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History of South America

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1892 map of South America
Animation showing geographic evolution of European colonies and breakaway states inSouth America,1700 to present
Contemporary political map of South America

Thehistory of South Americais the study of the past, particularly the written record, oral histories, and traditions, passed down from generation to generation on the continent ofSouth America.The continent continues to be home to indigenous peoples, some of whom built high civilizations prior to the arrival of Europeans in the late 1400s and early 1500s. South America has a history that has a wide range of human cultures and forms of civilization. The Caral Supe civilization, also known as theNorte Chico civilizationinPeruis the oldest civilization in theAmericasand one of the first six independent civilizations in the world; it was contemporaneous with the Egyptian pyramids. It predated theMesoamericanOlmecby nearly two millennia.[1][2]

Indigenous peoples' thousands of years of independent life were disrupted by European colonization from Spain and Portugal and by demographic collapse. The resulting civilizations, however, were very different from those of their colonizers, both in the mestizos and the indigenous cultures of the continent. Through the trans-Atlanticslave trade,South America (especially Brazil) became the home of millions of people of theAfrican diaspora.The mixing of ethnic groups led to new social structures.

The tensions between Europeans, indigenous peoples, and African slaves and their descendants shaped South America, starting in sixteenth century. Most of Spanish America achieved its independence in the early nineteenth century through hard-foughtwars,while Portuguese Brazil first became the seat of the Portuguese empire and then an empire independent of Portugal. With the revolution for independence from the Spanish crown achieved during the 19th century, South America underwent yet more social and political changes. These have includednation buildingprojects, absorbing waves of immigration from Europe in the late 19th and 20th centuries, dealing with increased international trade, colonization of hinterlands, and wars about territory ownership andpower balance.During this period there has also been the reorganization of Indigenous rights and duties, subjugation of Indigenous peoples living in the states' frontiers, that lasted until the early 1900s; liberal-conservative conflicts among the ruling classes, and major demographic and environmental changes accompanying the development of sensitive habitats.

Prehistory[edit]

Aerial view of the Amazon rainforest, nearManaus
Main article:Settlement of the Americas
Paleogeography of northern South America around 105 mya

In thePaleozoicand EarlyMesozoiceras,South AmericaandAfricawere connected in a landmass calledGondwana,as part of thesupercontinentPangaea.In theAlbian,around 110mya,South America and Africa began to diverge along the southernMid-Atlantic Ridge,giving rise to a landmass ofAntarcticaand South America. During the lateEocene,around 35mya,Antarctica and South America separated and South America became a massive, biologically rich island-continent. During approximately 30 million years, thebiodiversityof South America was isolated from the rest of the world, leading to the evolution of species within the continent.[3]

Theevent that caused the mass-extinction of dinosaurs 66 Myagave rise toneotropicalrainforestbiomeslike theAmazonia,replacing species composition and structure of local forests. During~6 million years of recoveryto former levels of plantdiversity,they evolved from widely spacedgymnosperm-dominated forests to the forests with thickcanopieswhich block sunlight, prevalentflowering plantsand highvertical layeringas known today.[4][5]

Geological evidence suggests that approximately 3 million years ago, South America became connected to North America when the Bolivar Trough marine barrier disappeared and the Panamanian land bridge formed. The joining of these two land masses led to theGreat American Interchange,in which biota from both continents expanded their ranges.[3]The first species known to have made the northward migration wasPliometanastes,a fossilground slothroughly the size of a modernblack bear.[3]Migrations to the Southern Hemisphere were undertaken by severalNorth Americanmammalian carnivores. Fewer species migrated in the opposite direction from south to north. The result of the expansion of a North American fauna was a mass extinction in which hundreds of species disappeared in a relatively short time. About 60% of present-day South American mammals have evolved from North American species.[3]Some South American species were able to adapt and spread into North America. Apart fromPliometanastes,during theIrvingtonianstage of the mammal land stages, around 1.9mya,species asPampatherium,a giantarmadillo,ground slothMegatherium,giantanteaterMyrmecophaga,a Neogenecapybara(Hydrochoerus),Meizonyx,opossumDidelphis,andMixotoxodonfollowed the route north.[3]Theterror birdTitanis,the only large carnivore in South American, dispersed into North America.[3]

Pre-Columbian era[edit]

Main article:Pre-Columbian era § South America

Earliest inhabitants[edit]

The Americas are thought to have been first inhabited by people from eastern Asia who crossed theBering Land Bridgeto present-day Alaska; the land separated and the continents are divided by theBering Strait.Over the course of millennia, three waves of migrants spread to all parts of the Americas.[6]Genetic and linguistic evidence has shown that the last wave of migrant peoples settled across the northern tier, and did not reach South America.

Amongst the oldest evidence for human presence in South America is theMonte Verde IIsite in Chile, suggested to date to around 14,500 years ago.[7]From around 13,000 years ago, theFishtail projectile pointstyle became widespread across South America, with its disppearance around 11,000 years ago coincident with the disappearance of South America'smegafaunaas part of theQuaternary extinction event.[8]

Agriculture and domestication of animals[edit]

The first evidence for the existence of agricultural practices in South America dates back to circa 6500 BCE, whenpotatoes,chiliesandbeansbegan to be cultivated for food in theAmazon Basin.Pottery evidence suggests thatmanioc,which remains a staple food supply today, was being cultivated as early as 2000 BCE.[9]

South American cultures began domesticatingllamasandalpacasin the highlands of theAndescirca 3500 BCE. These animals were used for both transportation and meat; their fur was shorn or collected to use to make clothing.[9]Guinea pigswere also domesticated as a food source at this time.[10]

By 2000 BCE, many agrarian village communities had developed throughout the Andes and the surrounding regions. Fishing became a widespread practice along the coast, with fish being the primary source of food for those communities. Irrigation systems were also developed at this time, which aided in the rise of agrarian societies.[9]The food crops werequinoa,corn,lima beans,common beans,peanuts,manioc,sweet potatoes,potatoes,ocaandsquashes.[11]Cottonwas also grown and was particularly important as the only major fiber crop.[9]

Among the earliest permanent settlements, dated to 4700 BC is theHuaca Prietasite on the coast of Peru, and at 3500 BC theValdivia culturein Ecuador. Other groups also formed permanent settlements. Among those groups were theMuiscaor "Muysca," and the Tairona, located in present-day Colombia. TheCañariof Ecuador,Quechuaof Peru, andAymaraof Bolivia were the three most important Native peoples who developed societies of sedentary agriculture in South America.

In the last two thousand years, there may have been contact with thePolynesianswho sailed to and from the continent across the South Pacific Ocean. The sweet potato, which originated in South America,spreadthrough some areas of the Pacific. There is no genetic legacy of human contact.[12]

Members of an uncontacted tribe encountered in theBrazilianstate ofAcrein 2009

Caral-Supe / Norte Chico[edit]

Caral

On the north-central coast of present-dayPeru,theCaral-Supe civilization,also known as theNorte Chico civilizationemerged as one of six civilizations to develop independently in the world. It was roughly contemporaneous with the Egyptian pyramids. It preceded the civilization ofMesoamericaby two millennia. It is believed to have been the only civilization dependent on fishing rather than agriculture to support its population.[13]

TheCaral Supecomplex is one of the larger Norte Chico sites and has been dated to 27th century BCE. It is noteworthy for having absolutely no signs of warfare. It was contemporary with urbanism's rise inMesopotamia.[14]

Cañari[edit]

Ingapirca,Ecuador,Caħari ruins: astronomical stone (left), tomb (right) and reconstructed house (background)

TheCañariwere the indigenous natives of today's Ecuadorian provinces ofCañarandAzuayat the time of European contact. They were an elaborate civilization with advanced architecture and religious belief. Most of their remains were either burned or destroyed from attacks by theIncaand later the Spaniards. Their old city "Guapondelig", was replaced twice, first by theIncancity of Tomipamba, and later by the colonial city ofCuenca.[15]The city was believed by the Spanish to be the site ofEl Dorado,the city of gold from the mythology of Colombia.

The Cañari were most notable in having repulsed the Incan invasion with fierce resistance for many years until they fell to Tupac Yupanqui. It is said that the Inca strategically married the Cañari princess Paccha to conquer the people. Many of their descendants still reside inCañar.[16]

Chibchan Nations[edit]

Distribution ofChibchan languagesin southern Central America and northwestern South America, present-day Colombia
See also:Spanish conquest of the Chibchan Nations

TheChibcha-speakingcommunities were the most numerous, the most extended by territory, and the most socio-economically developed of the Pre-Hispanic Colombian cultures. They were divided into two linguistic subgroups; the Arwako-Chimila languages, with theTairona,Kankuamo,Kogi,Arhuaco,ChimilaandChitarero peopleand the Kuna-Colombian languages withKuna,Nutabe,Motilon,U'wa,Lache,Guane,SutagaoandMuisca.[17]

Muisca[edit]

The fine goldworking of the Muisca formed the basis for the expedition from the Caribbean coast into the heart of the Andes, where they developed an advanced civilisation based onagriculture,salt productionandtrade
Main articles:Muisca peopleandMuisca Confederation

Of these indigenous groups, the Muisca were the most advanced and formed one of the four grand civilisations in the Americas.[18]With theIncain Peru, they constituted the two developed and specialised societies of South America. The Muisca, meaning "people" or "person" in their version of the Chibcha language;Muysccubun,[19]inhabited theAltiplano Cundiboyacense,the high plateau in theEastern Rangesof the ColombianAndesand surrounding valleys, such as theTenza Valley.[20]Commonly set at 800 AD, their history succeeded theHerrera Period.[21]The people were organised in a loose confederation ofrulers,later called theMuisca Confederation.[22]At the time of theSpanish conquest,their reign spread across the modern departmentsCundinamarcaandBoyacáwith small parts of southernSantanderwith a surface area of approximately 25,000 square kilometres (9,700 sq mi) and a total population of between 300,000 and two million individuals.[23][24][25]

The Muisca were known as "The Salt People", thanks to their extraction of and trade inhalitefrom brines in various salt mines of which those inZipaquiráandNemocónare still the most important. This extraction process was the work of theMuisca womenexclusively and formed the backbone of their highly regardedtradingwith other Chibcha-, Arawak- and Cariban-speaking neighboring indigenous groups.[26][27]Trading was performed using salt, small cotton cloths and larger mantles and ceramics asbarter trade.[28]Their economy was agricultural in nature, profiting from the fertile soils of thePleistoceneLake Humboldtthat existed on the Bogotá savanna until around 30,000 years BP. Their crops were cultivated using irrigation and drainage on elevated terraces and mounds.[27][29][30]To the Spanish conquistadors they were best known for their advancedgold-working,as represented in thetunjos(votive offer pieces), spread inmuseum collectionsall around the world. The famousMuisca raft,centerpiece in the collection of theMuseo del Oroin the Colombian capitalBogotá,shows the skilled goldworking of the inhabitants of the Altiplano. The Muisca were the only pre-Columbian civilization known in South America to have used coins (tejuelos).[31]

The gold andtumbaga(a gold-silver-copper alloy elaborated by the Muisca) created the legend ofEl Dorado;the "land, city or man of gold". The Spanish conquistadors who landed in the Caribbean city ofSanta Martawere informed of the rich gold culture and led byGonzalo Jiménez de Quesadaand his brotherHernán Pérez,organised the most strenuous of the Spanish conquests into the heart of the Andes in April 1536. After an expedition of a year, where 80% of the soldiers died due to the harsh climate, carnivores such as caimans andjaguarsand the frequent attacks of the indigenous peoples found along the route,Tisquesusa,thezipaof Bacatá, on theBogotá savanna,was beaten by the Spanish on April 20, 1537, and died "bathing in his own blood", as prophesied by themohanPopón.[32]

Amazon[edit]

See also:Amazon rainforest § History,andChachapoya culture
Geoglyphs on deforested land in the Amazon rainforest

For a long time, scholars believed that Amazon forests were occupied by small numbers of hunter-gatherer tribes. ArcheologistBetty J. Meggerswas a prominent proponent of this idea, as described in her bookAmazonia: Man and Culture in a Counterfeit Paradise.However, recent archeological findings have suggested that the region was densely populated. From the 1970s, numerousgeoglyphshave been discovered on deforested land dating between 0–1250 AD. Additional finds have led to conclusions that there were highly developed and populous cultures in the forests, organized asPre-Columbiancivilizations.[33]The BBC'sUnnatural Historiesclaimed that the Amazon rainforest, rather than being a pristinewilderness,has been shaped by man for at least 11,000 years through practices such asforest gardening.[34]The discovery of theUpano Valley sitesin present-day eastern Ecuador predate all known complex Amazonian societies.[35]

The first European to travel the length of theAmazon RiverwasFrancisco de Orellanain 1542.[36]The BBC documentaryUnnatural Historiespresents evidence that Francisco de Orellana, rather than exaggerating his claims as previously thought, was correct in his observations that an advanced civilization was flourishing along the Amazon in the 1540s. It is believed that the civilization was later devastated by the spread of infectious diseases from Europe, such assmallpox,to which the natives had no immunity.[34]Some 5 million people may have lived in the Amazon region in 1500, divided between dense coastal settlements, such as that atMarajó,and inland dwellers.[37]By 1900 the population had fallen to 1 million, and by the early 1980s, it was less than 200,000.[37]

Researchers have found that the fertileterra preta(black earth) is distributed over large areas in the Amazon forest. It is now widely accepted that these soils are a product of indigenoussoil management.The development of this soil enabledagricultureandsilvicultureto be conducted in the previously hostile environment. Large portions of the Amazon rainforest are therefore probably the result of centuries of human management, rather than naturally occurring as has previously been supposed.[38]In the region of theXinguanostribe, remains of some of these large, mid-forest Amazon settlements were found in 2003 by Michael Heckenberger and colleagues of theUniversity of Florida.Among those remains were evidence of constructed roads, bridges and large plazas.[39]

Andean civilizations[edit]

Chavín[edit]

Overview map of the world in 500 BC, showingChavín,Paracas,Chorreraand their neighbors

TheChavín,a South American preliterate civilization, established a trade network and developed agriculture by 900 BCE, according to some estimates and archeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site calledChavín de Huantarin modernPeruat an elevation of 3,177 meters.[40]Chavín civilization spanned 900 to 200 BCE.[41]

Moche[edit]

Moche portrait vessel,c. 200—850 AD

TheMochethrived on the north coast of Peru between the first and ninth century CE.[42]The heritage of the Moche comes down to us through their elaborate burials, excavated by former UCLA professorChristopher B. Donnanin association with theNational Geographic Society.[43]

Skilled artisans, the Moche were a technologically advanced people who traded with faraway peoples, like theMaya.Knowledge about the Moche has been derived mostly from their ceramic pottery, which is carved with representations of their daily lives. They practiced human sacrifice, had blood-drinking rituals, and their religion incorporated non-procreative sexual practices (such as fellatio).[44][45]

Inca[edit]

Holding their capital at the great puma-shaped city ofCuzco,theInca civilizationdominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known asTawantin suyu,or "the land of the four regions," inQuechua,the Inca civilization was highly distinct and developed. Inca rule extended to nearly a hundred linguistic or ethnic communities, some 9 to 14 million people connected by a 25,000-kilometreroad system.Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain.Terrace farmingwas a useful form of agriculture. There is evidence of excellent metalwork and successfulskull surgeryin Inca civilization. The Inca had no written language, but usedquipu,a system of knotted strings, to record information.[46]Ongoing Kiphu research suggests that the Inca used a phonetic system as a form of writing in the kiphu.[47]

Arawak and Carib civilizations[edit]

TheArawaklived along the eastern coast of South America, from present-dayGuyanato as far south as what is now Brazil. ExplorerChristopher Columbusdescribed them at first encounter as a peaceful people, having already dominated other local groups such as theCiboney.The Arawak had, however, come under increasing military pressure from theCarib,who are believed to have left theOrinocoriver area to settle on islands and the coast of the Caribbean Sea. Over the century leading up to Columbus' arrival in the Caribbean archipelago in 1492, the Carib are believed to have displaced many of the Arawak who previously settled the island chains. The Carib also encroached on Arawak territory in what is modern Guyana.

The Carib were skilled boatbuilders and sailors who owed their dominance in the Caribbean basin to their military skills. The Carib war rituals includedcannibalism;they had a practice of taking home the limbs of victims as trophies.

It is not known how manyindigenous peopleslived in Venezuela and Colombia before theSpanish Conquest;it may have been approximately one million,[48]including groups such as theAuaké,Caquetio,Mariche,andTimoto-cuicas.[49]The number of people fell dramatically after the Conquest, mainly due to high mortality rates in epidemics of infectious Eurasian diseases introduced by the explorers, who carried them as an endemic disease.[48]There were two main north–south axes of pre-Columbian population; producingmaizein the west andmaniocin the east.[48]Large parts of thellanosplains were cultivated through a combination ofslash and burnand permanent settled agriculture.[48]

European colonization[edit]

Main articles:Colonial Spanish AmericaandColonial Brazil
Spanish conquistadorFrancisco Pizarromeets with theIncaemperorAtahualpa,1532

Before the arrival of Europeans 20–30 million people lived in South America.[50]

Between 1452 and 1493, a series of papal bulls (Dum Diversas,Romanus Pontifex,andInter caetera) paved the way for theEuropean colonizationandCatholic missionsin theNew World.These authorized the European Christian nations to "take possession" of non-Christian lands and encouraged subduing and converting the non-Christian people of Africa and the Americas.[51][52]

In 1494,PortugalandSpain,the two great maritime powers of that time, signed theTreaty of Tordesillasin the expectation of new lands being discovered in the west. Through the treaty, they agreed that all the land outside Europe should be an exclusiveduopolybetween the two countries. The treaty established an imaginary line along a north–southmeridian370leagueswest ofCape Verde Islands,roughly 46° 37' W. In terms of the treaty, all land to the west of the line (which is now known to include most of the South American soil), would belong to Spain, and all land to the east, to Portugal. Because accurate measurements oflongitudewere not possible at that time, the line was not strictly enforced, resulting in aPortuguese expansion of Brazilacross the meridian.[53][54]

In 1498, during his third voyage to the Americas,Christopher Columbussailed near theOrinoco Deltaand then landed in theGulf of Paria(in what is nowVenezuela). Amazed by the great offshore current of freshwater which deflected his course eastward, Columbus stated in his letter toIsabella I and Ferdinand IIthat he must have reached heaven on Earth (terrestrial paradise):

Great signs are these of the Terrestrial Paradise, for the site conforms to the opinion of the holy and wise theologians whom I have mentioned. And likewise, the [other] signs conform very well, for I have never read or heard of such a large quantity of fresh water being inside and in such close proximity to salt water; the very mild temperateness also corroborates this; and if the water of which I speak does not proceed from Paradise then it is an even greater marvel, because I do not believe such a large and deep river has ever been known to exist in this world.[55]

TheIberian Unionin 1598, underPhilip II,King of Spain and Portugal

Beginning in 1499, the people and natural resources of South America were repeatedly exploited by foreignconquistadors,first from Spain and later from Portugal. These competing colonial nations claimed the land and resources as their own and divided it into colonies.[56]

European diseases (smallpox,influenza,measlesandtyphus) to which the native populations had no resistance were the overwhelming cause of the depopulation of the Native American population.[57]Systems of forced labor (such asencomiendasand mining industriesmita) under Spanish control also contributed to depopulation. Lower bound estimates speak of a decline in the population of around 20–50 percent, whereas the highest estimates reach 90 percent.[58]Following this,enslavedAfricans, who had developed immunity to these diseases, were quickly brought in to replace them.[59]

The Spaniards were committed to converting their American subjects toChristianityand were quick to purge any native cultural practices that hindered this end. However, most initial attempts at this were only partially successful; American groups simply blendedCatholicismwith their traditional beliefs. The Spaniards did not impose their language to the degree they did their religion. In fact, the missionary work of theRoman Catholic ChurchinQuechua,Nahuatl,andGuaraniactually contributed to the expansion of these American languages, equipping them with writing systems.[citation needed]

Eventually, the natives and the Spaniards interbred, forming aMestizoclass. Mestizos and the Native Americans were often forced to pay unfair taxes to the Spanish government (although all subjects paid taxes) and were punished harshly for disobeying their laws. Many native artworks were considered pagan idols and destroyed by Spanish explorers. This included a great number of gold and silver sculptures, which were melted down before transport to Europe.[60]

17th and 18th centuries[edit]

In 1616, the Dutch, attracted by the legend ofEl Dorado,founded a fort inGuayanaand established three colonies:[61]

In 1624 France attempted to settle in the area of modern-dayFrench Guiana,but was forced to abandon it in the face of hostility from thePortuguese,who viewed it as a violation of theTreaty of Tordesillas.However French settlers returned in 1630 and in 1643 managed to establish a settlement atCayennealong with some small-scale plantations.[62]

Since the sixteenth century, there were some movements of discontent to the Spanish and Portuguese colonial system. Among these movements, the most famous being that of theMaroons,slaves who escaped their masters and in the shelter of the forest communities organized free communities. Attempts to subject them by the royal army were unsuccessful because the Maroons had learned to master the South American jungles. In a royal decree of 1713, the king gave legality to the first free population of the continent: Palenque de San Basilio in Colombia today, led byBenkos Bioho.Brazil saw the formation of a genuine African kingdom on their soil, with theQuilombo of Palmares.[63]

Between 1721 and 1735, theRevolt of the Comuneros of Paraguayarose, because of clashes between the Paraguayan settlers and the Jesuits, who ran the large and prosperousJesuit Reductionsand controlled a large number of Christianized Natives.[citation needed]

Between 1742 and 1756, was the insurrection ofJuan Santos Atahualpain the central jungle ofPeru.In 1780, theViceroyalty of Peruwas met with the insurrection of curacaJoseph Gabriel CondorcanquiorTupac Amaru II,which would be continued by Tupac Katari inUpper Peru.[citation needed]

In 1763, the AfricanCoffyled a revolt in Guyana which was bloodily suppressed by the Dutch.[64] In 1781, theRevolt of the Comuneros (New Granada),an insurrection of the villagers in theViceroyalty of New Granada,was a popular revolution that united indigenous people and mestizos. The villagers tried to be the colonial power and despite the capitulation were signed, the ViceroyManuel Antonio Flórezdid not comply, and instead ran to the main leadersJosé Antonio Galán.

In 1796, the Dutch colony ofEssequibowas captured by theBritishduring theFrench Revolutionary Wars.[65]

During the eighteenth century, the figure of the priest, mathematician and botanistJosé Celestino Mutis(1732–1808), was delegated by the ViceroyAntonio Caballero y Gongorato conduct an inventory of the nature of theNueva Granada,which became known as the Botanical Expedition, which classified plants, wildlife and founded the first astronomical observatory in the city ofSanta Fé de Bogotá.[citation needed]

On August 15, 1801, the Prussian scientistAlexander von Humboldtreached Fontibón where Mutis had begun his expedition toNew Granada,Quito. The meeting between the two scholars is considered the brightest spot of the botanical expedition. Humboldt also visited Venezuela,Mexico,United States,Chile, andPeru. Through his observations of temperature differences between the Pacific Ocean between Chile and Peru in different periods of the year, he discovered cold currents moving from south to north up the coast of Peru, which was named the Humboldt Current in his honor.[66]

Between 1806 and 1807, British military forcestried to invade the areaof the Rio de la Plata, at the command ofHome Riggs PophamandWilliam Carr Beresford,andJohn Whitelocke.The invasions were repelled, but powerfully affected the Spanish authority.[67][68]

Independence and 19th century[edit]

Countries in the Americas by date of independence

The Spanish colonies won their independence in the first quarter of the 19th century, in theSpanish American wars of independence.Simón Bolívar(Greater Colombia,Peru,Bolivia),José de San Martín(United Provinces of the River Plate,Chile,andPeru), andBernardo O'Higgins(Chile) led their independence struggle. Although Bolivar attempted to keep the Spanish-speaking parts of the continent politically unified, they rapidly became independent of one another.

Unlike the Spanish colonies, the Brazilian independence came as an indirect consequence of the Napoleonic Invasions to Portugal – French invasion under General Junot led to the capture ofLisbonon 8 December 1807. In order not to lose its sovereignty, the Portuguese Court moved the capital fromLisbontoRio de Janeiro,which was thePortuguese Empire's capital between 1808 and 1821 and rose the relevance ofBrazilwithin thePortuguese Empire's framework. Following the PortugueseLiberal Revolution of 1820,and after several battles and skirmishes were fought in Pará and in Bahia, theheir apparentPedro,son of KingJohn VI of Portugal,proclaimed the country's independence in 1822 and became Brazil's firstemperor(He later also reigned as Pedro IV of Portugal). This was one of the most peaceful colonial independences ever seen in human history.

Territorial disputes in South America in the 19th century

A struggle for power emerged among the new nations, and several further wars were soon fought thereafter.

The first few wars were fought for supremacy in the northern and southern parts of the continent. TheGran Colombia – Peru Warof the north and theCisplatine War(between theEmpire of Braziland theUnited Provinces of the River Plate) ended in stalemate, although the latter resulted in the independence ofUruguay(1828). A few years later, after the break-up of Gran Colombia in 1831, the balance of power shifted in favor of the newly formedPeru-Bolivian Confederation(1836–1839). Nonetheless, this power structure proved temporary and shifted once more as a result of the Northern Peruvian State's victory over the Southern Peruvian State-BoliviaWar of the Confederation(1836–1839), and theArgentine Confederation's defeat in theGuerra Grande(1839–1852).

Later conflicts between the South American nations continued to define their borders and power status. In the Pacific coast, Chile and Peru continued to exhibit their increasing domination, defeating Spain in theChincha Islands War.Finally, after precariously defeating Peru during theWar of the Pacific(1879–1883), Chile emerged as the dominant power of the Pacific Coast of South America. In the Atlantic side,Paraguayattempted to gain a more dominant status in the region, but an alliance of Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay (in the resulting 1864–1870War of the Triple Alliance) ended Paraguayan ambitions. Thereupon, theSouthern Conenations of Argentina, Brazil, and Chile entered the 20th century as themajor continental powers.

A few countries did not gain independence until the 20th century:

French Guianaremains an overseasdepartmentof France.

20th century[edit]

SQM GE 289A "Boxcabs" 603 and 607hauling empty nitrate hoppers from Tocopilla to Barriles, Chile.

1900–1920[edit]

By the start of the century, the United States continued its interventionist attitude, which aimed to directly defend its interests in the region. This was officially articulated inTheodore Roosevelt'sBig Stick Doctrine,which modified the oldMonroe Doctrine,which had simply aimed to deter European intervention in the hemisphere.

1930–1960[edit]

See also:Latin America during World War II

TheGreat Depressionposed a challenge to the region. The collapse of the world economy meant that the demand for raw materials drastically declined, undermining many of the economies of South America.

The BrazilianMinas Geraesclasskindled anArgentine–Brazilian–Chilean naval arms race

Intellectuals and government leaders in South America turned their backs on the older economic policies and turned towardimport substitution industrialization.The goal was to create self-sufficient economies, which would have their own industrial sectors and large middle classes and which would be immune to the ups and downs of the global economy. Despite the potential threats to United States commercial interests, theRoosevelt administration(1933–1945) understood that the United States could not wholly oppose import substitution. Roosevelt implemented agood neighbor policyand allowed the nationalization of some American companies in South America. TheSecond World Waralso brought the United States and most Latin American nations together.

The history of South America during World War II is important because of the significant economic, political, and military changes that occurred throughout much of the region as a result of the war. In order to better protect thePanama Canal,combatAxisinfluence, and optimize the production of goods for the war effort, theUnited StatesthroughLend-Leaseand similar programs greatly expanded its interests inLatin America,resulting in large-scale modernization and a major economic boost for the countries that participated.[69]

Strategically,Brazilwas of great importance because of its having the closest point in theAmericastoAfricawhere the Allies were actively engaged in fighting theGermansandItalians.For the Axis, theSouthern Conenations ofArgentinaandChilewere where they found most of their South American support, and they utilised it to the fullest by interfering with internal affairs, conductingespionage,and distributingpropaganda.[69][70][71]

Brazil was the only country to send anExpeditionary forceto theEuropean theatre;however, several countries had skirmishes with German U-boats and cruisers in theCaribbeanandSouth Atlantic.Mexico sent afighter squadronof 300 volunteers to the Pacific, theEscuadrón 201were known as theAztec Eagles(Aguilas Aztecas).

The Brazilian active participation on the battle field in Europe was divined after theCasablanca Conference.The President of the U.S.,Franklin D. Roosevelton his way back from Morocco met the President of Brazil,Getulio Vargas,inNatal, Rio Grande do Norte,this meeting is known as thePotenji River Conference,and defined the creation of theBrazilian Expeditionary Force.

Economics[edit]

According to author Thomas M. Leonard,World War IIhad a major impact on Latin American economies. Following the December 7, 1941Japaneseattack on Pearl Harbor,most of Latin America either severed relations with the Axis powers or declared war on them. As a result, many nations (including all ofCentral America,theDominican Republic,Mexico,Chile,Peru,Argentina,andVenezuela) suddenly found that they were now dependent on the United States for trade. The United States' high demand for particular products and commodities during the war further distorted trade. For example, the United States wanted all of the platinum produced inColombia,all the silver of Chile, and all of cotton, gold and copper of Peru. The parties agreed upon set prices, often with a high premium, but the various nations lost their ability to bargain and trade in the open market.

Cold War[edit]

Wars became less frequent in the 20th century, withBolivia-ParaguayandPeru-Ecuadorfighting the last inter-state wars. Early in the 20th century, thethree wealthiest South American countriesengaged ina vastly expensive naval arms racewhich was catalyzed by the introduction of a new warship type, the "dreadnought".At one point, the Argentine government was spending a fifth of its entire yearly budget for just two dreadnoughts, a price that did not include later in-service costs, which for the Brazilian dreadnoughts was sixty percent of the initial purchase.[72][73]

The continent became a battlefield of theCold Warin the late 20th century. Some democratically elected governments of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay, and Paraguay were overthrown or displaced by military dictatorships in the 1960s and 1970s. To curtail opposition, their governments detained tens of thousands ofpolitical prisoners,many of whom were tortured and/or killed oninter-state collaboration.Economically, they began a transition toneoliberaleconomic policies. They placed their own actions within the US Cold War doctrine of "National Security" against internal subversion. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Peru suffered froman internal conflict.South America, like many other continents, became a battlefield for thesuperpowersduring theCold Warin the late 20th century. In the postwar period, the expansion ofcommunismbecame the greatest political issue for both the United States and governments in the region. The start of theCold Warforced governments to choose between the United States and theSoviet Union.

Late 20th century military regimes and revolutions[edit]

Presidents ofUNASURmember states at the Second Summit on 23 May 2008.

By the 1970s, leftists had acquired a significant political influence which prompted the right-wing, ecclesiastical authorities and a large portion of each individual country's upper class to support coups d'état to avoid what they perceived as a communist threat. This was further fueled by Cuban and United States intervention which led to a political polarisation. Most South American countries were in some periods ruled bymilitary dictatorshipsthat were supported by the United States of America.

Also around the 1970s, the regimes of theSouthern Conecollaborated inOperation Condorkilling manyleftistdissidents, including someurban guerrillas.[74] However, by the early 1990s all countries had restored their democracies.

Colombia has had an ongoing, though diminished internal conflict, which started in 1964 with the creation ofMarxistguerrillas(FARC-EP) and then involved several illegal armed groups of leftist-leaning ideology as well as the private armies of powerful drug lords. Many of these are now defunct, and only a small portion of the ELN remains, along with the stronger, though also greatly reduced FARC. These leftist groups smuggle narcotics out of Colombia to fund their operations, while also using kidnapping, bombings, land mines and assassinations as weapons against both elected and non-elected citizens.

PresidentsHugo Chávez,Néstor Kirchner,andLuiz Inácio Lula da Silvamet on January 19, 2006, inGranja do Torto
Flag of theUnion of South American Nations

Revolutionary movements and right-wing military dictatorships became common afterWorld War II,but since the 1980s, a wave of democratisation came through the continent, and democratic rule is widespread now.[75]Nonetheless, allegations of corruption are still very common, and several countries have developed crises which have forced the resignation of their governments, although, in most occasions, regular civilian succession has continued.

In the 1960s and 1970s, the governments of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay were overthrown or displaced by U.S.-alignedmilitary dictatorships.These detained tens of thousands ofpolitical prisoners,many of whom were tortured and/or killed (on inter-state collaboration, seeOperation Condor). Economically, they began a transition toneoliberaleconomic policies. They placed their own actions within the U.S.Cold Wardoctrine of "National Security" against internal subversion. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s,Perusuffered from aninternal conflict(seeTúpac Amaru Revolutionary MovementandShining Path). Revolutionary movements and right-wing military dictatorships have been common, but starting in the 1980s a wave of democratization came through the continent, and democratic rule is now widespread. Allegations of corruption remain common, and several nations have seen crises which have forced the resignation of their presidents, although normal civilian succession has continued.International indebtednessbecame a recurrent problem, with examples like the1980s debt crisis,the mid-1990sMexican peso crisisandArgentina's2001 default.

Washington Consensus[edit]

Left-leaning leaders of Bolivia, Brazil and Chile at theUnion of South American Nationssummit in 2008
Main article:Washington Consensus

The set of specific economic policy prescriptions that were considered the "standard" reform package were promoted for crisis-wracked developing countries by Washington, DC-based institutions such as theInternational Monetary Fund(IMF),World Bank,and theUS Treasury Departmentduring the 1980s and '90s.

21st century[edit]

A turn to the left[edit]

According to the BBC, a "common element of the 'pink tide' is a clean break with what was known at the outset of the 1990s as the 'Washington consensus', the mixture ofopen marketsandprivatisationpushed by the United States ".[76]According toCristina Fernández de Kirchner,apink tidepresident herself,Hugo Chávezof Venezuela (inaugurated 1999),Luiz Inácio Lula da Silvaof Brazil (inaugurated 2003) andEvo Moralesof Bolivia (inaugurated 2006) were "the three musketeers" of the left in South America.[77]By 2005, theBBCreported that out of 350 million people in South America, three out of four of them lived in countries ruled by "left-leaningpresidents"elected during the preceding six years.[76]

Despite the presence of a number of Latin American governments which profess to embrace a leftist ideology, it is difficult to categorize Latin American states "according to dominant political tendencies, like ared-blue post-electoral map of the United States."[78]According to theInstitute for Policy Studies,aliberalnon-profitthink-tankbased in Washington, D.C.: "a deeper analysis of elections in Ecuador, Venezuela, Nicaragua, and Mexico indicates that the" pink tide "interpretation—that a diluted trend leftward is sweeping the continent—may be insufficient to understand the complexity of what's really taking place in each country and the region as a whole".[78]

While this political shift is difficult to quantify, its effects are widely noticed. According to the Institute for Policy Studies, 2006 meetings of the South American Summit of Nations and the Social Forum for the Integration of Peoples demonstrated that certain discussions that "used to take place on the margins of the dominant discourse ofneoliberalism,(have) now moved to the centre ofpublic debate."[78]

Pink tide[edit]

Rafael Correa,Evo Morales,Néstor Kirchner,Cristina Fernández de Kirchner,Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva,Nicanor Duarte,andHugo Chávezat the signing of the founding charter of theBank of the South

The term 'pink tide' (Spanish:marea rosa,Portuguese:onda rosa) or 'turn to the Left' (Sp.:vuelta hacia la izquierda,Pt.:Guinada à Esquerda) are phrases which are used in contemporary 21st centurypolitical analysisin the media and elsewhere to describe the perception thatleftistideology in general, andleft-wing politicsin particular, were increasingly becoming influential in Latin America.[76][79][80]

Since the 2000s or 1990s in some countries, left-wing political parties have risen to power.Hugo Chávezin Venezuela,Luiz Inácio Lula da SilvaandDilma Rousseffin Brazil,Fernando Lugoin Paraguay,NéstorandCristina Fernández de Kirchnerin Argentina,Tabaré VázquezandJosé Mujicain Uruguay, theLagosandBacheletgovernments in Chile,Evo Moralesin Bolivia, andRafael Correaof Ecuador are all part of this wave of left-wing politicians who also often declare themselves socialists, Latin Americanists oranti-imperialists.

Her ExcellencyDilma Rousseff,36thPresident of Brazil
The list of leftist South American presidents is, by date of election, the following

Politics[edit]

During the first decade of the 21st century, South American governments move to the political left, with leftist leaders being elected in Chile, Uruguay, Brazil, Argentina, Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay, Peru, and Venezuela. Most South American countries are making an increasing use of protectionist policies, undermining a greater global integration but helping local development.

In 2008, theUnion of South American Nations(USAN) was founded, which aimed to merge the two existing customs unions,Mercosurand theAndean Community,thus forming the third-largest trade bloc in the world.[149]The organization is planning for political integration in theEuropean Unionstyle, seeking to establish free movement of people, economic development, a common defense policy and the elimination oftariffs.[citation needed]According toNoam Chomsky,USAN represents that "for the first time since the European conquest, Latin America began to move towards integration".[150][151][152][153][154][155][156][157]

Most recent heads of state in South America[edit]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^Morales is described as the first indigenous president of Bolivia in academic studies of his presidency, such as those ofMuñoz-Pogossian,[97]Webber,[98]Philip and Panizza,[99]and Farthing and Kohl,[100]as well as in press reports, such as those ofBBC News.[101]However, there have been challenges to this claim by critics who have asserted that Morales probably has some European ancestry, and thus on genetic grounds is technicallymestizorather than solely indigenous.[102]Harten asserted that this argument was "misguided[,] wrong[... and] above all irrelevant" because regardless of his genetic makeup, the majority of Bolivians perceive Morales as being the first indigenous president.[102]In Bolivian society, indigeneity is a fluid concept rooted in cultural identity;[102]for instance, many indigenous individuals that have settled in urban areas and abandoned their traditional rural customs have come to identify asmestizo.[103][104]
  2. ^She is variously known as Cristina Fernández,[113][114]Cristina K, or Cristina.[114][115]

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Historiography[edit]

Bibliography[edit]

Prehistory[edit]

Muisca[edit]

Further reading[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related toHistory of South America.
  • Harvey, Robert (2000).Liberators: Latin America's Struggle For Independence, 1810–1830.John Murray, London.ISBN0-7195-5566-3.
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