History of Christian universalism

InChristian theology,universal reconciliation(also calleduniversal salvation,Christian universalism,or in context simplyuniversalism) is the doctrine that allsinfuland alienated humansouls—because ofdivine love and mercy—will ultimately bereconciledtoGod.The doctrine has been rejected by most mainstream Christian churches, which tend to maintain at least the possibility that many are not saved, but it has received support from many prestigious Christian thinkers as well as many groups of Christians. It has been argued that theBibleitself has a variety of verses that seem to support a plurality of views.

Universal salvation may be related to the perception of aproblem of Hell,standing opposed to ideas such as endless conscious torment inHell,but may also include a period of finite punishment similar to a state ofpurgatory.Believers in universal reconciliation may support the view that while there may be a real "Hell" of some kind, it is neither a place of endless suffering nor a place where the spirits of human beings are ultimately "annihilated" after enduring the just amount ofdivine retribution.

The concept ofreconciliationis related to the concept ofsalvation—i.e., salvation from spiritual and eventually physical death—such that the term "universal salvation" is functionally equivalent. Universalists espouse various theological beliefs concerning the process or state of salvation, but all adhere to the view that salvation history concludes with the reconciliation of the entire human race to God. Many adherents assert that thesuffering and crucifixion of Jesus Christconstitute the mechanism that providesredemptionfor all humanity andatonementfor allsins.

ModernUnitarian Universalismemerged in part from theUniversalist Churchbut, being a non-credal faith, it holds no official doctrinal positions. Universal reconciliation, however, remains a popular viewpoint among many of its congregations and individual believers, including many who have not associated with the Universalist Church.

An alternative to universal reconciliation is the doctrine ofannihilationism,often in combination withChristian conditionalism.Some Christian leaders, such as influential German theologianMartin Luther,have hypothesized other concepts such as"spiritual mortalism" or "soul death".

Biblical background

See also:Soteriology

As David Fisher, a bishop and professor of philosophy has put it, "In the final analysis, the question of salvation is always an inquiry into the balancing of human free will with God's mercy and forgiveness."The Bibleitself has, as referred to before, a variety of verses on the subjectthat appear to be contradictoryif not given additional reader interpretation. Influential theologiansEmil BrunnerandJ.A.T. Robinsonargue that these verses can be put into two distinct categories: damnation for some or eventual reconciliation for all.

The traditional view held by Christianorganized religioncomes from a variety of Biblical citations. It is stated inJohn 3:36(NIV), "Whoever believes in the Son has eternal life, but whoever rejects the Son will not see life, for God's wrath remains on them."Also,2 Thessalonians 1:8–9(NIV) declares, "Those who do not know God and do not obey the gospel of our Lord Jesus, they will be punished with everlasting destruction and shut out from the presence of the Lord and from the glory of his might."

TheGospel of Lukestatement by Jesus about salvation being a "narrow" doorway is often quoted, with Luke 13:23–25 reading:

"Someone asked him, 'Lord, are only a few people going to be saved?' He said to them, 'Make every effort to enter through the narrow door, because many, I tell you, will try to enter and will not be able to.' Once the owner of the house gets up and closes the door, you will stand outside knocking and pleading, 'Sir, open the door for us.' But he will answer, 'I don't know you or where you come from.'"

Books of the Bible argued to possibly support the idea of full reconciliation include theFirst Epistle to the Corinthians.The sections of 1 Corinthians 15:22, "As all die in Adam, so all will be made alive in Christ", and 1 Corinthians 15:28, "God will be all in all", are cited.Verses that seem to contradict the tradition of complete damnation and come up in arguments also includeLamentations 3:31–33(NIV), "For no one is cast off by the Lord forever. Though he brings grief, he will show compassion, so great is his unfailing love",and1 Timothy 4:10(NIV), "We have put our hope in the living God, who is the Savior of all people, and especially of those who believe."

As well, theEpistle to the Colossiansreceives attention,with Colossians 1:17–20 reading:

"He is before all things, and in Him all things hold together. And He is the head of the body, the church; He is the beginning and the firstborn from among the dead, so that in everything He might have the supremacy. For God was pleased to have all His fullness dwell in Him, and through Him to reconcile to Himself all things, whether things on earth or things in heaven, by making peace through His blood, shed on the cross."

Development of universalist arguments

Broadly speaking, most historical advocates of Christian universalism throughout the years (and many now still) did so from the perspective of accepting the traditionalBiblical canonasdivinely inspiredand without transcription error but rejecting strictBiblical literalism,practicing detailedexegesisof the texts. The advocates have argued that the apparent contradiction between Bible verses that describe God eventually reconciling humanity to goodness (such as in theEpistle to the Ephesians) with those that describe damnation to most of humanity (such as in theBook of Revelation) is that threats of long-term punishment function just as threats, not necessarily as predictions of future events, that will not be actually carried out. Advocates have also argued that suffering of sinners in hell or hell-like states will be long but still limited, not eternal (Apocatastasis).

However,liberal and progressive Christianshave often argued that the teachings of thehistorical Jesusdid not mention exclusive salvation for a select few and have altogether rejected many sections of the Bible written by figures decades after the life of Jesus as man-made inventions that are to be taken with a grain of salt.

While not being a universalist per se, influential Christian philosopherKarl Barth,often regarded as the greatest Protestant theologian of the twentieth century,spoke for a great deal of broadly traditional Christians when he wrote that salvation is centrally Christological. He asserted that in Jesus Christ, the reconciliation of all of mankind to God has essentially already taken place and that through Christ man is already elect and justified. Therefore, eternal salvation for everyone, even those that reject God, is a possibility that is more than an open question but should be hoped for by Christians as a matter ofgrace.

Responses

One recurrent objection to universalism made by many has been that having a deep-rooted belief in eternal torment as a possibility is a necessary deterrent from living animmoral life.

Universalists have often responded that punishments for sin can function well without being eternal, especially in the afterlife when one can face severe treatment first before one eventually gets to heaven.

History

Eternal punishment did not appear in official creeds until thepseudo-Athanasian Creedin the late 5th century, when all admit that endless hell's popularity was on the rise. Contrary to Bauckham, it is unknown which view (of endless hell, annihilation, or correctional hell) was most prevalent in the early Church. The doctrine of endless torment does not seem to have been as indispensable to Christian belief back then as, for example, theTrinityandIncarnation.That is shown by the early 5th century statements of St.Augustine of Hippo,a most formidable advocate of the endless hell view, who admitted that "very many"Christians saw hell as correctional and temporary and who considered his argument with them an "amicable controversy".St.Jeromeattested around the same time that "many" believed that even the devil "will repent and be restored to his former place."

Early Christianity

According toEdward BeecherandGeorge T. Knight,in the first 600 years of Christian history there were six main theological schools on hell: four of them were universalist, one taughtannihilationismand the last taught endless torment.Many early Church Fathers have been quoted as either embracing or hoping for the ultimate reconciliation of God with His creation.The concept of a final restoration of all souls particularly had large appeal in the East during the fourth and fifth centuries.Marcion,adocetistwho was condemned as a heretic, formulated universalistic theories about God.

Alexandria

The most important school of Universalist thought was theDidascaliumin Alexandria, Egypt, which was founded bySaint Pantaenusin about 190.Alexandria was the centre of learning and intellectual discourse in the ancient Mediterranean world, and it was the theological centre of gravity of Christianity prior to the rise of the Roman Church.

Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 – c. 215)

The UniversalistsHosea Ballou(1829),Thomas Whittemore(1830),John Wesley Hanson(1899) andGeorge T. Knight(1911) claimed thatClement of Alexandriaexpressed universalist positions inearly Christianity.Such claims have always been controversial.Some scholars believe that Clement used the termapocatastasisto refer primarily to the restoration of a select few, but with universal implications.Brian E. Daleywrites that Clement viewed "punishment after death as a medicinal and therefore temporary measure" and that he suggested "with great caution the related prospect of universal salvation for all intelligent creatures", for example in hisStromateis,Book VII, Chapter 2.

Origen,traditionally considered a 3rd-century proponent of Universal Reconciliation

Origen (c. 185 – 254)

According to Daley, Origen was firmly convinced that "all human souls will ultimately be saved" and "united to God forever in loving contemplation" and that this is "an indispensable part of the 'end' promised by Paul in I Cor 15.24–28." Daley also notes that Origen sometimes called this final state of universal salvationἀποκατάστασιςand suggested it was already a familiar concept to his readers.

Fredrick W. Norris maintained, however, that Origen may not have strongly believed in universal reconciliation at all. In an article onapocatastasisinThe Westminster handbook to Origen(2004) he wrote, "As far as we can tell, therefore, Origen never decided to stress exclusive salvation or universal salvation, to the strict exclusion of either case."

Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335 – 390s)

Gregory of Nyssa, who was declared "the father of fathers" by theSeventh Ecumenical Council,is interpreted by many scholars as a proponent of universal salvation

Gregory stated, "when death approaches to life, and darkness to light, and the corruptible to the incorruptible, the inferior is done away with and reduced to non-existence, and the thing purged is benefited, just as the dross is purged from gold by fire. In the same way in the long circuits of time, when the evil of nature which is now mingled and implanted in them has been taken away, whensoever the restoration to their old condition of the things that now lie in wickedness takes place, there will be a unanimous thanksgiving from the whole creation, both of those who have been punished in the purification and of those who have not at all needed purification."

6th century – Ecumenical condemnation of universalism?

Apocatastasis was interpreted by 19th-century Universalists such asHosea Ballou(1842) to be the same as the beliefs of theUniversalist Church of America.However, until the middle of the 6th century, the word had a broader meaning. While it applied to a number of doctrines regarding salvation, it also referred to a return to both a location and an original condition. Thus, the Greek word's application was originally broad and metaphorical.Many heteroclite views became associated with Origen, and the 15 anathemas against him attributed to theSecond Council of Constantinoplecondemned a form of apocatastasis, along with thepre-existence of the soul,animism, a heterodox Christology, and a denial of real and lasting resurrection of the body. Some authorities believe that the anathemas belong to an earlier local synod.

The New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia claims that the Fifth Ecumenical Council was contested as being an official and authorized Ecumenical Council since it was established not by the Pope but the Emperor since the Pope resisted it. The Fifth Ecumenical Council addressed what was called "The Three Chapters"and was against a form of Origenism that had nothing to do with Origen and Origenist views. Popes Vigilius, Pelagius I (556–61), Pelagius II (579–90), and Gregory the Great (590–604) were aware only that the Fifth Council specifically dealt with the Three Chapters, and they neither mentioned Origenism or Universalism and nor spoke as if they knew of its condemnation even though Gregory the Great was opposed to the belief of universalism.ScholarRichard Bauckhamstated that while universalism appeared "discredited" because of scholarly resistance to Origen's view, it "seems in doubt" if the Fifth Ecumenical Council specifically endorsed any negative view of it.

7th century – Isaac of Nineveh

The universal reconciliation was strongly advocated in the writings of St.Isaac the Syrian,a monastic theologian and bishop ofNineveh.

Middle Ages

The UniversalistJohn Wesley Hansonstated that even after eternal hell became the normative position of the Church, there were still some Christian thinkers during theMiddle Ageswho embraced Universalist ideas. In hisSchaffarticleGeorge T. Knightstated that "maybe"Johannes Scotus Eriugena,Johannes Tauler,Blessed John of RuysbroeckandBlessed Julian of Norwichhad Universalist leanings.

Solomon of Akhlat, a thirteenth-century bishop of theChurch of the East,defended universalism in hisBook of the Bee,mostly basing himself on citations ofIsaac of Nineveh,Theodore of Mopsuestia,andDiodorus of Tarsus.David Bentley Hartconfirms this and adds thatTimotheus II,a fourteenth-century patriarch of the said church, "thought it uncontroversial to assert that the aiōnios pains of hell will come to an end when the souls cleansed by them, through the prayers of the saints, enter paradise."

16th century – Reformation era

Although figures such asErasmusrekindled interests in the GreekChurch Fathers,and early advocates of universal salvation, such as Origen, became more broadly known as new editions of their writings were published, the universal restoration was not a doctrine that mainstreamReformerswished to restore. Nonetheless, even as theAugsburg Confessionpromulgates endless torment, it suggests that at least someAnabaptistsheld to universalism: "They condemn the Anabaptists, who think that there will be an end to the punishments of condemned men and devils."

The period between the Reformation and theAge of Enlightenmentfeatured extended debates about salvation and hell.The main controversy during this period was between the majority, who believed in theimmortal souland eternal punishment in hell (such as Calvin), and a minority, including Luther, who believed insoul sleep.Joachim Vadian and Johann Kessler accused the German AnabaptistHans Denckof teaching universal salvation, but he denied it, and recent research suggests that he in fact did not teach it.Hans Hutwas deeply influenced by Denck, but there is no evidence that he spread the doctrine of universalism.

17th century

The 17th century saw a resurgence of Christian universalism:

• Gerrard Winstanley,The Mysterie of God Concerning the Whole Creation, Mankinde(London, 1648).
• Richard Coppin,A hint of the glorious mysterie of the divine teachings(1649), defended at Worcester Assizes, 1652.
• Jane Leade,A Revelation of the Everlasting Gospel Message(1697).
• Jeremiah White,chaplain toOliver Cromwell,wrote a book,The Restoration of all things,which was published posthumously in 1712 after his death in 1707.

Prominent universalists of this time also include theCambridge Platonistsin 17th-century England such asPeter Sterry.

The rise of ideologicalCalvinism,which taught that God neither sought out nor wanted salvation for all mankind and strictly held that divineomnipotencemeant that God created those that he foresaw damnation for without mercy, fueled an intellectual counterreaction in which universalist-like doctrines that God intended all of humanity to be saved and will extend grace to most of humanity gained appeal.ArminianismandQuakerdoctrine received much attention, but Christian universalism was still a fringe phenomenon in terms of scholarly thinking at the time.

18th century in Great Britain

Biblical scholarRichard Bauckhamoffered an academic survey of the history of the re-arising of the belief in Universal Salvation:

The history of the doctrine of universal salvation (orapokatastasis) is a remarkable one. Until the nineteenth century almost all Christian theologians taught the reality of eternal torment in hell. Here and there, outside the theological mainstream, were some who believed that the wicked would be finally annihilated (in its commonest form, this is the doctrine of 'conditional immortality').Even fewer were the advocates of universal salvation, though these few included some major theologians of the early church. Eternal punishment was firmly asserted in official creeds and confessions of the churches. It must have seemed as indispensable a part of universal Christian belief as the doctrines of the Trinity and the incarnation. Since 1800 this situation has entirely changed, and no traditional Christian doctrine has been so widely abandoned as that of eternal punishment. Its advocates among theologians today must be fewer than ever before. The alternative interpretation of hell as annihilation seems to have prevailed even among many of the more conservative theologians. Among theless conservative,universal salvation, either as hope or as dogma, is now so widely accepted that many theologians assume it virtually without argument.

George Whitfield,in a letter toJohn Wesley,wrote thatPeter Bohler,a bishop in the Moravian Church, had privately confessed in a letter that "all the damned souls would hereafter be brought out of hell".William LawinAn Humble, Earnest, and Affectionate Address to the Clergy(1761),anAnglican,andJames Relly,a Welsh Methodist, were other significant 18th-century Protestant leaders who believed in Universalism.

In 1843, the Universalist Rev J. M. Day published an article "Was John Wesley a Restorationist?" in theUniversalist Unionmagazine, suggesting thatJohn Wesley(d. 1791) had made a private conversion to Universalism in his last years but had kept it secret. Biographers of Wesley reject that claim.

18th century in North America

The 18th century saw the establishment of theUniversalist Church in America,in part by the efforts ofHosea Ballou.

Universalism was brought to the North American colonies in the early 18th century by the English-born physicianGeorge de Benneville,who was attracted by Pennsylvania's Quaker tolerance. North American universalism was active and organized. That was seen as a threat by the orthodox,CalvinistCongregationalists of New England such asJonathan Edwards,who wrote prolifically against universalist teachings and preachers.John Murray(1741–1815)andElhanan Winchester(1751–1797) are usually credited as founders of the modern Universalist movement and founding teachers of universal salvation.Early American Universalists such asElhanan Winchestercontinued to preach the punishment of souls prior to eventual salvation.

19th century

The 19th century was the heyday ofChristian universalismand theUniversalist Church of America.

The famous German philosopherFriedrich Schleiermacherbecame one of the most well-known religious thinkers to teach universalism. Though he somewhat sharedJohn Calvin's view ofpredestination,he interpreted the concept of an all-determining will of God to mean that through God's might, power, and foresight, humanity as a whole is fundamentally united in God's view and that every single person will eventually be drawn into His irresistible influence.

Other examples include English theologianHenry Bristow Wilson,who took somewhat of a universalist viewpoint in his part of the famous 1860 workEssays and Reviewsand became condemned in theCourt of Arches(anecclesiastical courtof theChurch of England), only to soon receive vindication when theLord Chancelloroverturned that condemnation.Frederic Farrar's famous series of sermons inWestminster Abbeyin 1877, published in print asEternal Hopea year later, disputed the traditional views of damnation and punishment.

20th century

While highly influential Protestant theologiansKarl BarthandEmil Brunnerdid not strictly identify as universalists, both wrote in detail about how they viewed complete salvation extended to every single member of mankind as being not just a distinct possibility but as something that should be hoped for by all Christians.

TheUniversalist Church of Americamerged with theAmerican Unitarian Associationin 1961 to form theUnitarian Universalists.

Hans Urs von Balthasarwrote a small book addressing the virtuous hope for universalism, as well as its origin in Origen,Dare We Hope "That All Men Be Saved"?.He also addressed the relationship between love and universalism inLove Alone is Credible.

Adolph E. KnochandWilliam Barclaywere universalists. In 1919, the SwissF. L. Alexandre Freytagled a breakaway group of theBible Student movement.

Children's authorMadeleine L'Engle(A Wrinkle in Time) was an advocate of universalism,which led several Christian retail outlets to refuse to stock her books.

21st century

Christian Universalismcontinues as an influence within not onlyUnitarian Universalismbut alsoTrinitarian Universalism.

In 2004, the Pentecostal bishopCarlton Pearsonreceived notoriety when he was officially declared a heretic by the Joint College of African-American Pentecostal Bishops. Bishop Pearson, who had attendedOral Roberts University,aCharismatic Christiancollege, formally declared his belief in the doctrine of universal salvation. His church, called the New Dimensions Church, adopted that doctrine (that is, those who remained, since a significant majority of the church's original membership left),and in 2008, the congregation was merged intoAll Souls Unitarian ChurchinTulsa, Oklahoma,one of the largest Unitarian Universalist congregations in the world.

The Evangelical Universalist: The Biblical Hope That God's Love Will Save us All,by "Gregory MacDonald", was published in 2006. "Gregory MacDonald" is a pen name, and the book's author was later revealed to beRobin Parry.The same author is also a coeditor of a 2003 compilation,Universal Salvation? The Current Debate,and of a 2010 book,All Shall Be Well,which reviews the doctrine of universal salvation from Origen to Moltmann.

On May 17, 2007, the Christian Universalist Association was founded at the historic Universalist National Memorial Church inWashington, DC.That was a move to distinguish the modernChristian Universalistmovement fromUnitarian Universalismand to promote ecumenical unity among Christian believers in universal reconciliation.

American religious studies scholar and theologianDavid Bentley Hart

In 2008, theRussian Orthodoxscholar-bishopHilarion AlfeyevofVolokolamsk,in his presentation at the First World Apostolic Congress of Divine Mercy (held in Rome in 2008), argued that God's mercy is so great that He does not condemn sinners to everlasting punishment. He said that the Orthodox understanding of Hell corresponds roughly to theRoman Catholicnotion of purgatory.AmericanEastern OrthodoxtheologianDavid Bentley Harthas also argued for the coherence of the universalist position, most notably inThat All Shall Be Saved: Heaven, Hell, and Universal Salvation(2019).

In her massive 2013 monographThe Christian Doctrine of Apokatastasis, A Critical Assessment from the New Testament to Eriugena,Ilaria L.E. Ramelliargues that apokatastasis (restoration) is a major patristic doctrine stemming from Greek philosophy and Jewish-Christian Scriptures. She makes the case for its presence and Christological and Biblical foundation in many Fathers, analysing its meaning and development from the birth of Christianity to Eriugena.

Contemporary Conservative Evangelical teachers of ultimate reconciliation includeThomas Talbottand J.D. Leavitt, founder of Heavenly Faith.

Two Christian theologians of the 20th and 21st centuries who wrote in support of universalism and have received major notice areJ.A.T. RobinsonandJohn Hick.Both argued for universalism as coming from God's nature as being of omnipotent love and stated that as time went on after death, some would temporarily refuse to repent, but none would refuse to repent forever. Hick, in particular, stated that the seemingly contradictory nature of the Bible's references to damnation came about because the warnings of hell are conditional to warn men about eternal suffering if they permanently refuse to repent, but nobody would actually make that choice.

See also

• Christian mysticism
• Love of Christ
• Love of God
• Panentheism
• Philosophical theology
• Restorative justice
• Limited atonement
• Unlimited atonement
• Apocatastasis