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History of Trier

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Coat of arms of Trier

TrierinRhineland-Palatinate,whose history dates to theRoman Empire,is the oldest city inGermany.Traditionally it was known inEnglishby itsFrenchname ofTreves.

Prehistory

[edit]
Main article:Treveri

The first traces of human settlement in the area of the city show evidence oflinear potterysettlements dating from the earlyNeolithicperiod. Since the lastpre-Christiancenturies, members of theCeltictribe of theTreverisettled in the area of today's Trier.[1]

Roman Empire

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Map showing the Roman city plan of Augusta Treverorum
ThePorta Nigrabuilt 160-180 AD
TheAula Palatina(Constantine Basilica) built during the reign ofConstantine I(306-337 AD)
The Roman Bridge across the Moselle River

TheRomansunderJulius Caesarfirst subdued theTreveriin 58 to 50 BC. No later than 16 BC, at the foot of the hill later christened the Petrisberg, upon which a military camp had been set up in 30 BC and abandoned again a few months later, the Romans founded the city ofAugusta Treverorum( "City ofAugustusin the land of theTreveri"),[2]which has a claim to being the oldest city in Germany.[3]The honour of being named after the Emperor was only locally shared byAugsburgandAugstin northernSwitzerland.Following the reorganisation of theRoman provincesinGermanyin 16 BC, Emperor Augustus decided that the city should become the capital of the province ofBelgica.Shortly before AD 100, anamphitheatrewas built, the signal sign of a city of any importance. By the first half of the second century another major structure,a Roman circus,had reached truly monumental proportions.

Trier rose in importance during theEmpire's third-century crisis,as the chief city of the province ofGallia Belgica.From 271 to 274 AD, Trier was the second city of the breakawayGallic Empire,at first underPostumus,who was proclaimed in Cologne, then under his ephemeral successor,Victorinus,who made his base at Trier, where he had rebuilt a large house with a mosaic proclaiming his position as tribune in Postumus' GallicPraetorian Guard;[4]the city served again as capital under the emperorsTetricus IandII.From the second half of the 3rd century onwards, Trier was the seat of anarchbishopric;the first bishop beingEucharius.[5]In the year 275, the city was destroyed in an invasion by theAlamanni.Diocletianrecognized the urgency of maintaining an imperial presence in the Gauls, and established firstMaximian,thenConstantius Chlorusas caesars at Trier; from 293 to 395, Trier was one of the residences of theWestern Roman Emperor,[6]and its position required the monumental settings that betokened imperial government.

Amintwas immediately established by Constantius, which came to be the principal mint of the Roman West.[4]A new stadium was added to theamphitheater,to stagechariot races.Under the rule ofConstantine the Great(306–337), the city was rebuilt and buildings such as thePalastaula[7](known today as theConstantine Basilica) and theImperial Baths(Kaiserthermen), the largest surviving Roman baths outside Rome, were begun under Constantius and completedc314,[8]constructed[9]by his son Constantine, who left Trier in the hands of his son Crispus. In 326, sections of the imperial family's private residential palaces were extended and converted to a large double basilica, the remains of which are still partly recognisable in the area of theTrier Cathedral(Trierer Dom) and the church "Liebfrauenkirche".[10]A demolished imperial palace has left shattered sections of painted ceiling, which scholars believe once belonged to Constantine's young wife,Fausta,whom he later put to death.[11]

From 318 onwards Trier was the seat of theGallic prefecture(thePraefectus Praetorio Galliarium) which governed the western Roman provinces from Morocco to Britain. The praetorian prefects usually numbering 3–4, were the senior civilian officials taking precedence over all other officials and army officers. They were vice-regents of the emperors who alone with them could pronounce final verdicts. Constantine's sonConstantius IIresided here from 328 to 340. Roman Trier was the birthplace ofSaint Ambroseca. 340, who later became the Bishop ofMilanand was eventually named a Doctor of the Roman Catholic Church long after his death in 397. It is also where SaintAthanasiuswas first exiled by Constantine in 336.

From 367 underValentinian ITrier once more became an imperial residence until 375. It was the largest city north of theAlps.Gratianresided there for most of his reign until assassinated in 383. It was the capital ofMagnus Maximus,who ruled the prefecture of Gaul, as emperor from 383 to 388. Valentinian II visited the city. In 407, shortly after the invasion ofGaulby theVandals,AlansandSuebi,the Gallic prefecture was relocated toArles,on theRhône.

The Imperial Baths (Kaiserthermen) built in the 4th century AD

Roman Trier had been subjected to attacks byGermanictribes from 350 onwards, but these had been repulsed byEmperor Julian.After the invasions of 407 the Romans were able to reestablish the Rhine frontier and hold northern Gaul tenuously until the end of the 450s, when control was finally lost to the Franks and local military commanders who claimed to represent central Roman authority. During the early 5th century, sources indicate Trier was sacked four times by theFranks.According to Lanting & van der Plicht (2010), this happened in 411 (more probable than 407), 413, 421, and probably 428 or 435.[12]TheHunsunderAttilaalso sacked Trier in 451.[citation needed]The city became definitively part of Frankish territory (Francia Rhinensis) around 485; the last Roman administrator of Trier wasArbogast.[12]As a result of the conflicts of this period, Trier's population decreased from an estimated 80,000 in the 4th century to 5,000 at the beginning of the 6th century.[13]

Middle Ages

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See also:Electorate of Trier

By the end of the 5th century, Trier was underFrankishrule, first controlled by theMerovingian dynasty,then by theCarolingians.The city still maintained a small group ofromance speaking inhabitantsin the early 8th century.[14]As a result of theTreaty of Verdunin 843, by which the grandsons ofCharlemagnedivided his empire into three parts, Trier was incorporated into theKingdom of Lorraine(Lotharingia). After the death ofLothair II,ruler of Lorraine, Trier in 870 became part of theEast Frankish Empire,later called Germany, underHenry I.[15]

Place of pilgrimage: St. Matthias benedictine abbey.

Manyabbeysandmonasterieswere founded in the early Frankish time, including St. Maximin, St. Martin, St. Irminen, St. Maria ad Martyres/St.Mergen and others.[16]The only important abbey that survived wars andsecularizationby theFrenchat the beginning of 1800 is the Benedictine abbeySt. Matthiasin the south of Trier. Here, the first three bishops of Trier,Eucharius,ValeriusandMaternusare buried alongside the apostleSaint Matthias.[17]This is the only tomb of anapostleto be located inEuropenorth of theAlps,thus making Trier together withRomeinItaly(burial place ofSt. Peterthe apostle) andSantiago de CompostelainSpain(tomb ofSt. James) one of three major places ofpilgrimagein Europe forCatholics.In 882, Trier was sacked by theVikings,theGreat Danish Army,who burnt most churches and abbeys.[18]This was the end of the systematically built Roman Trier.[19]

Medieval legend, recorded in 1105 in theGesta Treverorum,makesTrebetason ofNinusthe founder ofTrier.[20] Also of medieval date is the inscription at the facade of the Red House of Trier market,

ANTE ROMAM TREVIRIS STETIT ANNIS MILLE TRECENTIS.
PERSTET ET ÆTERNA PACE FRVATVR. AMEN.
( "Thirteen hundred yearsbefore Rome,Trier stood / may it stand on and enjoy eternal peace, amen. ")

being mentioned in theCodex Udalriciof 1125.

TheTrier Cathedral(Trierer Dom) and the Church of our Lady (Liebfrauenkirche) to the right of the cathedral

From 902, when power passed into the hands of the archbishops, Trier was administered by theVogtof the archbishopric, which developed its ownsealin 1149. TheArchbishop of Trierwas, as chancellor ofBurgundy,one of the sevenElectorsof theHoly Roman Empire,a right which originated in the 12th or 13th century, and which continued until theFrench Revolution.From the 10th century and throughout theMiddle Ages,Trier made several attempts to achieve autonomy from the Archbishopric of Trier, but was ultimately unsuccessful. In 1212, the city received a charter from EmperorOtto IV,which was confirmed byConrad IV.In 1309, however, it was forced to once again recognise the authority of the Archbishop, who was at that time the imposingBaldwin of Luxembourg,son of the Count of Luxemburg.[21]

Elected in 1307 when he was only 22 years old, Baldwin was the most important Archbishop and Prince-Elector of Trier in the Middle Ages. He was the brother of the German King and EmperorHenry VIIand his grandnephew Charles would later become German King and Emperor asCharles IV.He used his family connections to add considerable territories to the Electorate of Trier and is also known to have built many castles in the region. When he died in 1354, Trier was a prospering city.[22]

The status of Trier as an archbishopric city was confirmed in 1364 by Emperor Charles IV and by theReichskammergericht;the city's dream of self-rule came definitively to an end in 1583. Until the demise of the old empire, Trier remained the capital of the electoral Archbishopric of Trier, although not the residence of its head of state, the Prince-Elector. At its head was a court of lay assessors, which was expanded in 1443 by ArchbishopJacob Ito include bipartisan mayors.[23]

TheDombering(curtain wall of the cathedral) having been secured at the end of the 10th century, ArchbishopTheoderich Iand his successorArnold IIlater set about surrounding the city by walls.[24]This curtain wall, which followed the path now taken by theAlleenring,enclosed 1.38 square kilometres.

Modern age

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Historical view of Trier byGeorg Braun&Frans Hogenberg:Civitates Orbis Terrarum,vol. 1, 1572.
Engraving of Trier byEberhard Kieser,from theThesaurus philopoliticus(1625) byDaniel Meisner

In 1473, EmperorFrederick IIIandCharles the Bold,Duke ofBurgundyconvened in Trier. In this same year, theUniversity of Trierwas founded in the city.[25]

From 1581 until 1593,intense witch persecutions,involving nobility as well as commoners, abounded throughout this region, leading to mass executions of hundreds of people.

In the 17th century, the Archbishops and Prince-Electors of Trier relocated their residences toPhilippsburgCastle inEhrenbreitstein,nearKoblenz. A session of theReichstagwas held in Trier in 1512, during which the demarcation of theImperial Circleswas definitively established.

TheThirty Years' War(1618–1648) did initially not touch Trier. Warfare reached the city as part of theFrench–Habsburg rivalryand the conflict between townspeople and the archbishopPhilipp Christoph von Sötern.The city asked the Spanish government in Luxemburg for help against the bishop's absolutist tendencies in 1630. While Spain sent troops and installed a garrison, the bishop used the aid of French troops to regain Trier two times in 1632 and 1645, interrupted by a surprise Spanish attack in 1635 and 10 years of Spanish occupation and imprisonment of the bishop, an event that served as a pretext to start theFranco-Spanish War.The cathedral chapter finally disempowered the bishop in 1649 using mercenaries and Lorrain troops against the bishop's French auxiliary forces.[26]

Trier experienced peace until 1673 whenFrenchtroops besieged and occupied the city. They fortified it heavily and destroyed all churches, abbeys and settlements in front of the city walls for military reasons. Despite their efforts, they were forced to leave by Imperial troops after theBattle of Konzer Brückein 1675[27]In 1684, with theWar of the Reunions,an era of French expansion began. Trier was again captured in 1684; all walls and fortresses were destroyed this time. After Trier and its associated electorate were yet again taken during theWar of Palatinate Successionin 1688, many cities in the electorate were systematically destroyed in 1689 by the French Army. Nearly all castles were blown up and the only bridge across theMosellein Trier was burnt. KingLouis XIV of Francepersonally issued the order for these acts of destruction but also gave the command to spare the city of Trier. As the French Army retreated in 1698, it left a starving city without walls and only 2,500 inhabitants.

During theWar of the Spanish Successionin 1702, Trier was occupied again by a French army. In 1704-05 an alliedBritish-Dutcharmy commanded by theDuke of Marlboroughpassed Trier on its way to France. When the campaign failed, the French came back to Trier in 1705 and stayed until 1714. After a short period of peace, theWar of the Polish Successionstarted in 1734; the following year Trier was again occupied by the French, who stayed until 1737. The last Prince-Elector,Clement Wenceslaus of Saxony,relocated toKoblenzin 1786. In August 1794,French Republican troopstook Trier. This date marked the end of the era of the old electorate. Churches, abbeys and clerical possessions were sold or the buildings put to practical use, such as stables.[28]

With the peace treaties ofBaselandCampo Formioin 1797, German hegemonic powersPrussiaandAustriaceded all German territories on the left bank of theRhineriver to France. Trier became ade factoFrench city. TheUniversity of Trierwas dissolved in the same year. In 1798, it became the capital of the newly founded FrenchDépartement de la Sarre.With theTreaty of Lunévillein 1801, Trier became also ade jureFrench city. In 1801,Napoleon Bonapartesigned a concordate withPope Pius VII,thus stopping defamations of clerics and making Trier adiocese.Its territory was identical with the Département de la Sarre, much smaller than theArchbishopric of Trierhad been until 1794. In 1802, the FrenchmanCharles Mannaybecame first bishop of the new founded diocese and, in 1803, the firstHoly Masssince 1794 was celebrated in theCathedral of Trier.Emperor Napoleon visited Trier in 1804. In this time, French Trier began to prosper.

In 1814, the French era ended suddenly as Trier was taken byPrussian troops.After the defeat of Napoleon, the Franco-German borders of 1792 were restored in the1814and1815Paris peace treaties. The city was proclaimed part of theKingdom of Prussiain 1815 and made part of theGrand Duchy of the Lower Rhine,with six administrative districts. Trier became seat of one these district administrations, theRegierungsbezirk Trier.Because of the new political situation and the newcustomsfrontiers in the West, the economy of Trier began a steady decline that was to last until 1840. The Province of the Lower Rhine was merged into theRhine Provincein 1822.

The influential philosopher and revolutionaryKarl Marxwas born in Trier in 1818. His birthplace, theKarl-Marx-Haus,was opened in 1947 and renovated in 1983.

The Constantine Basilika and the Electoral Palace

From 1840 on, the situation of Trier began to improve as the neighbouring state ofLuxembourg,an important market for Trier-made products, joined theGerman Customs Unionin 1842. Trier, with a population of 15,500 at this time, produced mainlyleather,cloth,wineandtobacco.Iron works were founded in Quint near Trier at this time. An important infrastructural improvement was the introduction of a shipping line operating withpaddle-wheel steamerson theMoselle River,connecting Trier, Koblenz andMetz.The first railway line, linking Trier withSaarbrückenand Luxembourg was inaugurated in 1860, followed by the Trier-Cologneline across theEifelin 1871 and theMoselle Railwayto Koblenz in 1879. Minor lines toBitburgviaIrrelalong theSauer River,toHermeskeilalong theRuwer Riverand theMoselbahntoBullay(nearZell) were built later. A sign of increasing prosperity were the firsttrade fairsin modern Trier in 1840 and 1842.

During therevolutions of 1848 in the German states,Trier also saw protests and conflicts. The city council sent a letter to KingFrederick William IV of Prussia,demanding more civic liberties. The lawyerLudwig Simonwas elected to represent Trier in the first Germanparliament in Frankfurt.After Prussian soldiers killed one citizen and wounded others in a melée, the situation escalated. The people of Trier hoistedblack-red-gold flagsasdemocraticsymbols, rang the church bells, organized amilitiaand took away the signs of Prussian rule. A second melée between demonstrators and soldiers, which left two citizens dead, led to a collective outburst of fury. The people began to build barricades and wave thered flag.There were even reports that a statue of the Prussian king was smashed into pieces. Trier was on the eve of acivil warwhen the commander of the VIII Prussian army corps arrived and threatened to shell Trier. After being confronted with superior Prussian military power, the citizens gave up and removed the barricades. Some citizens were jailed for their democratic attitude; Ludwig Simon emigrated like many others and died inSwitzerland.Trier became part of theGerman Empireduring the Prussian-ledunification of Germanyin 1871.

Second World War

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The railroad bridge in Trier-Pfalzel under attack, 1944

In September 1944 during theSecond World War,Trier was only a short distance from the frontline fighting and was subjected to almost daily bombardment byAmericanartillery.Allied forces carried out three large-scale aerial attacks on the city later in the same year. On December 19 at 15:30, 30 BritishLancaster bombersdropped 136 tonnes ofhigh-explosive bombsover Trier. Two days later, on December 21 at 14:35, 94 Lancasters and 47 Americanfighter-bombersdropped 427 tonnes of ordnance (high-explosive,incendiaryandnapalmbombs). Another two days after that, 700 tonnes of bombs were released over the city.[29]

According to research by the historian Adolf Welter, at least 420 people were killed in the December 1944 attacks on Trier. Numerous buildings were damaged. During the entire war, 1,600 houses in the city were completely destroyed.

On March 2, 1945, the city surrendered to theU.S. 10th Armored Divisionwith minimal resistance.[30]

Postwar period

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The air raid bunker (Hochbunker) built in 1942

At the end of April 1969, the old Roman road at thePorta Nigrawas uncovered. Shortly afterward, on May 12, 1969, the open-air wildlife enclosure in the Weisshaus forest was opened. TheUniversity of Trierwas reestablished in 1970, initially as part of the combined university of Trier-Kaiserslautern.The evolution of Trier as a university city took a further step forward with the opening on April 1, 1974, of the Martinskloster student residence halls. In 1975, the university once more became independent.[31]

Other significant events of the 1970s include the discontinuation of the 99-year-old "Trierische Landeszeitung" newspaper on March 31, 1974, and the reopening of the restoredCathedral of Trieron May 1 of that same year.

From May 24 to 27 1984, Trier officially celebrated its 2,000th anniversary. In 1986, Roman Trier (theamphitheater,Barbara Baths,Imperial Baths,Constantine Basilica,Igel Column,Porta Nigra,Roman bridge,Dom St. PeterandLiebfrauenkirche) was declared aUNESCOWorld Heritage Sitetitled "Roman Monuments, Cathedral of St. Peter and Church of Our Lady in Trier."Another cultural heritage site isSt. Paulinus' Church,designed byBalthasar Neumann.During construction of an underground parking lot in October 1988, remnants of Romanfrescopaintings were discovered beneath the Viehmarkt. On November 5, the TrierObservatorywas officially inaugurated. In the course of excavation work on a further subterranean garage near the Roman bridge, a collection of 2,558 Roman gold coins was discovered on September 9, 1993. The coins have an estimated value of 2.5 millionEuro.[32]

From April 22 to October 24, 2004, the State Garden Show was held on the Petrisberg heights and attracted 724,000 visitors.[33]

A new discovery of Roman remains was made in April 2006, when traces of building walls were unearthed during demolition works in the city centre.

A large exhibition on the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great was the largest exhibition in Trier up to date. It ran from the 2nd of June to the 4th of November 2007. Some 1,600 pieces lend by 160 museums in 20 countries were on exhibit in three museums in Trier. In all 353,974 tickets were sold and all three museums counted 799,034 visitors, making it one of the most successful exhibitions in Germany.[34] The Ehrang/Quint district of Trier was heavily damaged and flooded during the July 16, 2021 floods of Germany, Belgium, The Netherlands and Luxembourg.

Incorporation of municipalities

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Formerly autonomous municipalities and territories that have been incorporated into the city of Trier. Some localities had already formed part of the urban area between 1798 and 1851. In 1798, the city area covered a total of 8.9 square kilometres.[35]

Year Localities
1888 St. Paulin, Maar, Zurlauben, Löwenbrücken, St. Barbara
1888 Separation of Heiligkreuz and Olewig
1912 Pallien (southern part), Heiligkreuz, St. Matthias, St. Medard, Feyen (with Weismark)
1930 Euren, Biewer, Pallien (northern part), Kürenz, Olewig
June 7, 1969 Ehrang-Pfalzel (formed on March 1, 1968, through unification of the two previously autonomous municipalities)
June 7, 1969 Eitelsbach, Filsch, Irsch, Kernscheid, Ruwer,Tarforst,Zewen

Population development

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Scale model Roman city
Scale model around 1800

At the beginning of the 4th century AD, Trier was the residence of the Roman Emperor and, with an estimated 80,000 inhabitants, the largest city north of theAlps.Through theMiddle Agesand up until the start of theModern Age,numerous wars, epidemics and famines caused the city's population to drop to only 2,677 in 1697. The population began to increase once more in the course of the 18th century, reaching 8,829 in 1801. The onset ofindustrialisationin the 19th century accelerated this growth. In 1900, the city was home to over 43,000 people. By 1939, this figure had doubled to over 88,000.

TheSecond World Warcost Trier roughly 35% of its population (30,551 people) and the number of inhabitants had dropped to 57,000 by 1945. Only through the incorporation of several surrounding localities into the city on June 7, 1969, did the population once more reach its prewar level. This reorganisation in fact pushed the number of inhabitants beyond the 100,000 mark, which accorded the city of TrierGroßstadtstatus. On June 30, 2005, thepopulationof Trier according to official records of theRhineland-Palatinatestate authorities was 99,685 (registered only byHauptwohnsitzand after comparison with other regional authorities).

The following overview illustrates the city's different population levels, according to thecurrentsize of the city area. Up until 1801, these figures are mostly estimates; after this date they have been sourced fromcensusresults or official records of state authorities. From 1871 onwards, these statistics correspond to the "present population", from 1925 to the "resident population" and from 1987 to the "population resident atmain domicile".Prior to 1871, the population was recorded using inconsistent survey methods.

Year Population
100 20,000
300 80,000
400 70,000
1363 10,000
1542 8,500
1613 6,000
1697 2,677
1702 4,200
1801 8,829
December 1, 1831 ¹ 14,723
December 1, 1840 ¹ 15,717
December 3, 1855 ¹ 20,172
December 1, 1858 ¹ 20,060
December 1, 1871 ¹ 21,442
December 1, 1875 ¹ 22,100
Year Population
December 1, 1880 ¹ 24,200
December 1, 1885 ¹ 26,126
December 1, 1890 ¹ 36,166
December 2, 1895 ¹ 40,026
December 1, 1900 ¹ 43,506
December 1, 1905 ¹ 46,709
December 1, 1910 ¹ 49,112
December 1, 1916 ¹ 47,107
December 5, 1917 ¹ 45,709
October 8, 1919 ¹ 53,248
June 16, 1925 ¹ 57,341
June 16, 1933 ¹ 76,692
May 17, 1939 ¹ 88,150
December 31, 1945 57,599
October 29, 1946 ¹ 63,420
Year Population
September 13, 1950 ¹ 75,526
September 25, 1956 ¹ 84,869
June 6, 1961 ¹ 87,141
December 31, 1965 86,808
May 27, 1970 ¹ 103,724
December 31, 1975 100,338
December 31, 1980 95,536
December 31, 1985 93,472
May 25, 1987 ¹ 94,118
December 31, 1990 97,835
December 31, 1995 99,428
December 31, 2000 99,410
June 30, 2005 99,685
December 19, 2006 101,685
December 31, 2020 110,674

¹ Census figure[36]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^See: Heinen, pp. 1-12.
  2. ^See: Heinen, pp. 30-55.
  3. ^Paul Stephenson,Constantine, Roman Emperor, Christian Victor2010:: "Trier" 124ff.
  4. ^abStephenson 2010:124.
  5. ^See: Heinen, pp. 327-347.
  6. ^See: Heinen, pp. 211-265.
  7. ^See: Kuhnen, pp. 135-142.
  8. ^A coin of 314 was found in a construction trench (Stephenson 2010:125).
  9. ^See: Dehio, p. 1031.
  10. ^See: Kuhnen, pp. 114-121. See also: Dehio, pp. 1033-1051.
  11. ^Preserved in Trier's Diocesan Museum; Stephenson 2010:125 and fig. 25.
  12. ^abLanting, J. N.; van der Plicht, J. (2010)."De 14C-chronologie van de Nederlandse Pre- en Protohistorie VI: Romeinse tijd en Merovische periode, deel A: historische bronnen en chronologische thema's".Palaeohistoria 51/52 (2009/2010)(in Dutch). Groningen: Groningen Institute of Archaeology. pp. 45–46.ISBN9789077922736.Retrieved1 September2020.
  13. ^See: Heinen, pp. 366-384.
  14. ^Romance speakers in Mosella valley & Trier; p.14 (in Italian)
  15. ^See: Anton /Haverkamp,pp. 22-67.
  16. ^See: Dehio, pp. 1054-1057.
  17. ^See: Dehio, pp. 1057-1063.
  18. ^Bell-Fialkoff, Andrew, ed. (April 2016) [First published 2000].The Role of Migration in the History of the Eurasian Steppe: Sedentary Civilization vs. "Barbarian" and Nomad.New York, USA:Palgrave Macmillan.p. 161.doi:10.1007/978-1-349-61837-8.ISBN978-1-349-61839-2.
  19. ^See: Petzold, pp. 36-39.
  20. ^See: Petzold, p. 82.
  21. ^See: Anton /Haverkamp,pp. 239-293.
  22. ^See: Anton /Haverkamp,pp. 295-315.
  23. ^See: Anton /Haverkamp,pp. 570-579.
  24. ^See: Petzold, p. 43.
  25. ^See: Anton /Haverkamp,pp. 531-552.
  26. ^Wagner, Paul (1888), "Philipp Christoph v. Sötern",Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie(in German), vol. 26, Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, pp. 50–69
  27. ^See: Petzold, pp. 101-103.
  28. ^See: Petzold, pp. 73-96.
  29. ^See: Petzold, pp. 128-131; See also: Welter,1939-1945pp. 115-119 and the site onhistoricum.netlisted underexternal links
  30. ^See: Christoffel, pp. 468-511; See also: Welter,Neue Forschungsergebnisse,pp. 41-83 and the site onhistoricum.netlisted underexternal links
  31. ^See: Heise, pp. 107-192.
  32. ^Stadt Trier - City of Trier - La Ville de TrèvesArchived2012-07-13 atarchive.today
  33. ^Landesgartenschau Trier 2004
  34. ^Konstantin-Ausstellung
  35. ^See: Petzold, pp. 137-157.
  36. ^StLA RLP - Statistisches Landesamt Rheinland-PfalzArchived2010-02-10 at theWayback Machine

Literature

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  • Christoffel, Edgar:Krieg am Westwall 1944/45.Trier, Akademische Buchhandlung 1989.ISBN3-88915-033-0
  • Clemens, Gabriele; Clemens; Lukas:Geschichte der Stadt Trier.Munich 2007,ISBN3-406-55618-3.
  • Dehio, Georg:Handbuch der deutschen Kunstdenkmäler: Rheinland-Pfalz, Saarland.2nd revised edition, Munich,Deutscher Kunstverlag1984. pp. 1024–1084.ISBN3-422-00382-7
  • Gwatkin, William E. Jr. (October 1933)."Roman Trier".The Classical Journal.29(1): 3–12.
  • Heise, Karl A.:Die alte Stadt und die neue Zeit. Stadtplanung und Denkmalpflege Triers im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert.Trier, Paulinus 1999.ISBN3-87760-107-3
  • King, Anthony:Roman Gaul and Germany(Exploring the Roman World). University of California Press 1990.ISBN0-520-06989-7
  • Kuhnen, Hans-Peter (ed.):Das roemische Trier.Stuttgart, Konrad Theiss 2001.ISBN3-923319-85-1
  • Monz, Heinz (ed.):Trierer biographisches Lexikon.Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Trier, Trier 2000.ISBN3-88476-400-4
  • Petzold, Hans (ed.):Trier - 2000 Jahre Stadtentwicklung.Katalog zur Ausstellung Tuchfabrik Weberbach 6.5. - 10.11.1984. Ed. by Baudezernat der Stadt Trier. Trier, City printing office 1984.
  • Resmini, Bertram:Das Erzbistum Trier(Germania Sacra, Vol. 31). Walter De Gruyter Inc. 1993.ISBN3-11-013657-0
  • Schnitzius, Sebastian:Entwicklung der Eisenbahn im Trierer Raum.Trier, Deutsche Bundesbahn 1984.
  • Trier. Augustusstadt der Treverer. Stadt und Land in vor- und fruehroemischer Zeit.2nd ed. Mainz 1984,ISBN3-8053-0792-6.
  • Universitaet Trier:2000 Jahre Trier.3 volumes, Spee-Verlag, Trier.
  • Welter, Adolf:Die Luftangriffe auf Trier 1939-1945. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Trierer Landes.Trierer Muenzfreunde 1995.ISBN3-923575-13-0
  • Welter, Adolf:Die Luftangriffe auf Trier im Ersten Weltkrieg 1914-1918.Trierer Muenzfreunde 2001.ISBN3-923575-19-X
  • Welter, Adolf:Trier 1939-1945. Neue Forschungsergebnisse zur Stadtgeschichte.Trier 1998
  • Welter, Adolf:Bild-Chronik Trier in der Besatzungszeit 1918-1930. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Trierer Landes.Trierer Muenzfreunde 1992.ISBN3-923575-11-4
  • Welter, Adolf:Der Flugplatz Trier-Euren. Vom kaiserlichen Exerzierfeld zum heutigen Industriegebiet.Trierer Muenzfreunde 2004.ISBN3-923575-20-3
  • Wightman, Edith M.:Roman Trier and the Treveri.London, Brecon 1970.ISBN0-246-63980-6
  • Zenz, Emil:Die Stadt Trier im 20. Jahrhundert, 1. Haelfte 1900-1950.Trier, Spee 1981.ISBN3-87760-608-3
  • Zuche, Thomas (ed.):Stattfuehrer – Trier im Nationalsozialismus.3rd ed. 1997.ISBN3-87760-057-3

There is not much literature in English on Trier. The three volumes on Trier's history published by the history department of the University of Trier between 1985 and 1996 represent a complete history including all researches up to the time when they were published. Clemens' 2007 book (Clemens is a history professor of Trier University, earlier he worked at the Roman Museum in Trier) can be viewed as an update.

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