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History of Milan

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Historical affiliations

Celtictribe belonging to theInsubresgroup 590–222 BC
Roman Republic222–27 BC
Roman Empire27 BC–AD 395
Western Roman Empire395–476
Kingdom of Italy476–493
Ostrogothic Kingdom493–553
Eastern Roman Empire553–569
Lombard Kingdom569–774
Carolingian Empire774–781
Regnum Italiae781–1014
Holy Roman Empire1014–1114
Free Commune1114–1259
Lordship of Milan1259–1395
Duchy of Milan1395–1447
Golden Ambrosian Republic1447–1450
Duchy of Milan1450–1796
Transpadane Republic1796-1797
Cisalpine Republic1797–1802
Italian Republic1802–1805
Kingdom of Italy1805–1814
Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia1815–1859
Kingdom of Sardinia1859–1861
Kingdom of Italy1861–1943
Italian Social Republic1943–1945
Kingdom of Italy1945–1946
Italian Republic1946–present

Milanis an ancient city innorthern Italyfirst settled under the name Medhelanon in about 590 BC[1]by aCeltictribe belonging to theInsubresgroup and belonging to theGolasecca culture.[2][1]Itwas conqueredby theancient Romansin 222 BC, wholatinizedthe name of the city intoMediolanum.[2][1]The city's role as a major political centre dates back to thelate antiquity,when it served as the capital of theWestern Roman Empire.[3]

From the 12th century until the 16th century, Milan was one of the largest European cities and a major trade and commercial centre, as the capital of theDuchy of Milan,one of the greatest political, artistic and fashion forces in theRenaissance.[4][5]Having become one of the main centres of theItalian Enlightenmentduring theearly modern period,it then became one of the most active centres during theRestoration,until its entry into the unifiedKingdom of Italy.From the 20th century onwards Milan became the industrial and financial capital of Italy,[6][7]one of the economic capitals of Europe and a globalfinancial centre.[8][9]

Toponymy

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Bas-relief sculpted on thePalazzo della Ragioneof thescrofa semilanuta( "half-woolly sow" ) from which, according to tradition, the city's toponym derives

Milan was founded with the Celtic name of Medhelanon,[2][1]laterlatinizedby theancient RomansintoMediolanum.InCeltic languagemedhe-meant "middle, centre" and the name element-lanonis the Celtic equivalent of Latin-planum"plain", meant "(settlement) in the midst of the plain",[10][11]or of "place between watercourses" (Celticmedhe= "in the middle, central";landorlan= "land" ), given the presence of theOlona,Lambro,Sevesorivers and the Nirone and Pudiga streams.[12]

Thedhsound, which has disappeared from the modernMilanese dialect,was instead present in the ancient local idiom once spoken in Milan.[13]It is found, among others, as well as in Medhelanon, in the ancient Milanese wordsdoradha( "golden" ),crudho( "abrupt person" ),mudha( "change" ) andornadha( "ornate" ).[13]In Milanese dialect, the oldest name of which documented traces have been found isMiran.[14][15][16]

TheLatinnameMediolanumcomes from the Latin wordsmedio(in the middle) andplanus(plain).[17]However, some scholars believe thatlanumcomes from theCelticrootlan,meaning an enclosure or demarcated territory (source of theWelshwordllan,meaning "a sanctuary or church", ultimately cognate to English/GermanLand) in which Celtic communities used to build shrines.[18]

Panorama ofSaintes,a French municipality in theCharente-Maritimedepartment, known in Roman times asMediolanum Santonum

HenceMediolanumcould signify the central town or sanctuary of a Celtic tribe. Indeed, about sixty Gallo-Roman sites in France bore the name "Mediolanum", for example:Saintes(Mediolanum Santonum) andÉvreux(Mediolanum Aulercorum).[19]In addition, another theory links the name to thescrofa semilanuta( "half-woolly sow" ) an ancient emblem of the city, fancifully accounted for inAndrea Alciato'sEmblemata(1584), beneath a woodcut of the first raising of the city walls, where a boar is seen lifted from the excavation, and the etymology ofMediolanumgiven as "half-wool",[20]explained in Latin and in French.

According to this theory, the foundation of Milan is credited to twoCeltic peoples,theBiturigesand theAedui,having as theiremblemsa ram and a boar;[21]therefore "Thecity's symbolis a wool-bearing boar, an animal of double form, here with sharp bristles, there with sleek wool. "[22]Alciato creditsAmbrosefor his account.[23]

Place of foundation

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Lambroriver in Milan

Three hypotheses are considered regarding the location choice of the territory of Milan, which are based on the etymology of the name Medhelanon and on the archaeological investigations carried out in modern times on the Milanese territory:

  • the choice of place may have been dictated by the presence of the "line ofsprings"where there is a meeting, underground, between geological layers with differentpermeability,a type of terrain that allows deep waters to spontaneously resurface on the surface.[24]This could mean that Medhelanon was born on a spit of land that originally overlooked a swamp, and therefore in a well-defensible place;
  • the presence of five watercourses in its surroundings[12]may have been decisive: theSevesoand theLambroto the east, and the Pudiga, the Nirone and theOlonato the west.
  • finally, Medhelanon may have been founded near an important and pre-existing Celtic sanctuary which was located near the modernPiazza della Scala.[13]

Celtic era

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Celtic finds dating back to the period preceding the Roman conquest (3rd-2nd century BC), which is preserved in theCivic Archaeological Museum of Milan

Around 590 BC[1]aCeltictribe belonging to theInsubresgroup and belonging to theGolasecca culturesettled the city under the name Medhelanon.[1][2]According toTitus Livy's comments, the city was founded around 600 B.C. by Belloveso, chief of the Insubres. Legend has it that Belloveso found a mythological animal known as the scrofa semilanuta (in Italian: "half-wooly boar" ) which became the ancient emblem of the city of Milan (from semi-lanuta or medio-lanum). Several ancient sources (includingSidonius Apollinaris,Datius,and, more recently,Andrea Alciato) have argued that the scrofa semilanuta is connected to the etymology of the ancient name of Milan, "Mediolanum", and this is still occasionally mentioned in modern sources, although this interpretation has long been dismissed by scholars. Nonetheless, wool production became a key industry in this area, as recorded during the early Middle Ages.

Medhelanon, in particular, was developed around asanctuary,which was the oldest area of the village.[13]The sanctuary, which consisted of a wooded area in the shape of an ellipse with a central clearing, was aligned according to precise astronomical points. For this reason, it was used for religious gatherings, especially in particular celebratory moments. The sanctuary of Medhelanon was an ellipse with axes of 443 m (1,453 ft) and 323 m (1,060 ft) located nearPiazza della Scala.[13]The urban planning profile was based on these early paths, and on the shape of the sanctuary, reached, in some cases, up to the 19th century and even beyond. For example, the route of the modern Corso Vittorio Emanuele,Piazza del Duomo,Piazza Cordusioand Via Broletto, which is curvilinear, could correspond to the south side of the ellipse of the ancient sanctuary of Medhelanon.[13]

Celtic silver drachmas, minted in Milan in imitation of theAncient drachmasofMassalia(Marseille), dating back to the period preceding the Roman conquest (2nd-1st century BC), which are preserved in theCivic Archaeological Museum of Milan.Some have writings inEtruscan characters

The Celtic sanctuaries, and that of Medhelanon was not an exception, were equipped with a moat, which had the purpose of sacredly defining the urban space, distinguishing the "inside" and the "outside", and at the same time had to protect it from the flowing waters in the territory. One axis of the Medhelanon sanctuary was aligned towards theheliacal risingofAntares,while the other towards the heliacal rising ofCapella.The latter coincided with a Celtic spring festival celebrated on 24 March, while the heliacal rising of Antares corresponded with 11 November, which opened and closed the Celtic year and which coincided with the point where the Sun rose on the wintersolstice.[13]About two centuries after the creation of the Celtic sanctuary, the first residential settlements began to be built around it. Medhelanon then transformed from a simple religious center to an urban and then military centre, thus becoming a real village.[13]

The ruins of thebasilica of Santa Tecla,which are located under theMilan Cathedral.Among them, remains of a temple were found, perhaps of the Celtic one dedicated toBelisamaor of the subsequent Roman temple dedicated toMinerva

The first homes were built just south of the Celtic sanctuary, near the modernRoyal Palace of Milan.[13]Subsequently, with the growth of the town centre, other important buildings for the Medhelanon community were built. First, a temple dedicated to the goddessBelisamawas built, which was located near the modernMilan Cathedral.Then, near the modern Via Moneta, which is located near today'sPiazza San Sepolcro,a fortified building with military functions was built which was surrounded by a defensive moat.[13]

At the currentBiblioteca Ambrosiana,in Piazza San Sepolcro, archaeological excavations have revealed the presence, under the stone floor dating back to the 1st century AD. of the Romanforumof Milan, of a neighborhood of wooden houses dating back to the Celtic settlement of the 5th century BC.[25]Other important findings attributable to the Celtic era were found along the south-west side of the Royal Palace, where, five meters below the modern road surface, remains of houses and a furnace were discovered which date back to a period between 5th and 4th centuries BC.[13]

Among the remains of theBasilica of Santa Tecla,which are located under the Milen Cathedral, there is what remains of a square-based building with a side of 17 m (56 ft) perhaps associated with the temple dedicated to Belisama, or with a subsequent Roman temple dedicated toMinerva.[13]The moat of the fortified military building, which dated back to the 4th century BC, was found in Via Moneta.[13]

Roman times

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Main article:Mediolanum
Roman ruins in Milan: theColumns of San Lorenzo

During theRoman Republic,the Romans, led by consulGnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus,fought the Insubres and captured the settlement in 222 BC. The chief of the Insubres then submitted to Rome, giving the Romans control of the settlement.[26]The Romans eventuallyconquered the entirety of the region,calling the newprovince"Cisalpine Gaul"(Latin:Gallia Cisalpina)— "Gaul this side of the Alps" —and may have given the city itsLatinizedname ofMediolanum:inGaulish*medio-meant "middle, centre" and the name element-lanonis the Celtic equivalent of Latin-planum"plain", thus*Mediolanon(Latinized asMediolānum) meant "(settlement) in the midst of the plain".[11][27]Mediolanum became the most important center ofCisalpine Gauland, in the wake of economic development, in 49 BC, was elevated, within theLex Roscia,to the status ofmunicipium.[28]

Remains of theRoman walls of Milanlocated inside theCivic Archaeological Museum of Milan
Remains of the Roman theater of Milan, which can be visited in the museum located in the basement ofPalazzo Turati[it]at the city'schamber of commerce
Ancient Roman pottery in theCivic Archaeological Museum of Milan

The ancient Celtic settlement was, from atopographicpoint of view, superimposed and replaced by the Roman one. The Roman city was then gradually superimposed and replaced by the medieval one. The urban center of Milan has therefore grown constantly and rapidly, until modern times, around the first Celtic nucleus. The original Celtic toponym Medhelanon then changed, as evidenced by a graffiti in Celtic language present on a section of the Roman walls of Milan which dates back to a period following the Roman conquest of the Celtic village, in Mesiolano.[29]Mediolanum was important for its location as a hub in the road network of northern Italy.Polybiusdescribes the country as abounding in wine, and every kind of grain, and in fine wool. Herds of swine, both for public and private supply, were bred in its forests, and the people were well known for their generosity.[30]

Ruins of the Emperor's palace in Milan located in Via Gorani. HereConstantineandLiciniusissued theEdict of Milan.
The remains of the Roman amphitheater of Milan, which are located in the courtyard of the Antiquarium of Milan

During the Augustan age Mediolanum was famous for its schools; it possessed a theatre and anamphitheatre(129.5 X 109.3 m), the third largest inRoman Italyafter theColosseumin Rome and the vast amphitheatre inCapua.[31]A large stone wall encircled the city in Caesar's time, and later was expanded in the late third century AD, byMaximian.Mediolanum was made the seat of the prefect of Liguria (Praefectus Liguriae) by Hadrian, and Constantine made it the seat of the vicar of Italy (Vicarius Italiae). In the third century Mediolanum possessed amint,[32]ahorreumand imperial mausoleum. In 259, Roman legions under the command of Emperor Gallienus soundly defeated theAlemanniin theBattle of Mediolanum.In 286, the Roman EmperorDiocletianmoved the capital of theWestern Roman Empirefrom Rome to Mediolanum.[33]Diocletian himself chose to reside atNicomediain the Eastern Empire, leaving his colleagueMaximianat Milan.

Maximian built several gigantic monuments: the largecircus(470 × 85 metres), thethermaeorBaths of Hercules,a large complex of imperial palaces and other services and buildings of which few visible traces remain. Maximian increased the city area to 375 acres by surrounding it with a new, larger stone wall (about 4.5 km long) with many 24-sided towers. The monumental area had twin towers; the one included later in the construction of the convent ofSan Maurizio Maggioreremains 16.6 m high.

In Mediolanum there was no need for aqueducts, given that the water was abundant and easily accessible: it emerged from the ground from springs and flowed nearby in rivers and streams, and this fully responded to the needs of the city's daily life.[34]Given that over the centuries Mediolanum had grown and needed new water for the most varied uses (for artisans as well as for public, domestic and defensive uses) the ancient Romans theSevesoriver, the Nirone river and theOlonariver, which flowed just outside the town centre, towards the city, flowing into the moat of theRoman walls of Mediolanum.[35]

It was from Mediolanum that theEmperor Constantineissued what is now known as theEdict of Milanin AD 313, granting tolerance to all religions within the Empire, thus paving the way for Christianity to become the dominant religion of the Empire. Constantine was in Mediolanum to celebrate the wedding of his sister to the Eastern Emperor,Licinius.There were Christian communities in Mediolanum, which contributed its share of martyrs during the persecutions,[36]but the first bishop of Milan who has a firm historical presence is Merocles, who was at theCouncil of Romeof 313. In the mid-fourth century, theArian controversydivided the Christians of Mediolanum;Constantiussupported Arian bishops and at times there were rival bishops.Auxentius of Milan(died 374) was a respected Arian theologian.

At the time of the bishop St.Ambrose(bishop 374–397), who quelled the Arians, and emperorTheodosius I,Mediolanum reached the height of its ancient power.[37]The city also possessed a number of basilicas, added in the late fourth century AD. These areSan Simpliciano,San Nazaro,San Lorenzoand the chapel ofSan Vittore,located in the basilica ofSant'Ambrogio.In general, the Late Empire encouraged the development of the applied arts in Mediolanum, with ivory and silver work being common in public building projects. In the crypt of the Duomo are ruins of theancient church of Saint Teclaand the baptistry where St.Augustine of Hippowas baptized.

In 402, theVisigothsbesieged the city and theEmperor Honoriusmoved the Imperial residence toRavenna.[38]In 452,Attilabesieged the city, but the real break with the city's Imperial past came in 539, during theGothic War,whenUraias(a nephew ofWitiges,formerly King of theItalian Ostrogoths) carried out attacks in Milan, with losses, according toProcopius,being about 300,000 men. TheLombardstookTicinumas their capital in 572 (renaming itPapia– the modernPavia), and leftearly-medievalMilan to the governance of itsarchbishops.

During the Roman imperial era and theLombard Kingdom,the civic and social center of Milan was the Cordusio area. In the Celtic era, in correspondence with the modernPiazza Cordusio,thecastrum,or rather the Roman military camp (placed there to attack the Celtic center of Medhelanon) which then gave rise to Mediolanum, while in the Lombard era there was a presence in the Cordusio the palace of theLombard duke,was located near the modern square of the same name, hence the origin of this toponym: fromDe curte ducis(orCuria ducis,i.e. the "court of the Lombard dukes" ), toCortedoxi,thenCorduceand finallyCordusoorCordusio.[39][40]The Cordusio began to lose this primacy after the year 1000 when it was joined, as a reference area, by other districts of Milan.[40]

Middle Ages

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TheDuchy of Milanin its period of greatest expansion, between the end of the 14th century and the beginning of the 15th century
Main article:Lordship of Milan

In 539, theOstrogothsconquered and destroyed Milan during theGothic WaragainstByzantineEmperorJustinian I.In the summer of 569, aGermanic tribe,theLombards(from which the name of the Italian regionLombardyderives), conquered Milan, overpowering the smallByzantine armyleft for its defense. Some Roman structures remained in use in Milan under Lombard rule,[41]but the city was eclipsed by the nearby Lombard capital ofPaviaduring the next two centuries.

Milan surrendered toCharlemagneand theFranksin 774. The aristocracy and majority of the clergy had taken refuge inGenoa.In 774, whenCharlemagnetook the title of "King of the Lombards", he established his imperial capital ofAachenin what is today Germany. Before then the Germanic kingdoms had frequently conquered each other, but none had adopted the title of King of another people. TheIron Crown of Lombardy(i.e. referring to Charlemagne's kingdom and not to the Italian region), which was worn by Charlemagne, dates from this period. Milan's domination under the Franks led by Charlemagne did nothing to improve the city's fortune, and the city's impoverishment increased and Milan became a county seat.

TheMedieval Porta Ticinese(12th century), one of the remaining gates from themedieval walls of Milan
Piazza Mercantiused to be the heart of the city in the Middle Ages

The 11th century saw a reaction against the control of theHoly Roman Emperors.The city-state was born, an expression of the new political power of the city and its will to fight against feudal overlords. Milan was no exception. It did not take long, however, for the city states to begin fighting each other to try to limit neighbouring powers.[42]The Milanese destroyed Lodi and continuously warred with Pavia,Cremonaand Como, who in turn askedFrederick I Barbarossafor help. In asally,they capturedEmpress Beatriceand forced her toride a donkeybackwards out through the city. These acts brought the destruction of much of Milan in 1162. A fire destroyed the storehouses containing the entire food supply, and within just a few days Milan was forced to surrender.

A period of peace followed and Milan prospered as a centre of trade due to its geographical position. During this time, the city was considered one of the largest European cities.[4]As a result of the independence that the Lombard cities gained in thePeace of Constancein 1183, Milan returned to the commune form of local government first established in the 11th century.[43][44]In 1208Rambertino Buvalelliserved a term aspodestàof the city, in 1242Luca Grimaldi,and in 1282Luchetto Gattilusio.The position was a dangerous one: in 1252 Milanese heretics assassinated the Church's Inquisitor, later known asSaint Peter Martyr,at a ford in the nearbycontado;the killers bribed their way to freedom, and in the ensuing riot thepodestàwas almost lynched. In 1256 the archbishop and leading nobles were expelled from the city. In 1259Martino della Torrewas electedCapitano del Popoloby members of theguilds;he took the city by force, expelled his enemies, and ruled by dictatorial powers, paving streets, digging canals, and taxing the countryside. He also brought the Milanese treasury to collapse; the use of often reckless mercenary units further angered the population, granting an increasing support for thedella Torre's traditional enemies, the Visconti. The most important industries in this period were armaments and wool production, a whole catalogue of activities and trades is given in Bonvesin della Riva's "de Magnalibus Urbis Mediolani".

A historic symbol of the city, theBiscione:the coat of arms of the House of Visconti, from the Archbishops' palace inPiazza Duomo

On 22 July 1262,Ottone Viscontiwas madearchbishop of MilanbyPope Urban IV,against the candidacy of Raimondo della Torre,Bishop of Como.The latter started to publicise allegations that the Visconti had ties to the hereticCatharsand charged them withhigh treason.The Visconti, who accused the della Torre of the same crimes, were then banned from Milan and their properties confiscated. The ensuing civil war caused more damage to Milan's population and economy, lasting for more than a decade. Ottone Visconti unsuccessfully led a group of exiles against the city in 1263, but after years of escalating violence on all sides, in theBattle of Desio(1277) he won the city for his family. TheViscontisucceeded in ousting the della Torre permanently, and proceeded to rule Milan and its possessions until the 15th century.

Much of the prior history of Milan was the tale of the struggle between two political factions: theGuelphs and the Ghibellines.Most of the time the Guelphs were successful in the city of Milan. Eventually, however, the Visconti family were able to seize power (signoria) in Milan, based on their "Ghibelline" friendship with the Holy Roman Emperors.[45]In 1395, one of these emperors,Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia(1378–1400), raised Milan to the dignity of a duchy.[46]Also in 1395,Gian Galeazzo ViscontibecameDuke of Milan.The Ghibelline Visconti family was to retain power in Milan for a century and a half from the early 14th century until the middle of the 15th century.[47]

The episcopal complex of Milan superimposed on the modernPiazza del Duomo.The episcopal complex, which was demolished to allow the construction of the modernMilan Cathedral(Duomo di Milano), consisted of the basilica of Santa Tecla, the baptistery of San Giovanni alle Fonti, the cathedral of Santa Maria Maggiore and the baptistery of Santo Stefano alle Fonti

In the place where the modernMilan Cathedralstands, there was once the ancientcathedral of Santa Maria Maggiore(original early Christian namesbasilica vetusorbasilica minor), established in 313, and thebasilica of Santa Tecla(original early Christian namesbasilica maiororbasilica nova), established in 350, which together formed the episcopal complex with the baptistery of San Giovanni alle Fonti and the baptistery of Santo Stefano alle Fonti. The presence of two very close basilicas was in fact common inNorthern Italyduring theConstantinian ageand could be found, in particular, in cities with bishoprics.[48]

In 1386, ArchbishopAntonio de' Saluzzi,supported by the population, promoted the reconstruction of a new and larger cathedral (12 May 1386), which was built on the site of the oldest religious heart of the city.[49]For the newMilan Cathedral,basilica of Santa Tecla, the baptistery of San Giovanni alle Fonti, the cathedral of Santa Maria Maggiore and the baptistery of Santo Stefano alle Fonti began to be demolished,Basilica vetuswas demolished first,Basilica maiorlater, in 1461–62 (partially rebuilt in 1489 and definitively demolished in 1548).[50]

In 1447Filippo Maria Visconti,Duke of Milan,died without a male heir; following the end of the Visconti line, theAmbrosian Republicwas enacted. The Ambrosian Republic took its name fromSt. Ambrose,popular patron saint of the city of Milan.[51]Both the Guelph and the Ghibelline factions worked together to bring about the Ambrosian Republic in Milan. Nonetheless, the Republic collapsed when, in 1450, Milan was conquered byFrancesco Sforza,of theHouse of Sforza,who made Milan one of the leading cities of the ItalianRenaissance.[51][52]Under the House of Sforza, Milan experienced a period of great prosperity, which in particular saw the development of mulberry cultivation and silk processing.[53]

Following this economic growth, works such as theSforza Castle(already existing in the Visconti era under the name of Porta Giovia Castle, but re-adapted, enlarged and completed by the Sforza family) and theOspedale Maggiorewere completed. The Sforzas also managed to attract to Milan personalities such asLeonardo da Vinci,who redesigned and improved the function of thenavigliand paintedThe Last Supper,andBramante,who worked on thechurch of Santa Maria presso San Satiro,on thebasilica of Sant'Ambrogioand to thechurch of Santa Maria delle Grazie,influencing the development of theLombard Renaissance.

Early modern

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Spanish walls of Milan
Milan during theplague of 1630:plague carts carry the dead for burial.
TheRoyal Palace of Milan,the seat of government of the city for many centuries, as redesigned byPiermarinifrom 1773 to 1778
Founded in 1778,La Scalais the world's most famous opera house.[54]
San Carlo al Corso,a neo-classic church in the center of Milan
TheArch of the Peace,dating back to the 19th century, although its origins can be traced back to a gate of theRoman walls of Milan
Highlighted in yellow, theNapoleonic Kingdom of Italy,which had Milan as its capital

TheItalian Warswere a series of conflicts from 1494 to 1559 that involved, at various times, most of the city-states of Italy, thePapal States,theRepublic of Venice,and later most of the major states of Western Europe. Milan's last independent ruler,Lodovico Sforza,called French kingCharles VIIIinto Italy with the expectation that France might be an ally in inter-Italian wars. The future King ofFrance,Louis of Orléans,took part in the expedition and realised Italy was virtually defenceless. This prompted him toreturn a few years laterin 1500, and claim the Duchy of Milan for himself, his grandmother having been a member of the ruling Visconti family. At that time, Milan was also defended bySwiss mercenaries.After the victory of Louis's successorFrancis Iover the Swiss at theBattle of Marignan,the duchy was promised to the French king. When the Holy Roman Emperor and King of SpainCharles Vdefeated Francis I at theBattle of Paviain 1525,northern Italy,including Milan, returned toFrancesco II Sforza,passing to the Emperor 10 years later when he died.[55]

In 1556, Charles V abdicated in favour of his sonPhilip IIand his brotherFerdinand I.Charles's Italian possessions, including Milan, passed to Philip II and remained with the Spanish line of Habsburgs, while Ferdinand's Austrian line of Habsburgs ruled the Holy Roman Empire. A 150-year period of Spanish domination then began. These years saw the rather oppressive ideological and fiscal control of the Spanish governors. There was a revival of the economy until the beginning of the 16th century, also as a consequence of the end of a long period of turbulence.

Under the Spanish viceroys from 1535, Milan became one of the contributors to the Spanish king's army. At the time, Lombardy was a valuable tool for the Spanish military; an armory of paramount strategic importance.[56]In addition to resources, Milan also provided soldiers. During the 1635–1659 Franco-Spanish War, Milan sent and paid for on average 4,000 soldiers per year to the Spanish crown, with many of these men serving in the Low Countries against the Dutch States Army.[57]

TheGreat Plague of Milanin 1629–31 killed an estimated 60,000 people out of a population of 130,000. This episode is considered one of the last outbreaks of the centuries-longpandemicof plague that began with theBlack Death.[58]There was then a profound demographic and economic crisis around 1630 due to the plague (the same one described by Alessandro Manzoni in the novel The Betrothed) and the arrival of the German army;[59]then there were phenomena of economic stagnation which fit into a situation of depression which was generally found in the Italian peninsula until the mid-18th century.

In 1700 the Spanish line of Habsburgs was extinguished with the death ofCharles II.After his death, theWar of the Spanish Successionbegan in 1701 with the occupation of all Spanish possessions by French troops backing the claim of the FrenchPhilippe of Anjouto the Spanish throne. In 1706, the French were defeated at theBattle of Turinand were forced to yield northern Italy to theAustrian Habsburgs.In 1713–1714 the Treaties ofUtrechtandRastattformally confirmed Austrian sovereignty over most of Spain's Italian possessions includingLombardyand its capital, Milan.

A period of lively reforms began around the middle of the 18th century under the reign ofMaria Theresa of Austriaand continued with the reign ofJoseph II of Austria.[60]In this period, Milan began to play a primary role again both on a cultural level (sensitivity and contributions towards theAge of Enlightenment) and on an economic level.[60]There are several institutions, still active today, that were founded or sponsored by the Austrians, in the first or second period. Among these are theTeatro alla Scala,the schools and theBrera Academy(housed in a convent confiscated from the Jesuits), theBrera Botanical Garden(containing one of the oldestGinkgo bilobatrees in Europe), theBraidense National Library(Maria Teresa made it public after it was previously private) and theCassa di Risparmio delle Provincie Lombarde.

Between the second half of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century,Neoclassicismflourished in Milan. During the end of the reign of Maria Theresa of Austria, throughout the subsequentNapoleonic Kingdom of Italyand the return of Austrian, Milan was the protagonist of a strong cultural and economic rebirth, during which Neoclassicism was the dominant artistic style and the greatest expression. TheMilanese neoclassical seasonwas therefore among the most important in Italy and Europe.[61]

Notable developments of the Milanese neoclassical season include construction of theTeatro alla Scala,the restyledRoyal Palace,and the Brera institutions including theAcademy of Fine Arts,theBraidense Libraryand theBrera Astronomical Observatory.[62]Neoclassicism also led to the development of monumental city gates, new squares and boulevards, as well as public gardens and private mansions.[63]Latterly, two churches,San Tomaso in TerramaraandSan Carlo al Corso,were completed in Neoclassical style before the period came to an end in the late 1830s.[64][65]

Napoleoninvaded Italy in 1796. Milan was the capital of theTranspadane Republicfrom 1796 to 1797, of theCisalpine Republicfrom 1797 to 1802, of theNapoleonic Italian Republicfrom 1802 to 1805 and of theNapoleonic Kingdom of Italyfrom 1805 to 1814. On 26 May 1805, Napoleon crowned himselfKing of Italyin theMilan Cathedralwith theIron Crown.[66]

He conceived the completion of theSforza Castlewith theForo Buonaparte[it],a project he later rejected due to the excessive cost, but which generated the current road semicircle, which was envisaged around the surviving nucleus of the Sforza Castle (not yet renovated at the time) a new seat of the republican government formed by an imposingDoric colonnadeand some buildings that would become the new political center of the city; the only part of the Foro Buonaparte that was actually built were theArena Civicaand theParco Sempione.[67]

For Napoleon, in 1807, theArco della Pacewas begun, which was completed during the second Austrian domination.[68]Designed byLuigi Cagnolaand conceived as the "Victory Arch" to celebrate the French victory in theBattle of Jena,it was built starting in late 1807. The work was two thirds complete when, with the fall of Napoleon (1814), the project was abandoned and then resumed in 1826 during the reign of the Habsburg emperorFrancis I of Austria,who changed the dedication. The Arco della Pace ('Arch of Peace') was then completed in 1838.[69]

Once Napoleon's occupation ended, theCongress of Viennareturned Lombardy, and Milan, along withVeneto,to Austrian control in 1814.[70]During this period, Milan became a centre of lyric opera. Here in the 1770sMozarthad premiered three operas at theTeatro Regio Ducale.LaterLa Scalabecame the reference theatre in the world, with its premieres ofBellini,Donizetti,Rossiniand Verdi.Verdihimself is interred in theCasa di Riposo per Musicisti,which he initially founded. In the 19th century, other important theatres wereLa Cannobianaand theTeatro Carcano.

Late modern

[edit]
Map of the AustrianKingdom of Lombardy-Venetia,which had Milan as its capital, and its major cities
Popular print depicting the "Five Days of Milan"(18–22 March 1848) uprising against Austrian rule
Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont-SardiniaandNapoleon III of FranceenteredMilanduring theSecond Italian War of Independence(1859)
ExperimentalhelicopterbyEnrico Forlanini(1877), exposed at theMuseo nazionale della scienza e della tecnologia Leonardo da VinciofMilan
A view of Milan in 1910. The chimney of the Santa Radegonda plant nearMilan Cathedralis clearly visible. The plant, built in 1883, was the first power plant in Continental Europe

The new territorial structure of Italy was decided at the Congress of Vienna. On 7 April 1815, the constitution of the Austrian States in Italy was announced. Milan became the capital of theKingdom of Lombardy-Venetia,formally independent, but in reality subject to theAustrian Empire.Administratively the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia comprised two independent governments (Gubernien) in its two parts, which officially were declared separate crown lands in 1851. Each part was further subdivided into several provinces, roughly corresponding with thedépartementsof the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy.

For the first time since 1428, Lombardy reappeared as an entity, the first time in history that the term "Lombardy"was officially used to call specifically that entity and not for the whole ofNorthern Italy.The Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia administration used Italian as its language in its internal and external communications and documents, and the language's dominant position in politics, finance or jurisdiction was not questioned by the Austrian officials. The Italian-languageGazzetta di Milanowas theofficial newspaperof the kingdom. The highest governorships were also reserved for Austrian aristocrats.

The second Austrian period was turbulent and characterized by continuous tension due to the patriotic ferments that were widespread throughout Italy, including Milan, whose objective was to unify Italy by freeing it from foreigners. In this historical period, which is called theRisorgimento,on 18 March 1848, Milan effectively rebelled against Austrian rule, during the so-called "Five Days"(Italian:Le Cinque Giornate), that forced Field MarshalRadetzkyto temporarily withdraw from the city.[71]The borderingKingdom of Piedmont–Sardiniasent troops to protect the insurgents, starting theFirst Italian War of Independence,and organised aplebiscitethat ratified by a huge majority the unification of Lombardy with Piedmont–Sardinia. But just a few months later the Austrians were able to send fresh forces that routed the Piedmontese army at theBattle of Custozaon 24 July and to reassert Austrian control over northern Italy.[72]

About 10 years later, however, Italian nationalist politicians, officers and intellectuals such asCavour,GaribaldiandMazziniwere able to gather a huge consensus and to pressure the monarchy to forge an alliance with the newFrench EmpireofNapoleon IIIto defeat Austria during theSecond Italian War of Independenceand establish a large Italian state in the region. At theBattle of Solferinoin 1859 French and Italian troops heavily defeated the Austrians that retreated under theQuadrilateral line.[73]Following this battle, Milan and the rest of Lombardy were incorporated into Piedmont-Sardinia, which then proceeded to annex all the other Italian statelets and proclaim the birth of theKingdom of Italyon 17 March 1861.

The politicalunification of Italyenhanced Milan's economic dominance over northern Italy. On 5 March 1876, the first issue of the newspaperCorriere della Serawas published, founded and directed byEugenio Torelli Viollier,which would become the first Italian newspaper in terms of circulation and political relevance.[74]In 1883, theSanta Radegonda Power Plantwas inaugurated in Milan, in the street of the same name (next to the Milan Cathedral), the first power station in continental Europe, second in all of Europe compared to theHolborn Viaduct power stationinLondon,in operation since April 1882, which however illuminated the only viaduct from which it took its name.[75]

In 1877,Enrico Forlaninideveloped an early helicopter powered by asteam engine.It was the first of its type that rose to a height of 13 metres, where it remained for some 20 seconds, after a vertical take-off from a park in Milan.[76]Milan has dedicated to Enrico Forlanini its city airport, also namedLinate Airport,[77]as well as the nearby park, the Parco Forlanini.[78]In Milan he also has an avenue named after him,Viale Enrico Forlanini.

A dense rail network, whose construction had started under Austrian patronage, was completed in a brief time, making Milan the rail hub of northern Italy and, with the opening of theGotthard(1882) andSimplon(1906) railway tunnels, the major South European rail hub for goods and passenger transport. Indeed, Milan and Venice were among the main stops of theOrient Expressthat started operating from 1919.[79]Abundant hydroelectric resources allowed the development of a strong steel and textile sector and, as Milanese banks dominated Italy's financial sphere, the city became the country's leading financial centre.

In May 1898, Milan was shaken by theBava Beccaris massacre,a riot named after the Italian GeneralFiorenzo Bava Beccarisrelated to soaring cost of living.[80]In Italy the suppression of these demonstrations is also known asFatti di Maggio(Events of May) orI moti di Milano del 1898(the Milan riots of 1898). At least 80 demonstrators were killed, as well as two soldiers, and 450 wounded, according to government sources. The overreaction of the military led to the demise ofAntonio Di Rudinìand his government in July 1898 and created a constitutional crisis, strengthening the opposition. The events of May marked a height of popular discontent with government, the military and the monarchy.

On 16 December 1899AC Milanwas founded, from which in 1908, due to internal disagreements, the city rivalInter Milanwas split. AC Milan has a long-standing rivalry with Inter Milan, with whom they contest theDerby della Madonnina,one of the most followed derbies in football.[81]It is calledDerby della Madonninain honour of one of the main sights in the city of Milan, the statue of theVirgin Maryon the top of theDuomo,which is often referred to as theMadonnina( "Little Madonna" in Italian). In the past, Inter Milan (commonly abbreviated to Inter) was seen as the club of the Milanbourgeoisie(nicknamedbauscia,aMilaneseterm meaning "braggart" ), whereas AC Milan (nicknamedcasciavitorcasciavid,meaning "screwdriver" inLombard language,with reference to theblue-collar worker) was supported mainly by working class.[82]

20th century

[edit]

First half of the century

[edit]
Palazzo Castiglioni,anArt Nouveaupalace of Milan
Expo 1906,which took place in Milan
Fiera di Milanoin 1933
Italian partisansin Milan during the final insurrection leading to theliberation of Italyin April 1945
Palazzo Mezzanottein Milan, the seat of theItalian stock exchange
Milan Malpensa Airport
Milano Centrale railway station

From the 20th century onwards Milan became the industrial and financial capital of Italy,[6][7]one of the economic capitals of Europe and a globalfinancial centre.[8][9]Milan was the site of theExpo 1906,which occupied the entire area ofSempione Parkand the area that would subsequently be occupied by theFiera di Milano,now redeveloped under the name ofCityLife.Very little remains from that time; the most significant work remaining is theCivic Aquarium of Milan,which is the third oldest aquarium inEurope.[83]At the beginning of the 20th century, Milan was a socialist city of workers' struggles; in 1911 the headquarters of the official socialist newspaperAvanti!was moved there. The election ofEmilio Caldara,the city's first socialist mayor, took place in 1914. At the same time it was the intellectual center ofItalian Futurism.On 14 November 1914, again in Milan, the printing ofIl Popolo d'Italiabegan, the interventionist newspaper founded byBenito Mussolini,who was still part of theItalian Socialist Partyat the time.

Borsa Italiana,based in Milan atPalazzo Mezzanotte,is the Italianstock exchange.The Borsa di commercio di Milano (Milan Stock Exchange) was established byEugène de Beauharnais,viceroy of theNapoleonic Kingdom of Italy,through decrees dated 16 January and 6 February 1808.[84]It overtook the historically poorly regulatedBorsa di Genova,later becoming Italy's main stock exchange after thePanic of 1907.It operated under public ownership until 1998, when it was privatized.[85]In 1997, all the Italian stocks were merged. Before that year, other smaller stock exchanges were based inNaples,Turin,Trieste,Venice,Genoa,Florence,Bologna,Rome,andPalermo.In 1991, the electronic exchanges were approved, and in 1994, the market with grids (A, B, C) was abolished. In Milan were also the currencies exchange rates fixing and the commodities fixing.[86]

Milan Malpensa Airportwas opened in 1909 byGiovanni AgustaandGianni Capronito test their aircraft prototypes, before switching to civil operation in 1948. The airport is the largestinternational airportin northern Italy, servingLombardy,PiedmontandLiguria,as well as the Swiss canton ofTicino.The airport is located 49 kilometres (30 mi) northwest ofMilan,[87]next to theTicinoriver dividing Lombardy and Piedmont. The airport is located inside theParco naturale lombardo della Valle del Ticino,anature reserveincluded byUNESCOin theWorld Network of Biosphere Reserves.[88][89]Malpensa Airport is 9th in the world and 6th in Europe for the number of countries served with direct scheduled flights.[90]In 2022, Malpensa Airport handled 21.3 million passengers and was the23rd busiest airport in Europe in terms of passengersand2nd busiest airport in Italy in terms of passengersafterRome Fiumicino Airport.[91]It is the busiest airport in Italy for freight and cargo, handling 721,254 tons of international freight annually (2022).

At the beginning of the 20th century the Milanese bourgeois class formed as a result of industrialization and already becoming masters of the social and economic life of the city,[92]found in the newArt Nouveaustyle, calledStile Libertyin Italian, a "symbol of status" and the occasion to show its power and at the same time underline the clear departure from the noble class and itsneoclassicalandbaroqueresidences.[93]Art Nouveau in Milanfound, due to its close relationship with the rampant industrial bourgeoisie of the time, a fertile ground for its rapid development, during which it oscillated between the influences of FrenchArt Nouveau,GermanJugendstilandeclecticism.[94]

DuringWorld War I,the city played a rearguard role, a shelter for wounded soldiers convalescing (includingErnest Hemingway,who remembered his days in Milan in the famous novelA Farewell to Arms[95]) and as a center for the production of war material, being directly hit from the war on the occasion of a single Austrian air raid on 14 February 1916, which caused the death of 18 people. Milan's northern location in Italy closer to Europe, secured also a leading role for the city on the political scene. It was in Milan thatBenito Mussolinibuilt his political and journalistic careers, and his fascistBlackshirtsrallied for the first time in the city'sPiazza San Sepolcro;[96]here the futureFascistdictator launched hisMarch on Romeon 28 October 1922.

Linate Airportwas built next toIdroscaloof Milan in the 1930s when Taliedo Airport, located 1 km (0.62 mi) from the southern border of Milan and one of the world's firstaerodromesand airports, became too small for commercial traffic. Linate was completely rebuilt in the 1950s and again in the 1980s. Its name comes from the small village where it is located in the town ofPeschiera Borromeo.Its official name isAirportEnrico Forlanini,after the Italian inventor and aeronautical pioneer born in Milan. Linate airport buildings are located in theSegrateMunicipality, and the field is located for a large part in the Peschiera Borromeo Municipality. It served 7,719,977 passengers in 2022 with 101,956 aircraft movements in 2022 making itone of the busiest airports in Italy.

The 20 years of fascism saw the creation of a series of public works in Milan, with administrators such asErnesto Belloni,the first mayor of Milan of the new fascist administrative system, who took office in 1926:[97]On 23 May 1930 theMilan Planetariumgiven to the city by the publisherUlrico Hoepliopened. On 28 October theIdroscalowas inaugurated, construction of which had begun in 1928, while the Palace of Justice was built from 1932 to 1940.Milano Centrale railway station,built from 1913 to 1931, is the second railway station in Italy for passenger flow (afterRoma Termini) and the largest railway station in Europe by volume.[98]Milano Centrale railway station has no definite architectural style, but is a blend of many different styles, especiallyLibertyandArt Deco,but not limited to those. It is adorned with numerous sculptures.

DuringWorld War II,Milan's large industrial and transport facilitiessuffered extensive damage from Allied bombingsthat often also hit residential districts.[99]When Italysurrenderedin 1943, German forces occupied and plundered most of northern Italy, fueling the birth of a massive resistance guerrilla movement.[100]On 29 April 1945, the American1st Armored Divisionwas advancing on Milan but, before it arrived, the Italian resistance seized control of the city andexecuted Mussolinialong with his mistress and several regime officers, that were later hanged and exposed inPiazzale Loreto,where one year before some resistance members had been executed. On 25 April 1945, with Allied troops approaching and German troops fleeing the city, theNational Liberation Committeeproclaimed the city's insurrection. On the same day the city was liberated. The day was proclaimed theAnniversary of the Liberation of Italy,and the city was awarded theGold Medal of Military ValorforResistancemerits. The contribution given by the Milanese factories[101]and the nearbySesto San Giovanniwas decisive in all phases of the Milanese Resistance.

Second half of the century

[edit]
Monte Stella
Skyscrapers and large buildings in the 1960s, such as that of theCentro Direzionale di Milano,iconographically represent theItalian economic miracle.
Eniheadquarters in Metanopoli (frazioneofSan Donato Milanese) at the southern border of Milan. Eni is considered one of the world's oil and gas "Supermajors"[102]
Milan Fashion Week
Via Monte Napoleoneis Europe's most expensive street and the second-most-expensive street in the world afterFifth Avenuein New York City (2023).[103]
Milan Metrois Italy's longest rapid transit system

The reconstruction of the city from the damage of the war took place quickly and on 11 May 1946 the restoredTeatro alla Scalawas inaugurated, rebuilt from the damage in just one year by the destruction caused by aerial bombing. The inaugural concert, which was directed byArturo Toscaniniwho specially returned from his long American exile, psychologically marked thesocial imaginaryof Italians, becoming a point of reference in the reconstruction, including psychological, of the nation.[104]

Behind the Duomo the city's urban planning changed, taking advantage of the bombing ruins. Space was found to create Corso Europa and streamline city traffic. During this period, Milan was rapidly rebuilt, with the construction of several innovative and modernist skyscrapers, such as theTorre Velascaand thePirelli Tower,that soon became the symbols of this new era of prosperity.[105]

Monte Stella( "Starmount" ), an artificial hill and surrounding city park in Milan, was created using the debris from the buildings that were bombed duringWorld War II,as well as from the last remnants of theSpanish wallsof the city, demolished in the mid 20th century. Even at only 25 m (82 ft) height, the hill provides a panoramic view of the city and hinterland, and in a clear day, theAlpsandApenninescan be distinguished from atop. A notable area of the park is called "Giardino dei Giusti" (Garden of the Just), which is a memorial to distinguished opponents of genocide and crimes against humanity; each tree in the garden is dedicated to one such person. Notable people who have been dedicated a tree in the Giardino dei Giusti includeMoshe Bejski,Andrej Sakharov,Svetlana Broz,andPietro Kuciukian.

After the reconstruction, the "industrial triangle", that is, that highly industrialized area formed by Milan,TurinandGenoa,was the driving force behind theItalian economic miracle.It was during these years that the firstnatural gasfield in Italy was discovered in thePo Valley.Due to this discovery,Eni,under the leadership ofEnrico Mattei,was not dissolved as originally intended and began to play a decisive role in the economic growth of the country, then building its headquarters in Metanopoli (frazioneofSan Donato Milanese) at the southern border of Milan.[106]

The new economic development caused a demographic growth in the city that saw a large internal immigration fromsouthern Italyto Milan. The large industries managed to attract the laborers they needed also by posting posters in the towns of southern Italy offering them a bed in company housing for the time needed to settle in. The population grew from 1.3 million in 1951 to 1.7 million in 1967.[107]In 1964, after seven years of construction work, the first section of theMilan Metrowas inaugurated, part of what would become theMilan Metro Line 1.Line 2opened five years later in 1969,[108]Line 3in 1990,[108]Line 5in 2013,[109]andLine 4in 2022.

The economic prosperity was, however, overshadowed in the late 1960s and early 1970s during the so-calledYears of lead,when Milan witnessed an unprecedented wave of street violence,labour strikesandpolitical terrorism.The apex of this period of turmoil occurred on 12 December 1969, whena bombexploded at the National Agrarian Bank in Piazza Fontana, killing 17 people and injuring 88.[110]

In the 1980s, with the international success of Milanese houses (likeArmani,Prada,Versace,MoschinoandDolce & Gabbana), Milan became one of theworld's fashion capitals.The city has hosted theMilan Fashion Weektwice every year since 1975 (which previously took place inFlorence), curated by theCamera Nazionale della Moda Italiana,based in Milan. Most of the shops of the most important Italian fashion houses and beyond are concentrated in the fashion district of Milan, the so-called "Quadrilatero della moda",i.e.via Monte Napoleone,via della Spiga,via Sant'Andrea, via Borgospesso,via Manzoni,via Santo Spirito,corso Venezia,corso Matteotti, via Bigli, via Senato and via Bagutta. Other shopping areas are theGalleria Vittorio Emanuele II,defined as "the oldest shopping center" in the world,Corso Buenos Aires,one of the longest shopping streets in Europe,Piazza del Duomo,Via Torino, Corso di Porta Ticinese, Via Vittorio Emanuele II,Piazza San Babila,Via Dante,Corso Vercelli and Corso Genova.[111]

This period led the mass media to nickname the metropolis"Milano da bere",literally "Milan to be drunk",[112]a journalistic expression that recalled the widespread well-being, thecareeristand opulent rampantism flaunted by the emerging social classes and the "fashionable" image of the city.[113]But in the 1990s Milan was badly affected byTangentopoli,a political scandal in which many politicians and businessmen were tried for corruption. The city was also affected by a severe financial crisis and a steady decline in textiles, automobile and steel production.[105]Berlusconi's Milano 2 and Milano 3 projects were the most important housing projects of the 1980s and 1990s in Milan and brought to the city new economical and social energy.

Thecity also saw a markedrise ininternational tourism,notably from the United States and Japan, while the stock exchange increased its market capitalisation more than five-fold.[114]The city boasts several popular tourist attractions, such as theMilan CathedralandPiazza del Duomo,theTeatro alla Scala,theSan Siro Stadium,theGalleria Vittorio Emanuele II,theCastello Sforzesco,thePinacoteca di Breraand theVia Montenapoleone.Most tourists visit sights[115]such as Milan Cathedral, the Castello Sforzesco and the Teatro alla Scala; however, other main sights such as theBasilica di Sant'Ambrogio,theNavigliand theBrera districtare less visited and prove to be less popular.[116]The city also has numerous hotels, including the ultra-luxuriousTown House Galleria,which is the world's firstseven-starhotel according toSociété Générale de Surveillance(five-star superior luxuryaccording to state law, however) and one ofThe Leading Hotels of the World.[117]

21st century

[edit]
The skyscrapers ofPorta Nuova business district
The skyscrapers ofCityLife business district

On 8 October 2001, the city was shocked bythe most serious plane crash in the history of Italy:[118]at 08:10 local time aMcDonnell Douglas MD-80of theScandinavian Airlineswas taking off fromMilan-Linate Airport,collided with a privateCessna Citationwhich, due to thick fog and difficult to read signs, had followed a different route from the one indicated by the control tower and had mistakenly entered the take-off runway. After the impact, the MD-87 crashed into the baggage depot located on the extension of the runway. The impact and the fire that subsequently broke out left no escape for all the occupants of both aircraft and for four of the five baggage sorters working in the depot. There were 118 victims that perished.[119]

In the early 21st century, Milan underwent a series of sweeping redevelopments over huge former industrial areas.[120]Two new business districts,Porta NuovaandCityLife,were built in the span of a decade, radically changing the skyline of the city. Porta Nuova has a 2017 city GDP of €400 billion, which makes it Europe's richest district within any city. A concentration of companies are based in Porta Nuova, with 4% of all institutions and conglomerates found in Italy, while Milan has 40% of all these business, and Milan's Lombardy region has 53% of it. The former industrial district ofBovisawas renovated with the transformation of the former industrial buildings into the second campus of thePolytechnic University of Milan,while the newUniversity of Milano-Bicoccawas built where the industrial complexes stood in theBicoccadistrict.

Expo 2015,which took place in Milan
San Siro Stadiumin Milan will also host the opening ceremony of the2026 Winter Olympicsof Milan andCortina d'Ampezzo

Its exhibition centre moved to a much larger site.[121]Opened in 2005, is a fairground complex designed by architectMassimiliano Fuksas,located in an area on the border between the towns ofRhoandPeroreplacing the former grounds which were developed into the newCityLifedistrict of Milan. TheFiera MilanoRho location is mainly used for industrial trade shows. The firm is the most important trade fair organiser in Italy and the world's fourth largest.[122]Fiera Milano mainly operates in the fields of management and organisation of exhibitions, trade fairs and conferences. It hosts about 70 shows (of which about one-third are directly organized) and 30,000 exhibitors every year.[123]

The long decline in traditional manufacturing has been overshadowed by a great expansion of publishing, finance, banking, fashion design, information technology, logistics and tourism.[124]The city's decades-long population decline seems to have partially reverted in recent years, as thecomunegained about 100,000 new residents since the last census. The successful re-branding of the city as a global capital of innovation has been instrumental in its successful bids for hosting large international events such asExpo 2015and2026 Winter Olympics.

Expo 2015's theme was "Feeding the Planet, Energy for Life", encompassing technology, innovation, culture, traditions and creativity and how they relate to food and diet. The exposition developed themes introduced in earlier expos (such as water atExpo 2008inZaragoza) in light of new global scenarios and emerging issues, focusing on theright to healthy, secure and sufficient foodfor the world's inhabitants.Futuristicconcerns aboutfood securityare compounded by forecasts of increasing uncertainty about the quantity of food which will be available globally. Expo 2015's concept was designed by a committee of four architects:Stefano Boeri,Richard Burdett, Mark Rylander andJacques Herzog.The main idea was to trace two avenues (a main and a secondary avenue), representing the ancient Roman layout of acardoand adecumanus.

2026 Winter Olympics will be thefourth Olympic Games hosted in Italy,which previously hosted the2006 Winter OlympicsinTurin,the1956 Winter Olympicsin Cortina d'Ampezzo and the1960 Summer OlympicsinRome.It will be the first Olympic Games officially featuring multiple host cities and will be the firstWinter OlympicssinceSarajevo 1984where the opening and closing ceremonies will be held in different venues. Events will also take place in seven other northeastern Italian cities. The games will mark the 20th anniversary of the Winter Olympics in Turin, the 70th anniversary of the Winter Olympics in Cortina d'Ampezzo and the first time that Milan will host an Olympic Games.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
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Bibliography

[edit]

Published in the 16th-19th century

[edit]
in English
in other languages

Published in the 20th century

[edit]
in English
in Italian
  • Francesco Malaguzzi Valeri (1906),Milano(in Italian), Bergamo: Istituto Italiano d'Arti Grafiche,OL22335383M
  • "Milano".Piemonte, Lombardia, Canton Ticino.Guida d'Italia (in Italian). Milan:Touring Club Italiano.1916. p. 5+.hdl:2027/uiuo.ark:/13960/t1rf92c9w.
  • Storia di Milano(in Italian). FondazioneTreccani.OCLC461149469.1953-1966 (17 volumes)
  • Luigi Ganapini. Una città in guerra (Milano, 1939-1951) (Milan: Angeli, 1988)
  • Achille Rastelli. Bombe sulla città. Gli attacchi aerei alleati: le vittime civili a Milano (Milan: Mursia, 2000)

Published in the 21st century

[edit]
in English
[edit]
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