History of Kannur

Kannur(pronounced[kɐɳːuːr]^ⓘ), formerly known in English asCannanore,ArabicasKannanur,^[1]andPortugueseasCananor,^[2]is acityand a Municipal Corporation inNorth Malabarregion,stateofKerala,India. It is the largest city inNorth Malabar,which is the northernmost region of Kerala. It is sometimes identifiedKolathunadu,which was ruled by theKolathiris.In the 12th and 13th centuries there was trade withPersiaandArabia.

It served as theBritishmilitary headquarters on India's west coast until 1887. In conjunction with her sister city,Tellicherry,it was the third largest city on the western coast of British India in the 18th century afterBombayandKarachi.

Early history

The earliest evidence of human habitation in the district are rock-cut caves and megalithic burial sites of theNeolithicage. TheTaliparamba-Kannur-Thalasseryarea abounds in rock-cut caves,dolmens,burial stone circles andmenhirs,all ofmegalith.Ezhimalawas the headquarters of a powerful kingdom namelyMushika dynastyin the ancient period.^[3]Later Kannur was the capital of theKolattiri Rajas,whose kingdom had trading relations withArabiaandPersiain the 12th century and 13th centuries. In his book on travels (Il Milione),Marco Polorecounts his visit to the area in the mid 1290s. Other visitors includedFaxian,the Buddhist pilgrim andIbn Batuta,writer and historian ofTangiers.

A popular legend holds that the ships of Solomon had anchored along the coasts of Kannur to collect teak for building theTemple of the Lord.Kannur also finds mention asNaurain thePeriplus of the Erythraean Sea,aGreekwork of great antiquity.

North Malabarwas the seat of powerful kingdom based atEzhimalain theSangam period(1st-5th century CE). The ancient port ofNaura,which is mentioned in thePeriplus of the Erythraean Seaas a port somewhere north ofMuzirisis identified withKannur.^[3]The kingdom ofEzhimalahad jurisdiction over twoNadus - The coastalPoozhinaduand the hilly easternKarkanadu.According to the works ofSangam literature,Poozhinaduconsisted much of the coastal belt betweenMangaloreandKozhikode.^[4]Karkanaduconsisted ofWayanad-Gudalurhilly region with parts ofKodagu(Coorg).^[5]It is said that Nannan, the most renowned ruler ofEzhimaladynasty, took refuge atWayanadhills in the 5th century CE when he was lost toCheras,just before his execution in a battle, according to theSangam works.^[5]

Pliny the Elder(1st century CE) states that the port ofTyndiswas located at the northwestern border ofKeprobotos(Chera dynasty).^[6]TheNorth Malabarregion, which lies north of the port atTyndis,was ruled by the kingdom ofEzhimaladuringSangam period.^[7]According to thePeriplus of the Erythraean Sea,a region known asLimyrikebegan atNauraandTyndis.However thePtolemymentions onlyTyndisas theLimyrike's starting point. The region probably ended atKanyakumari;it thus roughly corresponds to the present-dayMalabar Coast.The value of Rome's annual trade with the region was estimated at around 50,000,000sesterces.^[8]Pliny the Eldermentioned thatLimyrikewas prone by pirates.^[9]TheCosmas Indicopleustesmentioned that theLimyrikewas a source of peppers.^[10]^[11]

According toKerala Muslimtradition,Kannuralong with surroundingMadayiandDharmadomwere home to three of theoldest mosquesin theIndian subcontinent.According to theLegend of Cheraman Perumals,the first Indian mosque was built in 624 AD at Kodungallur with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) ofChera dynasty,who left fromDharmadomtoMeccaand converted toIslamduring the lifetime ofMuhammad(c. 570–632).^[12]^[13]^[14]^[15]According toQissat Shakarwati Farmad,theMasjidsat Kodungallur,Kollam,Madayi,Barkur,Mangalore,Kasaragod,Kannur,Dharmadam,Panthalayani,andChaliyam,were built during the era ofMalik Dinar,and they are among the oldestMasjids in theIndian subcontinent.^[16]It is believed thatMalik Dinardied atThalangarainKasaragodtown.^[17]

Ezhimala kingdom was succeeded byMushika dynastyin the early medieval period, most possibly due to the migration ofTuluva BrahminsfromTulu Nadu.TheMushika-vamshaMahakavya,written byAthulain the 11th century, throws light on the recorded past of theMushika Royal Familyup until that point.^[18]The Indian anthropologistAyinapalli Aiyappanstates that a powerful and warlike clan of theBunt communityofTulu Naduwas calledKola Bariand the Kolathiri Raja of Kolathunadu was a descendant of this clan.^[19]The Kolathunadu (Kannur) Kingdom, who were the descendants ofMushika dynasty,at the peak of its power reportedly extended fromNetravati River(Mangalore) in the north^[18]toKorapuzha(Kozhikode) in the south withArabian Seaon the west andKodaguhills on the eastern boundary, also including the isolated islands ofLakshadweepinArabian Sea.^[4] AnOld Malayalaminscription (Ramanthali inscriptions), dated to 1075 CE, mentioning king Kunda Alupa, the ruler ofAlupa dynastyofMangalore,can be found atEzhimala(the former headquarters ofMushika dynasty) nearCannanore,Kerala.^[20]TheArabicinscription on a copper slab within theMadayi MosqueinKannurrecords its foundation year as 1124 CE.^[21]

Until the 16th century CE, theKasargodtown was known by the nameKanhirakode(may be by the meaning, 'The land ofKanhiraTrees') inMalayalam.^[1]TheKumbladynasty, who swayed over the land of southernTulu Naduwedged betweenChandragiri RiverandNetravati River(including present-day Taluks ofManjeshwarandKasaragod) fromMaipady PalaceatKumbla,had also been vassals to theKolathunadu,before theCarnaticconquests ofVijayanagara Empire.^[22]The Kumbla dynasty had a mixed lineage ofMalayali NairsandTuluva Brahmins.^[3]They also claimed their origin fromCheraman Perumalsof Kerala.^[3]Francis Buchanan-Hamiltonstates that the customs of Kumbla dynasty were similar to those of the contemporaryMalayalikings, though Kumbla was considered as the southernmost region ofTulu Nadu.^[3]Just like other contemporary kings of Kerala in the medieval period, The powerful Kolathu Raja also came under the influence ofZamorinlater. TheKolathunaduin the late medieval period emerged into independent 10 principalities i.e.,Kadathanadu(Vadakara),Randatharaor Poyanad (Dharmadom),Kottayam(Thalassery),Nileshwaram,Iruvazhinadu (Panoor,Kurumbranadetc., under separate royal chieftains due to the outcome of internal dissensions.^[23]TheNileshwaramdynasty on the northernmost part ofKolathiridominion, were relatives to both Kolathunadu as well as theZamorinofCalicut,in the early medieval period.^[24]

ThePortugueseexplorerVasco da Gamavisited Kannur in 1498. Kannur became the sight of a confrontation between theOttoman Turksand thePortuguese Empire,shortly thereafter it became a Portuguese settlement. The port atKozhikodeheld the superior economic and political position in medieval Kerala coast, whileKannur,Kollam,andKochi,were commercially important secondary ports, where the traders from various parts of the world would gather.^[25]

The Portuguese arrived atKappad Kozhikodein 1498 during theAge of Discovery,thus opening a direct sea route fromEuropetoIndia.^[26]The Portuguese led byDon Francisco de Almeda,the first Portuguese viceroy for India, built theSt. Angelo's Fortnorth of Kannur in 1505. In 1663 the Dutch captured the fort. In 1790 the British captured the fort. At present, it is under the control of theArchaeological Survey of India.The island ofDharmadomnear Kannur, along withThalassery,was ceded to theEast India Companyas early as 1734, which were claimed by all of theKolattu Rajas,Kottayam Rajas,andArakkal Bibiin the late medieval period, where the British initiated a factory and English settlement following thecession.^[27]^[23]In the latter half of the 18th century,Hyder AliandTipu Sultan,rulers ofMysore,conquered much of the district and came into conflict with the British. In 1792, at the conclusion of theThird Anglo-Mysore War,the British took over Kannur and the surrounding region, which became the newMalabar DistrictofBritish India'sMadras Presidency.During the 17th century, Kannur was the capital city of the onlyMuslimSultanate in the Malabar region -Arakkal- who also ruled theLaccadive Islandsin addition to the city of Kannur.^[28]Arakkal KingdomandChirakkal kingdomwere two vassal kingdoms based in the city of Kannur.

In 1761, the British capturedMahé,and the settlement was handed over to the ruler ofKadathanadu.^[29]The British restoredMahéto the French as a part of the 1763 Treaty of Paris.^[29]In 1779, the Anglo-French war broke out, resulting in the French loss ofMahé.^[29]In 1783, the British agreed to restore to the French their settlements in India, andMahéwas handed over to the French in 1785.^[29]

Resistance to British rule

Kannur District witnessed one of the longest and bloodiest resistance to British rule in India. Initially the British had to suffer local resistance against their rule under the leadership ofKerala Varma Pazhassi Raja,who had popular support inThalassery-Wayanadregion.^[3]This revolt led byPazhassi Rajain the 1792–1806 period kept a large part of the district in a state of war.

Indian freedom movement

Kannur District played an important role in the Indian freedom movement. TheIndian National Congress,founded in 1885, established aMalabar Districtcommittee in 1908. A branch of theAll India Home Rule League,founded byDr. Annie Besant,functioned inThalasseryduring this period and among its active workers wasV.K. Krishna Menon.By the end of 1939, a branch of theCommunist Party of Indiawas formally established at Pinarayi, a village near Thalassery. The decision by theNagpurCongress to give up constitutional methods of agitation and resort to non-violent non-co-operation as a means of achievingswarajled to the widespread boycott of foreign goods, courts of law and educational institutions in Kannur.Mahatma GandhiandMaulana Shaukat Alitoured the district to carry the message of the Non-Co-operation andKhilafat Movements.The Khilafat movement of 1921 was an uprising of Muslims against the British for abolishing the Islamic Chaliphate in West Asia and resulted in the formation of a secular Turkey.

Civil disobedience movement

Payyannur was the main venue of theSalt Satyagraha,a major turning point in the Indian Freedom Movement, in Malabar. On 13 April 1930, a batch of Congress volunteers under the leadership ofK. Kelappanstarted on foot fromKozhikodeto the beaches of Payyannur and broke the salt laws there on 21 April. TheSatyagrahacamp at Payyannur was raided and the campers were beaten up. The Uliyath Kadav Payyanur incident became a turning point in the history of freedom struggle in Kerala. It thrilled the people and thousands were ready to join in the struggle for freedom. The speeches ofK. Kumar,the leader of the delegation that came from Travancore, inspired and energised thousands^[30]^[31]There were widespread demonstrations in Kannur, Thalassery and other parts of the district and a number of Congress workers were arrested. The period following the withdrawal of thecivil disobedienceMovement witnessed the emergence ofradicalwing in the Kerala Provincial Congress.

Some of the radical elements in the Kerala Provincial Congress organized a Kerala unit of theCongress Socialist Partyin 1934 and functioned as a separate group within the Provincial Congress. The leadership of this group was in the hands of people likeP. Krishna Pillai,A.K. GopalanandE. M. S. Namboodiripad.K.V.Kunhikkannan Nair of Kadachira, Kannur, a socialist leader. Anextremistgroup ofNationalistMuslims emerged within the Congress during this period under the leadership of Muhammad Abdur Rahiman. The CongressSocialistsand the Nationalist Muslims made common cause against theGandhiangroup known as theRight Wingwhich was led by such leaders asK. Kelappan,C.K. Govindan Nair and K.A. Damodara Menon.

A notable development in the politics of Malabar during the 1930s was the rise of theMuslim Leagueas a district political party. The Muslim leaders Kannur and Thalassery played the lead roles in forming this organization. Theleftistelements in the Kerala Provincial Congress were also active in the politics of Malabar in the late 30s. They took an active part in organizing the workers, peasants, students and teachers of Kannur district under their banner. In the election held to theKerala Pradesh Congress Committeein January 1939, the Rightists suffered a severe setback.Muhammad Abdur Rahiman Sahibwas elected as the president of the K.P.C.C andE. M. S. Namboodiripadas its general secretary. Towards the end of the same year, a branch of theIndian Communist Partywas formally founded in Malabar. TheCongress Socialist Partyworkers joined the Communist Party en bloc.

Payyanur Conference

Kannur district became the focus of Kerala politics in May 1928, when the fourth All Kerala Political Conference was held at Payyanur under the auspices of the Kerala Provincial Congress. This conference was presided over by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru. The Payyanur Conference passed a resolution requesting the Indian National Congress to adopt 'Complete Independence' instead of "Swaraj" as its goal at the annual session scheduled to take place at Calcutta during that year.

Morazha Incident

The KPCC gave a call to the people ofMalabarto observe 15 September 1940 asAnti-ImperialistDay. The action was disapproved by the Congress High Command, but there were meetings and demonstrations all over Malabar on this day. Kannur district was the centre of this agitation. There were violent clashes between the people and the police at several places andlathichargeand firing were resorted to by the police to meet the situation. Two young men were killed in a clash between a mob and a police party at Morazha. The men were police officersSub-InspectorK.M Kuttikrishna Menon andConstableRaman. In connection with this incident,K.P.R. Gopalan,a prominent communist, was arrested on a charge of murder and later sentenced to death. But, owing to the intervention of several top-ranking political leaders, including Mahatma Gandhi, the death penalty was not carried out.

TheQuit India Movementof August 1942 also had its echoes in Kannur district. A socialist group among the Congress workers underDr. K. B. Menonprovided leadership to the movement.

Salt Sathyagraha

Payyannur was the main venue of the Salt Sathyagraha in Malabar. On 13 April, a batch of Congress volunteers under the leadership of K. Kelappan started on foot from Kozhikode to the beaches of Payyannur and broke the salt laws there on 21 April. The Satyagraha camp at Payyannur was raided and the campers were beaten up. There were widespread demonstrations in Kannur, Thalassery and other places. Congress workers broke salt laws and picketed foreign good dealers and liquor shops.

In Cannore, the Salt Satyagraha was spearheaded byK. Kumarof Travancore popularly known as Kumarji, Elanthoor Kumarji or Travancore Gandhi. K. Kumarji had come all the way from Trivandrum to British Malabar with a group of prominent activists to break Salt Law since political agitations were banned by Gandhi and INC in the Princely State. Kumar had long been a fierce and fearless campaigner and crusader for Civil Rights. His speeches made waves in Travancore and along the Malabar Cost and inspired people in large numbers to support the Civil disobedience movement,^[32]^[33]^[34]

K.Kumar was an active participant of the movement in different parts of British Malabar including Kozhikode and Tellissery.^[35]However, he had longed to court arrest in Cannore where Swadeshabhimani Ramakrishna was laid to rest. With the passing of the resolution to break salt law in Cannore that opportunity presented itself and he was invited to Cannore by Moyyarathu SankaranWikipedia-Malayalam: Moyyarathu Sankaranand others. Along with 101 volunteers Kumarji came to Cannore to break salt law. The British police and British supporters had done everything within their reach to disrupt the party and the talks of the leaders. However, people got enthusiastically drawn to Kumarji's speeches and defying all barriers squatted in large numbrrs on the bare beach to listen to him. The party made salt and took out a procession along the city carrying on their head mud-pots with the salt they had made. Moyyarathu Sankaran says in his autobiography that Cannore had never before witnessed a mass uprising or mass celebration of that magnitude. On 19 April, the third day of making salt, Kumar was arrested from the Satyagraha Camp. He was convicted on 27 May 1930. The Police Inspector summoned Moyyarathu Sankaran and canned him for entertaining trouble-makers of Travancore. Kumarji was sent to Cannore Jail and was later shifted to Vellore to serve a term of 9 months. People of Cannore gave him an emotional farewell. The other agitators included Mohammed Yousuf, Moyyarathu Sankaran, KP Gopalan and Umman Varghese,^[33]^[36]^[31]

The period following the withdrawal of the Civil Disobedience Movement witnessed the emergence of a radical wing in the Kerala Provincial Congress. Some of the radical elements in the Kerala Provincial Congress organised a Kerala unit of the Congress Socialist Party in 1934 and functioned as a separate group within the Provincial Congress. The leadership of this group was in the hands of persons like P. Krishna Pillai, A.K. Gopalan and E.M.S. Namboothiripad. An extremist group of Nationalist Muslims also emerged within the Congress during this period under the leadership of Muhammad Abdur Rahiman. The Congress Socialists and the Nationalist Muslims made common cause against the Gandhian group known as the Right Wing which was led by such leaders asK. Kelappan,C.K. Govindan Nair andK. A. Damodara Menon.

A notable development in the politics of Malabar during the thirties was the rise of the Muslim League as a district political party. It was the Muslim leaders of Kannur and Thalassery who played the lead role in forming this organisation.

The leftist elements in the Kerala Provincial Congress were also active in the politics of Malabar in the late thirties. They took active part in organising the workers, peasants, students and teachers of Kannur district under their banner. In the election held to the Kerala Provincial Congress Committee in January 1939, the Rightists suffered a severe set back. Muhammad Abdur Rahiman was elected as the president of the K.P.C.C. and E.M.S. Namboothiripad as its general secretary. Towards the end of the same year, a branch of the Indian Communist Party was formally founded in Malabar. The Congress Socialist Party workers joined the Communist Party block.

Peasant struggles

World War II, especially in the period from 1943 to 1945, ravaged the district. Famine and acholeraepidemic took thousands of lives from the lower strata of society. On the initiative of the people under the leadership of theKisan Sabha,commendable services were rendered to tide over the crisis. The "Grow More Food Campaign", organized at Mangattuparamba by the Kisan Sabha, was a new chapter in the history of mass movement. More than 50 acres (20 ha) of government land was brought under cultivation. However, the government suppressed the movement by force and destroyed the farm.^{[citation needed]}

Though the war ended in 1945, famine continued to haunt the people. Karivellor, Poomaram (Thillenkeri) the northernmost village of the present Kannur district, made a historic stride in the struggle against poverty and famine. The transporting of paddy rice from Karivellore toChirakkal Kovilakomwas blocked and distributed to the people of the village. The movement was led by peasant leaders such as A.V. Kunhambu and K. Krishnan Master. One Kannan and Kunhambu becamemartyrsin the struggle when police opened fire.

During December 1946, the people of Kavumbayi, an eastern village of the district, raised their demand forpunamcultivation. A strong police contingent was sent to the spot. The peasants resisted the armed forces which led to the killing of five peasants in the firing.

The rise of the organized working class in the industrial sector was another important phenomenon of the period that changed the course of the anti-imperialism movement. The struggle of Aron Mill workers in 1946 is noteworthy in this regard. Even after independence, the struggles of the peasantry formed an important part in the history of the state. They fought against landlords and their exploitation. Places like Thillankeri, Manayankunnu, Korom and Paddikkunnu are memorable in the annals of the peasant struggles in the post independence era. The All India Conference of Kisan Sabha, held at Kannur in 1953, resolved to initiate struggles for new tenancy legislation. The movement for Aikya Kerala also got momentum during this period and all sections of the society rallied under the movement.

St. Angelos Fort

St. Angelo Fortwas built in 1505 by DomFrancisco de Almeida,the first Portuguese Viceroy of India. It is situated by theLaccadive Seaabout 3 km from Kannur town. In 1507, the fort wasbesiegedby the local ruler; the Portuguese rule over Cananor (as they spelt it) would last 158 years and then replaced by the Dutch. The ownership of the fort has changed hands several times. In 1663, the Dutch captured it. They subsequently gave the fort its present appearance. The Dutch sold the fort to the Arakkal Royal family in 1772. During this time, the Arakkal Sultanate began issuing coins.^[28]

The Britishconquered itin 1790 and used it as one of their major military stations on theMalabar Coast.It is fairly well preserved as a protected monument under theArchaeological Survey of India.A painting of this fort and thefishing ferryas a background is on display at theRijksmuseuminAmsterdam.Kunjali Marakkar's head was removed from his body and exhibited in the fort after his assassination.

Muslim Dynasty

During the 17th century, Kannur was the capital city of the onlyMuslimSultanate in India, known asArakkal.^[28]During theBritish Raj,Kannur was part of theMadrasprovince in theNorth MalabarDistrict.

The guerrilla war byPazhassi Raja,the ruler of Kottayam province, against the British had a huge impact in the history of Kannur. Changes in the socio-economic and political sectors in Kerala during the initial decades of 20th century created conditions congenial for the growth of the Communist Party.

Reformist Movements

New strains of thought developed as capitalist transformation laid the foundation for the commencement of social reform movements in sections of society. At the all India level, Vivekananda and others put forward such thoughts. Against this background social reform movements started by Sree Narayana Guru, Ayyankali and others in southern parts of Kerala and by Vagbhatananda and others in northern parts got developed into movements against superstition and bad customs. These evoked a big stirring among the people. An attitude against untouchability and casteism and interest in acquiring modern education were evident among all sections. Pressures for the same started developing in the society.

Extension of English education initiated by Christian missionaries in 1906 and later carried forward by government, rebellion for wearing a cloth to cover upper parts of body, installing an idol at Aruvippuram in 1888, Malayali Memorial in 1891, establishment of SNDP Yogam in 1903, activities, struggles etc. became factors helpful to accelerate changes in Kerala society during a short time. Movements for liberation from the colonial rule of British imperialism and struggles launched by these movements grew with them.

During this period, social renaissance movements and independence movement were growing. Ideas about socialism andSoviet Revolutionreached Kerala. Such ideas got propagated in Kerala through the works ofSwadeshabhimani Ramakrishna Pillai,Sahodaran Ayyappan,P. Kesavadevand others.

Socialist Movements

During this period against the background of sufferings inflicted byJanmithama(a system wherein feudal landlords controlled land)nd imperialism, struggles and organizations of peasants and workers started emerging slowly. The practice of collective bargaining by working people also started. The peasant rebellion known as Malabar Rebellion of 1921 and consequent political changes highly influenced the independence movement of Kerala.

A number of Kerala youth were jailed during this period for participating in ‘violation of law’ movement as part of independence movement. At this timeKiran Chandra Das(brother ofJithendra Das),Kamal Nath Thivari,Sen Gupta,T.N. ChandravarthiandSarath Chandra Acharyawere in a Kannur jail andJayadev Kapurin a Vellore jail. Malayalee youngsters got an opportunity to get acquainted with them, be suggested books to read, and discuss issues. They came to know of many new aspects of political work. This gave them a new sense of direction. E.M.S writes about this:

"It will not be a big exaggeration to say that seeds of left, Congress and Congress Socialist movements were sown at Kannur jail and that too by Thivari."

It was youth dissatisfied by the Congress policy which was afraid of people's advance who were attracted to the socialist idea. At that time there was an atmosphere in Kerala which gave strength to such thoughts.

People were suffering a lot due to persecution by landlords. Against this resistance and organizations were cropping up here and there. In 1935 July a meeting of peasants were held in the Bharatheeya building in Naniyoor in Kolachery Amsom of old Chirakkal Taluk. Kolachery Karshaka Sangham was formed with Vishnu Bharatheeyan as president and K.A. Keraleeyan as secretary. By September 1935, Karivelloor Karshaka Sangham was formed which represented round Karivelloor, Velloor, Peralam and Kotakkad. With the formation of All India Kisan Sabha in 1936 a new front of struggle was opened in agrarian sector. The Hunger March led by AKG in 1936 July raising the demands of peasants imparted a new vigour to this sector. Following this a number of Karshaka Sangham were formed in Malabar. In 1936 November the first Karshaka Conference of Chirakkal Taluk was held at Parassinikkadavu. In 1937 All Malabar conference of Karshaka Sangham was held in Kozhikode. This awakening among peasants prepared the ground for the advent of a new political movement.

Trade unions started to be formed and strengthened. Global economic crisis of 1929 started creating serious consequences in Indian economy as well. First Travancore Labour Association came into being. Such organizations later became militant trade unions. Strikes were organized in Kozhikkode, Kannur, Pappinisseri, Thalassery and other centres of commerce which further strengthened trade unions. In 1935 May the first Kerala Workers’ conference was held at Kozhikode. This initiative to bring up working class as an independent class force prepared the ground for propagating Communist ideas. During this period coir workers in Travancore got organized and achieved strength. In Kochi organizations like Cochin Sterling Workers’ Union were being formed. Labour brotherhood and trade unions of Alagappa Textiles and Sitaram Mills were formed. In 1937 second All Kerala Workers’ Conference was held at Thrissur. This organizational consciousness developed among workers prepared the ground for a new politics.^[37]

By the beginning of the 1930s some other useful developments were taking place. Important among them was Nivarthana Agitation in Travancore. That was the demand of people suppressed so far as untouchables and weaker sections for participation in government. This brought to the forefront struggles like proportional representation in government and reservation of jobs. This imparted a new enthusiasm among oppressed masses.^[38]

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^^a ^bResearch Guru: Online Journal of Multidisciplinary Subjects, Volume 2, Issue 2, September 2018, Salt Satyagraha in Malabar, Vimal Kumar CL, Page 1141 (referred to ss K. Kumaran Nair)
^Atmakatha, Moyyarathu Sankaran, Page 164
^Research Guru: Online Journal of Multidisciplinary Subjects, Volume 2, Issue 2, September 2018, Salt Satyagraha in Malabar, Vimal Kumar CL, Page 1141 (referred to as K. Kumaran Nair)
^AtmakathaMoyyarathu Sankaran, Page 164
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