".Photograph Archive of Old Original Documents (Lichtbildarchiv älterer Originalurkunden).University of Marburg.
• Ernst Hanisch:Österreich – Die Dominanz des Staates. Zeitgeschichte im Drehkreuz von Politik und WissenschaftArchived11 August 2020 at theWayback Machine.Version: 1.0, in:Docupedia Zeitgeschichte,22 March 2011
• TheCIA World Factbook
• U.S. State Departmentwebsite