History of animation

This article is about the history of traditional animation. For the history of stop motion animation, seeStop motion.For the history of computer animation, seeHistory of computer animation.

While thehistory of animationbegan much earlier,this article is concerned with the development of the medium after the emergence ofcelluloidfilm in 1888, as produced for theatrical screenings, television and (non-interactive)home video.

Between 1895 and 1920, during the rise of the cinematic industry, several different animation techniques were re-invented or newly developed, includingstop-motionwith objects, puppets,clayorcutouts,and drawn or painted animation. Hand-drawn animation, mostly animation painted oncels,was the dominant technique throughout most of the 20th century and became known astraditional animation.

Today,computer animationbecame the dominant animation technique in most regions (whilehand-drawn animationcontinued to be very popular all around the world; for example, Japaneseanimeand European hand-drawn productions). Computer animation is mostly associated with a three-dimensional appearance with detailed shading, although many different animation styles have been generated or simulated with computers. Some productions may be recognized asFlash animation,but in practice, computer animation with a relatively two-dimensional appearance, stark outlines and little shading, will generally be considered "traditional animation". For instance, the first feature movie made on computers, without a camera, isThe Rescuers Down Under(1990), but its style can hardly be distinguished fromcelanimation.

Influence of predecessors

Main article:Early history of animation

Animated movies are part of ancient traditions instorytelling,visual artsandtheatre.Popular techniques with moving images before film includeshadow play,mechanical slides, and mobile projectors inmagic lanternshows (especiallyphantasmagoria). Techniques with fanciful three-dimensional moving figures includemasksandcostumes,puppetryandautomata.Illustrated children's books,caricature,political cartoonsand especiallycomic stripsare closely related to animation, with much influence on visual styles and types of humour.

The technical principles of modern animation are based on thestroboscopicillusion of motion that was introduced in 1833 with stroboscopic discs (better known as thephenakistiscope). These animated discs with an average of about 8 to 16 images were usually designed as endless loops (like manyGIFanimations), for home use as a hand-operated"philosophical toy".Although several pioneers hoped it could be applied to longer scenes for theatrical use, throughout the 19th century further development of the technique mostly concentrated on combinations with thestereoscope(introduced in 1838) andphotography(introduced in 1839). The breakthrough ofcinematographypartly depended on the novelty of a technique that was able to record and reproduce reality in life-like motion pictures. During the first years, drawing animated pictures seemed an archaic technique in comparison, until some artists produced popular and influential animated shorts and producers embraced cheap techniques to turn popular comic strips into animated cartoons.

1888–1909: Earliest animations on film

Pauvre Pierrot(1892) repainted clip

Théâtre Optique

Main article:Théâtre Optique

Charles-Émile Reynauddeveloped his projection praxinoscope into theThéâtre Optiquewith transparent hand-painted colorful pictures in a long perforated strip wound between two spools, patented in December 1888. From 28 October 1892 to March 1900 Reynaud gave over 12,800 shows to a total of over 500,000 visitors at theMusée Grévinin Paris. HisPantomimes Lumineusesseries of animated films each contained 300 to 700 frames manipulated back and forth to last 10 to 15 minutes per film. A background scene was projected separately. Piano music, song and some dialogue were performed live, while some sound effects were synchronized with an electromagnet. The first program included three cartoons:Pauvre Pierrot(created in 1892),Un bon bock(created in 1892, now lost), andLe Clown et ses chiens(created in 1892, now lost). Later on the titlesAutour d'une cabine(created in 1894) andA rêve au coin du feu(created in 1894) would be part of the performances.

Standard picture film

Despite the success of Reynaud's films, it took some time before animation was adapted in the film industry that came about after the introduction of Lumiere'sCinematographin 1895.Georges Méliès' earlyfantasy filmsandtrick films(released between 1896 and 1913) occasionally contain elements that somewhat resemble animation, including painted props or painted creatures that were moved in front of painted backgrounds (mostly using wires), andfilm colorizationby hand. Méliès also popularized thestop trick,with a single change made to the scene in between shots, that had already been used inThomas Edison'sThe Execution of Mary Stuartin 1895 and probably led to the development ofstop-motionanimation some years later.It seems to have lasted until 1906, before proper animated films appeared in cinemas. The dating of some presumed earlier films with animation is contested, while other early films that may have usedstop motionor other animation techniques are lost or unidentified, and thus cannot be checked.

Printed animation film

Katsudō Shashin(c. 1907)

By 1897, German toy manufacturerGebrüder Binghad a first prototype of their toy "kinematograph",which they eventually presented at a toy convention in Leipzig in November 1898. Soon after, other toy manufacturers in Germany and France, including Ernst Plank, Georges Carette, and Lapierre, started selling similar devices. The toy cinematographs were basically traditional toy magic lanterns, adapted with one or two small spools that used standard "Edison perforation" 35mm film, a crank, and a shutter. These projectors were intended for the same type of "home entertainment" toy market that most of the manufacturers already provided with praxinoscopes and magic lanterns. Apart from relatively expensive live-action films, the manufacturers produced many cheaper films by printinglithographeddrawings. These animations were probably made inblack-and-whitefrom around 1898 or 1899, but at the latest by 1902 they were made in color. The pictures were often traced from live-action films (much like the laterrotoscopingtechnique). These very short films typically depicted a simple repetitive action and most were designed to be projected as a loop - playing endlessly with the film ends put together. The lithograph process and the loop format follow the tradition that was set by the stroboscopic disc,zoetropeandpraxinoscope.

Katsudō Shashin(between 1907 and 1912), speculated to be the oldest work ofanimation in Japan,was probably made in imitation of similar Western printed film strips.

J. Stuart Blackton

The Enchanted Drawing(1900)

J. Stuart Blacktonwas a British-American filmmaker, co-founder of theVitagraph Studiosand one of the first to use animation in his films. HisThe Enchanted Drawing(1900) can be regarded as the first theatrical film recorded onstandard picture filmthat included animated elements, although this concerns just a few frames of changes in drawings. It shows Blackton doing "lightning sketches" of a face, cigars, a bottle of wine and a glass. The face changes expression when Blackton pours wine into the face's mouth and when Blackton takes his cigar. The technique used in this film was basically thestop trick:the single change to the scenes was the replacement of a drawing by a similar drawing with a different facial expression. In some scenes, a drawn bottle and glass were replaced by real objects. Blackton had possibly used the same technique in a lost 1896 lightning sketch film.

Blackton's 1906 filmHumorous Phases of Funny Facesis often regarded as the oldest known hand-drawn animation on standard film. It features a sequence made with blackboard drawings that are changed between frames to show two faces changing expressions and some billowing cigar smoke, as well as two sequences that featurecutout animationwith a similar look for more fluid motion.

Alexander Shiryaev

Alexander Shiryaevwas a Russian ballet dancer, ballet master and choreographer who served at the Mariinsky Theatre who is credited with the independent invention of stop motion animation. From 1906 to 1909, created the earliest known animated films made in Russia, using puppet animation, drawn animation, and mixed techniques. While some were made as experiments (for example, a 20-minute drawn animation showing the flight of birds in a continuous line), most of them were made for educational purpose of showing the ballet dancers what their choreography should look like. The puppet animations ranged in length from just over a minute to 10 minutes long. Shiryaev's films were only screened within the Mariinsky Theatre for the performers, not publicly, and were generally unknown until 2003, when Russian documentarist and ballet historian Viktor Bocharov released a one-hour movie titledA Belated Premierewhich included fragments of the various films.

Segundo de Chomón

Spanish filmmakerSegundo de Chomónmade many trick films for French film companyPathé.By 1906, he used stop motion in several short films, includingLa maison ensorceléeandLe théâtre de Bob(both released in the US in April 1906). Blackton'sThe Haunted Hotel(23 February 1907)contains stop motion elements that are very similar to those inLa maison ensorcelée.If the release dates are correct (and if translated titles have not been mixed up), Blackton must have been inspired by De Chomón's work rather than vice versa, but it has been believed thatThe Haunted Hotelwas a big hit in France and other European countries, and would have been the film that inspired local filmmakers, including Émile Cohl, to start working with the innovative animation technique.De Chomon also made the related short filmHôtel électrique(1908), which includes a short scene withpixilation.

Émile Cohl

Fantasmagorie(1908)

In 1907, the French artistÉmile Cohlstarted his filmmaking career withJapon de faintasie,with imaginative use of stop motion techniques. His next short can be regarded as the first animated film using what came to be known as traditional animation methods: the 1908Fantasmagorie.The film largely consists of astick figuremoving about and encountering all manner of morphing objects, such as a wine bottle that transforms into a flower. There are also sections of live action where the animator's hands enters the scene. The film was created by drawing each frame on paper and then shooting each frame ontonegative film,which gave the picture a blackboard look. Cohl later went toFort Lee, New Jerseynear New York City in 1912, where he worked for French studio Éclair and spread its animation technique to the US.

1910s: From original artists to "assembly-line" production studios

During the 1910s larger-scale animation studios began to come into being. From then onwards, solo artists faded from the public eye.The first known professional female animator,Bessie Mae Kelley,began her career in 1917.

Winsor McCay

Gertie the Dinosaur(1914)

Starting with a short 1911 film of his most popular characterLittle Nemo,successful newspaper cartoonistWinsor McCaygave much more detail to his hand-drawn animations than any animation previously seen in cinemas. His 1914 filmGertie the Dinosaurfeatured an early example of character development in drawn animation.It was also the first film to combine live-action footage with animation. Originally, McCay used the film in his vaudeville act: he would stand next to the screen and speak to Gertie who would respond with a series of gestures. At the end of the film McCay would walk behind the projection screen, seamlessly being replaced with a prerecorded image of himself entering the screen, getting on the cartoon dinosaur's back and riding out of frame.McCay personally hand-drew almost every one of the thousands of drawings for his films.Other noteworthy titles by McCay areHow a Mosquito Operates(1912) andThe Sinking of the Lusitania(1918).

Cartoon Film Company – Buxton and Dyer

Between 1915 and 1916 Dudley Buxton, and Anson Dyer produced a series of 26 topical cartoons, during WWI, utilising mainly cutout animation, released as the John Bull's animated sketchbook,The episodes included the shelling of Scarborough by German battleships,and The Sinking of the Lusitania, No.4 (June 1915).

Barré Studio

Around 1913Raoul Barrédeveloped the peg system that made it easier to align drawings by perforating two holes below each drawing and placing them on two fixed pins. He also used a "slash and tear" technique to not have to draw the complete background or other motionless parts for every frame. The parts where something needed to be changed for the next frame were carefully cut away from the drawing and filled in with the required change on the sheet below.After Barré had started his career in animation atEdison Studios,he founded one of the first film studios dedicated to animation in 1914 (initially together withBill Nolan).Barré Studiohad success with the production of the adaptation of the popular comic stripMutt and Jeff(1916–1926). The studio employed several animators who would have notable careers in animation, includingFrank Moser,Gregory La Cava,Vernon Stallings,Tom Norton andPat Sullivan.

Bray Productions

In 1914,John BrayopenedJohn Bray Studios,which revolutionized the way animation was created.Earl Hurd,one of Bray's employees, patented theceltechnique.This involved animating moving objects on transparent celluloid sheets.Animators photographed the sheets over a stationary background image to generate the sequence of images. This, as well as Bray's innovative use of the assembly-line method, allowed John Bray Studios to createColonel Heeza Liar,the first animated series.Many aspiring cartoonists started their careers at Bray, includingPaul Terry(later ofHeckle and Jecklefame),Max Fleischer(later ofBetty BoopandPopeyefame), andWalter Lantz(later ofWoody Woodpeckerfame). The cartoon studio operated from circa 1914 until 1928. Some of the first cartoon stars from the Bray studios wereFarmer Alfalfa(by Paul Terry) and Bobby Bumps (by Earl Hurd).

Hearst's International Film Service

Krazy Kat – Bugologist(1916)

Newspaper tycoonWilliam Randolph HearstfoundedInternational Film Servicein 1916. Hearst lured away most of Barré Studio's animators, with Gregory La Cava becoming the head of the studio. They produced adaptations of many comic strips from Heart's newspapers in a rather limited fashion, giving just a little motion to the characters while mainly using the dialog balloons to deliver the story. The most notable series isKrazy Kat,probably the first of manyanthropomorphiccartoon cat characters and othertalking animals.Before the studio stopped in 1918, it had employed some new talents, includingVernon Stallings,Ben Sharpsteen,Jack King,John Foster,Grim Natwick,Burt Gillettand Isadore Klein.

Rotoscoping

In 1915,Max Fleischerapplied for a patent (granted in 1917)for a technique which became known asrotoscoping:the process of using live-action film recordings as a reference point to more easily create realistic animated movements. The technique was often used in theOut of the Inkwellseries (1918–1929) for John Bray Productions (and others). The series resulted from experimental rotoscoped images of Dave Fleischer performing as a clown, evolving into a character who became known asKoko the Clown.

Felix the Cat

The 1919Feline Folliesby Pat Sullivan

In 1919,Otto Messmerof Pat Sullivan Studios createdFelix the Cat.Pat Sullivan,the studio head took all of the credit for Felix, a common practice in the early days of studio animation.Felix the Cat was distributed byParamount Studiosand attracted a large audience,eventually becoming one of the most recognized cartoon characters in film history. Felix was the first cartoon to be merchandised.

Quirino Cristiani: the first animated features

The first known animatedfeature filmwasEl ApóstolbyQuirino Cristiani,released on 9 November 1917 inArgentina.This successful 70-minute satire utilized a cardboard cutout technique, reportedly with 58,000 frames at 14frames per second.Cristiani's next featureSin dejar rastroswas released in 1918, but it received no press coverage and poor public attendance before it was confiscated by the police for diplomatic reasons.None of Cristiani's feature films survived.

1920s: Absolute film, synchronized sound and the rise of Disney

A number of key events occurred in the 1920s, including the development of the first animations withsynchronized sound,and the founding of theWalt Disney Studio.The decade also saw the first appearance ofMickey MouseinSteamboat Willie(1928).

Absolute film

Main article:Non-narrative film § 1920s: The absolute film movement

In the early 1920s, the absolute film movement with artists such asWalter Ruttmann,Hans Richter,Viking EggelingandOskar Fischingermade short abstract animations which proved influential. Although some later abstract animation works by, for instance,Len LyeandNorman McLarenwould be widely appreciated, the genre largely remained a relatively obscure avant-garde art form, while direct influences or similar ideas would occasionally pop up in mainstream animation (for instance in Disney'sToccata and Fugue in D MinorinFantasia(1940) – on which Fischinger originally collaborated until his work was scrapped, and partly inspired by the works of Lye – and inThe Dot and the Line(1965) by Chuck Jones).

Early synchronized sound:Song Car-TunesandAesop's Sound Fables

My Old Kentucky Home(1926)

See also:Sound film § History

From May 1924 to September 1926, Dave and Max Fleischer'sInkwell Studiosproduced 19 sound cartoons, part of theSong Car-Tunesseries, using the Phonofilm "sound-on-film"process. The series also introduced the"bouncing ball"above lyrics to guide audiences to sing along to the music.My Old Kentucky Homefrom June 1926 was probably the first film to feature a bit of synchronized animated dialogue, with an early version ofBimbomouthing the words "Follow the ball, and join in, everybody". The Bimbo character was further developed in Fleischer'sTalkartoons(1929–1932).

Paul Terry'sDinner Time,from hisAesop's Fables(1921–1936) series, premiered on 1 September 1928 with a synchronized soundtrack with dialogue. Terry was urged to add the novelty against his wishes by the new studio owner Van Beuren. Although the series and its main characterFarmer Al Falfahad been popular, audiences were not impressed by this first episode with sound.

Lotte Reiniger

The earliest surviving animated feature film is the 1926 silhouette-animatedDie Abenteuer des Prinzen Achmed (Adventures of Prince Achmed),which usedcolour-tinted film.It was directed by GermanLotte Reinigerand her husbandCarl Koch.Walter Ruttmanncreated visual background effects. French/Hungarian collaboratorBerthold Bartoschor Reiniger created depth of field by putting scenographic elements and figures on several levels of glass plates with illumination from below and the camera vertically above. Later on a similar technique became the basis of themultiplane camera.

Early Disney: Laugh-O-Grams, Alice, Oswald and Mickey

Newman Laugh-O-gram

See also:Walt Disney

Between 1920 and 1922, cartoonistsWalt Disney,Ub IwerksandFred Harmanworked at the Slide Company (soon renamed as Kansas City Film Ad Company), which produced cutout animation commercials. Disney started experimenting with drawn animation techniques in his parents' garage and managed to sell a series that satirized current local topics to the owner of the three local Newman Theatres as weeklyNewman Laugh-O-Gramsin 1921. With his short-lived own companyLaugh-O-Gram Films, Inc.,Disney together with Iwerks, Fred's brotherHugh Harman,Rudolph IsingandCarman Maxwellproduced a series of circa seven-minute modernized fairy tale cartoons, inspired by Terry'sAesop's Fables.The studio went bankrupt in 1923, but had already made the unsold 12-minute filmAlice's Wonderland,featuring a live-action girl (Virginia Davis) interacting with numerous cartoon characters, including the Felix-inspiredJulius the Cat(who had already appeared in the Laugh-O-Gram fairy tales, without a name). When Disney moved to Hollywood, he managed to close a deal with New York film distributorMargaret J. Winkler,who had just lost the rights to Felix the Cat andOut of the Inkwell.To make theAlice Comediesseries (1923–1927), Iwerks also moved to Hollywood, later followed by Ising, Harman, Maxwell and Film Ad colleagueFriz Freleng.The series was successful enough to last 57 episodes, but Disney eventually preferred to create a new fully animated series.Oswald the Lucky Rabbitfollowed in 1927 and became a hit, but after failed negotiations for continuation in 1928,Charles Mintztook direct control of production and Disney lost his character and most of his staff to Mintz.

Steamboat Willie

Disney and Iwerks developedMickey Mousein 1928 to replace Oswald. A first film entitledPlane Crazyfailed to impress a test audience and did not raise sufficient interest of potential distributors. After some live-action movies withsynchronized soundhad become successful, Disney put the new Mickey Mouse cartoonThe Gallopin' Gauchoon hold to start work on a special sound production which would launch the series more convincingly. Much of the action in the resultingSteamboat Willie(November 1928) involves the making of sounds, for instance with Mickey using livestock aboard the boat as musical instruments. The film became a huge success and Mickey Mouse would soon become the most popular cartoon character in history.

Bosko

Boskowas created in 1927 byHugh Harman and Rudolf Ising,specifically withtalkiesin mind. They were still working for Disney at the time, but they left in 1928 to work on theOswald the Lucky Rabbitcartoons at Universal for about a year, and then producedBosko, the Talk-Ink Kidpilot in May 1929 to shop for a distributor. They signed withLeon Schlesinger productionsand started theLooney Tunesseries forWarner Bros.in 1930. Bosko was the star of 39 Warner Bros. cartoons before Harman and Ising took Bosko to MGM after leaving Warner Bros.. After two MGM cartoons, the character received a dramatic make-over that was much less appreciated by audiences. Bosko's career ended in 1938.

1930s: Color, depth, cartoon superstars andSnow White

RedheadBetty BoopinColor ClassicPoor Cinderella(1934)

While the global economy suffered under theGreat Depressionthrough the 1930s, animation continued to flourish. Early color processes came into use, along with the use of themultiplane camera.In 1937,Snow Whitedebuted in theatres—the first full-length traditionally animated feature film.

Two-strip color

The multi-colored lithograph technique of the early European animated film loops for home use seems not to have been applied to theatrically release animated films. While the original prints ofThe Adventures of Prince Achmedfeaturedfilm tinting,most theatrically released animated films before 1930 were plain black and white. Effective color processes thus were a welcome innovation in Hollywood and seemed especially suitable for cartoons.

A cartoon segment in the feature filmKing of Jazz(April 1930), made by Walter Lantz and Bill Nolan, was the first animation presented in two-strip Technicolor.

Fiddlesticks,released together withKing of Jazz,was the firstFlip the Frogfilm and the first project Ub Iwerks worked on after he had left Disney to set up his studio. In England, the cartoon was released in Harris Color,atwo-colorprocess, probably as the first theatrically released standalone animated cartoon to boast both sound and color.

Disney'sSilly Symphoniesin Technicolor

When theSilly Symphoniesseries, started in 1929, was less popular than Disney had hoped, he turned to new technological innovation to improve the impact of the series. In 1932 he worked with theTechnicolorcompany to create the first full-color animationFlowers and Trees,debuting thethree-striptechnique (the first use in live-action movies came circa two years later). The cartoon was successful and won anAcademy Award for Short Subjects, Cartoons.Disney temporarily had an exclusive deal for the use of Technicolor's full-color technique in animated films. He even waited a while before he produced the ongoing Mickey Mouse series in color, so theSilly Symphonieswould have their special appeal to audiences. After the exclusive deal lapsed in September 1935, full-color animation soon became the industry standard.

Silly Symphoniesinspired many cartoon series that boasted various other color systems until Technicolor was not exclusive to Disney anymore, including Ub Iwerks'ComiColor Cartoons(1933–1936),Van Beuren Studios'Rainbow Parade(1934–1936), Fleischer'sColor Classics(1934–1941), Charles Mintz'sColor Rhapsody(1936–1949), MGM'sHappy Harmonies(1934–1938)George Pal'sPuppetoons(1932–1948), and Walter Lantz'sSwing Symphony(1941–1945).

Multiplane cameras and the stereopticon process

Main article:Multiplane camera

Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs(1937) trailer clip with multiplane effects

To create animpression of depth,several techniques were developed. The most common technique was to have characters move between several background or foreground layers that could be moved independently, corresponding to the laws of perspective (e.g. the further away from the camera, the slower the speed).

Lotte Reiniger had already designed a type of multiplane camera forDie Abenteuer des Prinzen Achmedand her collaboratorBerthold Bartoschused a similar setup for his intricately detailed 25-minute filmL'Idée(1932).

In 1933, Ub Iwerks developed a multiplane camera and used it for severalWillie Whopper(1933–1934) andComiColor Cartoonsepisodes.

The Fleischers developed the very differentstereopticon processin 1933for theirColor Classics.It was used in the first episodeBetty Boop in Poor Cinderella(1934) and most of the following episodes. The process involved three-dimensional sets built and sculpted on a large turntable. The photographed cells were placed within the movable set so that the animated characters would appear to move in front and behind the 3D elements within the scene when the turntable was made to rotate.

Disney employeeWilliam Garitydeveloped a multiplane camera that could have up to seven layers of artwork. It was tested in the Academy Award-winningSilly SymphonyThe Old Mill(1937) and used prominently inSnow Whiteand later features.

New colorful cartoon superstars

After the additions of sound and color were a huge success for Disney, other studios followed. By the end of the decade, almost all the theatrical cartoons were produced in full color.

Initially, music and songs were the focus of many series, as indicated by series titles such asSong Car-Tunes,Silly Symphonies,Merrie MelodiesandLooney Tunes,but it was the recognizable characters that stuck with audiences. Mickey Mouse had been the first cartoon superstar who surpassed Felix the Cat's popularity, but soon dozens more cartoon superstars followed, many remaining popular for decades.

Warner Bros. had a vast music library that could be popularized through cartoons based on the available tunes. While Disney needed to create the music for every cartoon, the readily available sheet music and songs at Warner Bros. inspired many cartoons. Leon Schlesinger sold Warner Bros. a second series calledMerrie Melodies,which until 1939 contractually needed to contain at least one refrain from the music catalog. UnlikeLooney Tuneswith Bosko, Merrie Melodies featured only a few recurring characters likeFoxy,PiggyandGoopy Geerbefore Harman and Ising left in 1933. Bosko was replaced withBuddyfor the Looney Tunes series, but lasted only two years, whileMerrie Melodiesinitially continued without recurring characters. Eventually, the two series became indistinguishable and produced many new characters that became popular. Animator/directorBob ClampettdesignedPorky Pig(1935) andDaffy Duck(1937) and was responsible for much of the energetic animation and irreverent humor associated with the series. The 1930s also saw early anonymous incarnations of characters who would later become the superstarsElmer Fudd(1937/1940) andBugs Bunny(1938/1940). Since 1937,Mel Blancwould perform most of the characters' voices.

Disney introduced new characters to theMickey Mouse universewho would become very popular, includingMinnie Mouse(1928),Pluto(1930),Goofy(1932), and a character who would soon become the public's new favorite:Donald Duck(1934). Disney also realized that the success of animated films depended upon telling emotionally gripping stories; he developed a "story department" wherestoryboard artistsseparate from the animators would focus on story development alone, which proved its worth when Disney studio released, in 1933, the first animated short to feature well-developed characters:Three Little Pigs.Disney would keep on expanding his studio and would start more and more production activities, including comics, merchandise, and theme parks. Most projects were based on the characters developed for theatrical short films.

Fleischer Studios introduced an unnamed dog character as Bimbo's girlfriend inDizzy Dishes(1930), who evolved into the human femaleBetty Boop(1930–1939) and became Fleischer's best-known creation. In the 1930s they also addedHunky and Spunky(1938) and the popularanimated adaptation of Popeye(1933) to their repertoire.

Hays code and Betty Boop

Hays'Motion Picture Production Codefor moral guidelines was applied in 1930 and rigidly enforced between 1934 and 1968. It had a big impact on filmmakers who liked to create relatively saucy material. As an infamous example, Betty Boop suffered greatly when she had to be changed from a carefreeflapperwith an innocent sex appeal into a more wholesome and much tamer character in a fuller dress. Her boyfriend Bimbo's disappearance was probably also the result of the Code's disapproval of mixed-species relationships.

Snow Whiteand the breakthrough of the animated feature

Disneyand dwarfs inSnow Whitetrailer.

At least eightanimated feature films were released beforeDisney'sSnow White and the Seven Dwarfs,while at least another two earlier animated feature projects remained unfinished. Most of these films (of which only four survive) were made usingcutout,silhouetteorstop-motiontechniques. Among the lost animated features were three features byQuirino Cristiani,who had premiered his third featurePeludópolison 18 September 1931 inBuenos Aireswith aVitaphonesound-on-discsynchronized soundtrack.It was received quite positively by critics, but did not become a hit and was an economic fiasco for the filmmaker. Cristiani soon realized that he could no longer make a career with animation in Argentina.OnlyAcademy Award Review of Walt Disney Cartoons—also by Disney—was hand-drawn. It was released seven months beforeSnow Whiteto promote that movie's upcoming release.Many do not consider theReviewa genuine feature film, because it is apackage filmand lasts only 41 minutes. It does meet the official definitions of a feature film by theBritish Film Institute,theAcademy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences,and theAmerican Film Institute,which require that the film has to be over 40 minutes long.

When it became known that Disney was working on a feature-length animation, critics regularly referred to the project as "Disney's folly", not believing that audiences could stand the expected bright colors and jokes for such a long time.Snow White and the Seven Dwarfspremiered on 21 December 1937 and became a worldwide success. The film continued Disney's tradition to appropriate old fairy tales and other stories, as would most of the Disney features that followed.

The Fleischer studios followed Disney's example withGulliver's Travelsin 1939, which was a minor success at the box office.

Early TV animation

In April 1938, when about 50 television sets were connected,NBCaired the eight-minute low-budget cartoonWillie the Worm.It was specially made for this broadcast by former Disney employee Chad Grothkopf, mainly with cutouts and a bit of cel animation. About a year later, on 3 May 1939, Disney'sDonald's Cousin Guswas premiered on NBC's experimentalW2XBSchannel, a few weeks before the short cartoon was released in movie theaters, as part of the first full-evening program.

1940s

Operation Snafu,directed by Friz Freleng in 1945

Screenshot fromĐào thái lang hải の thần binh (Momotaro: Sacred Sailors)(1944)

Thiết phiến công chủ (Princess Iron Fan)(1941) screenshot

Wartime propaganda

Several governments had already used animation in public information films, like those by theGPO Film Unitin the U.K. and Japanese educational films. During World War II, animation became a common medium for propaganda. The US had its best studios working for the war effort.

To instruct service personnel about all kinds of military subjects and to boost morale, Warner Bros. was contracted for several shorts and the special animated seriesPrivate Snafu.The character was created by the famous movie directorFrank Capra,Dr. Seusswas involved in screenwriting and the series was directed by Chuck Jones. Disney also produced several instructive shorts and even personally financed the feature-lengthVictory Through Air Power(1943) that promoted the idea of long-range bombing.

Many popular characters promotedwar bonds,like Bugs Bunny inAny Bonds Today?,Disney's little pigs inThe Thrifty Pigand a whole bunch of Disney characters inAll Together.Daffy Duck asked for scrap metal for the war effort inScrap Happy Daffy.Minnie Mouse and Pluto invited civilians to collect their cooking grease so it could be used for making explosives inOut of the Frying Pan Into the Firing Line.There were several more political propaganda short films, like Warner Bros.'Fifth Column Mouse,Disney'sChicken Littleand the more seriousEducation for DeathandReason and Emotion(nominated for an Academy Award).

Such wartime films were much appreciated. Bugs Bunny became something of a national icon and Disney's propaganda shortDer Fuehrer's Face(starring Donald Duck) won the companyits tenth Academy Award for cartoon short subjects.

Japan's first feature animeĐào thái lang hải の thần binh (Momotaro: Sacred Sailors)was made in 1944, ordered by theMinistry of the Navy of Japan.It was designed for children and, partly inspired byFantasia,was meant to inspire dreams and hope for peace. The main characters are an anthropomorphic monkey, dog, bear, and pheasant who become parachute troopers (except the pheasant who becomes a pilot) tasked with invadingCelebes.An epilogue hints at America being the target for the next generation.

Feature animation in the 1940s

High ambitions, setbacks, and cutbacks in US feature animation

Disney's next two features (Pinocchioand the very ambitious concert filmFantasia,both released in 1940) and Fleischer Studios' second animated featureMr. Bug Goes to Town(1941/1942) were all received favorably by critics, but failed at the box office during their initial theatrical runs. The primary cause was that World War II had cut off most foreign markets. These setbacks discouraged most companies that had plans for animated features.

Disney cut back on the costs for the next features and first releasedThe Reluctant Dragon,mostly consisting of a live-action tour of the new studio in Burbank, partly in black and white, with four short cartoons. It was a mild success at the worldwide box office and was followed only a few months later byDumbo(1941), animated in a relatively simple style and only 64 minutes long. The limited length and economically efficient techniques helped secure a profit at the box office, and critics and audiences reacted positively. Disney's next featureBambi(1942) returned to a larger budget and a lavish style, but the more dramatic story, darker mood, and lack of fantasy elements were not well-received during its initial run and the movie lost money at the box office.

Although all the other eight Disney features of the 1940s were package films, or combinations with live-action (for instanceSaludos Amigos(1943) andThe Three Caballeros(1944)), Disney kept faith in animated feature animation. Only a few other American animation studios also managed to release more than a handful of features before the beginning of the 1990s.

Non-US animation forces

American cel-animated films dominated the worldwide production and consumption of theatrical animated releases since the 1920s. Especially Disney's work proved to be very popular and influential around the world. Studios from other countries could hardly compete with American productions. Relatively many animation producers outside the US chose to work with other techniques than "traditional" or cel animation, such as puppet animation or cut-out animation. However, several countries (most notably Russia, China, and Japan) developed their own relatively large "traditional" animation industries. Russia'sSoyuzmultfilmanimation studio, founded in 1936, employed up to 700 skilled workers and, during the Soviet period, produced 20 films per year on average. Some titles noticed outside their respective domestic markets includeThiết phiến công chủ (Princess Iron Fan)(China 1941, influential in Japan),Конёк-Горбуно́к (The Humpbacked Horse)(Russia 1947, winner special jury award in Cannes in 1950),I Fratelli Dynamite (The Dynamite Brothers)(Italy 1949) andLa Rosa di Bagdad (The Rose of Baghdad)(Italy 1949, the 1952 English dub starredJulie Andrews).

Successful theatrical short cartoons of the 1940s

A yet unnamed Tweety debuting inA Tale of Two Kitties(1942)

Tex Avery'sJerky Turkey(1945)

During the "Golden Age of American animation",new studios competed with the studios that survived the sound and color innovation battles of the previous decades.Cartoon animalswere still the norm and music was still a relevant element, but often lost its main stage appeal to Disney's melodramatic storytelling or the wild humor in Looney Tunes and other cartoons.

Disney continued their cartoon successes, addingDaisy Duck(1937/1940) andChip 'n' Dale(1943/1947) to theMickey Mouse universe,while Warner Bros. developed new characters to join their popular Merrie Melodies/Looney Tunes cast, includingTweety,Henery Hawk(both in 1942),Pepé Le Pew,Sylvester the Cat,Yosemite Sam(all three in 1945),Foghorn Leghorn,Barnyard Dawg,Gossamer(all three in 1946),Marvin the Martian(1948), andWile E. Coyote and Road Runner(1949).

Other new popular characters and series wereTerrytoons'Mighty Mouse(1942–1961) andHeckle and Jeckle(1946–1966), andScreen Gems'The Fox and the Crow(1941–1950).

Fleischer/Famous Studios

Fleischer launched its spectacularSuperman adaptationin 1941. The success came too late to save the studio from its financial problems and in 1942Paramount Picturestook over the studio from the resigning Fleischer Brothers. The renamedFamous Studioscontinued thePopeyeandSupermanseries, developed popular adaptations ofLittle Lulu(1943–1948, licensed by Gold Key Comics),Casper, the Friendly Ghost(1945) and created new series, such asLittle Audrey(1947–1958) andBaby Huey(1950–1959).

Walter Lantz Productions

Walter Lantzstarted his animation career at Hearst's studio at the age of 16. He had also worked for the Bray Studios andUniversal Pictures,where he had gained control over theOswald the Lucky Rabbitcartoons in 1929 (reportedly by winning the character and control of the studio in a poker bet with Universal presidentCarl Laemmle). In 1935, the Universal studio was turned into the independentWalter Lantz Productions,but remained on the Universal lot and continued to produce cartoons for Universal to distribute. When Oswald's popularity dwindled and the character was eventually retired in 1938, Lantz's productions went without successful characters until he developedAndy Pandain 1939. The anthropomorphic panda starred in over two dozen cartoons until 1949, but he was soon overshadowed by the iconicWoody Woodpecker,who debuted in the Andy Panda cartoonKnock Knockin 1940. Other popular Lantz characters includeWally Walrus(1944),Buzz Buzzard(1948),Chilly Willy(1953),Hickory, Dickory, and Doc(1959).

MGM

After distributing Ub Iwerks'Flip the FrogandWillie Whoppercartoons andHappy HarmoniesbyHarman and Ising,Metro-Goldwyn-Mayerfoundedits own cartoon studioin 1937. The studio had much success withBarney Bear(1939–1954), Hanna andJoseph Barbera'sTom and Jerry(1940) andSpike and Tyke(1942).

In 1941,Tex Averyleft Warner Bros. for MGM and would there createDroopy(1943),Screwy Squirrel(1944) andGeorge and Junior(1944).

UPA

While Disney and most of the other studios sought a sense of depth and realism in animation,UPAanimators (including former Disney employeeJohn Hubley) had a different artistic vision. They developed a much sparser and more stylized type of animation, inspired by Russian examples. The studio was formed in 1943 and initially worked on government contracts. A few years later they signed a contract with Columbia Pictures, took overThe Fox and the Crowfrom Screen Gems, and earned Oscar nominations for their first two theatrical shorts in 1948 and 1949. While the field of animation was dominated by anthropomorphic animals when the studio was allowed to create a new character, they came up with the near-sighted old man.Mr. Magoo(1949) became a hit and would be featured in many short films. Between 1949 and 1959 UPA received 15 Oscar nominations, winning their first Academy Award with theDr. SeussadaptationGerald McBoing-Boing(1950), followed by two more forWhen Magoo Flew(1954) andMagoo's Puddle Jumper(1956). The distinctive style was influential and even affected the big studios, including Warner Bros. and Disney. Apart from effective freedom in artistic expression, UPA had proved that sparser animation could be appreciated as much as (or even more than) the expensive lavish styles.

TV animation in the 1940s

The back catalog of animated cartoons from many studios, originally produced for a short theatrical run, proved very valuable for television broadcasting.Movies for Small Fry(1947), presented by "big brother"Bob Emeryon Tuesday evenings on the New York WABD-TV channel, was one of the first TV series for children and featured many classic Van Beuren Studios cartoons. It was continued on theDuMont Television Networkas the daily showSmall Fry Club(1948–1951) with a live audience in a studio setting.

Many classical series fromWalter Lantz,Warner Bros.,Terrytoons,MGM,andDisneysimilarly found a new life in TV shows for children, with many reruns, for decades. Instead of studio settings and live-action presentations, some shows would feature new animation to present or string together the older cartoons.

The earliest Americananimated seriesspecifically produced for TV came about in 1949, withAdventures of Pow Wow(43 five-minute episodes broadcast on Sunday mornings from January to November) andJim and Judy in Teleland(52 episodes, later also sold to Venezuela and Japan).

1950s: Shift from classic theatrical cartoons to limited animation in TV series for children

Col. Bleep's Arrival on Earth(1956)

Most theatrical cartoons had been produced for non-specific audiences. Dynamic action and gags with talking animals in clear drawing styles and bright colors were naturally appealing to young children, but the cartoons regularly contained violence and sexual innuendo and were often screened together with newsreels and feature films that were not for children. On US television, cartoons were mainly programmed for children, in convenient time slots on weekend mornings, weekday afternoons, or early evenings.

The scheduling constraints of the 1950s American TV animation process, and notable issues of resource management (higher quantity needed to be made in less time for a lower budget compared to theatrical animation), led to the development of various techniques now known aslimited animation.The sparser type of animation which originally had been an artistic choice of style for UPA was embraced as a means to cut back production time and costs. Full-frame animation ( "on ones" ) became rare in the United States, outside its use for a decreasing amount of theatrical productions.Chuck Jonescoined the term "illustrated radio" to refer to the shoddy style of most television cartoons that depended more on their soundtracks than visuals.Some producers also found that limited animation looked better than lavish styles on the small black-and-white TV screens of the time.

Animated TV series of the 1950s

Jay Wardproduced the popularCrusader Rabbit(tested in 1948, original broadcasts in 1949–1952 and 1957–1959), with successful use of a limited-animation style.

At the end of the 1950s, several studios dedicated to TV animation production started competing. While the focus for competition in theatrical animation had been on quality and innovation, it now shifted to delivering animation fast and cheaply. Critics noted how the quality of many shows was often poor in comparison to the classic cartoons, with rushed animation and run-of-the-mill stories. Network executives were satisfied as long as there were enough viewers,and the huge amounts of young viewers were not bothered with the lack of quality that the critics perceived. WatchingSaturday-morning cartoonprogramming, up to four hours long, became a favorite pastime of most American children since the mid-1960s, and was a mainstay for decades.

Disney had entered into TV production relatively early, but for a long time refrained from creating new animated series. Instead, Disney hadtheir anthology serieson the air since 1954 in primetime three-hour slots, starting with theWalt Disney's Disneylandseries (1954–1958), clearly promoting theDisneylandtheme park that opened in 1955. Walt Disney personally hosted the series that –apart from older cartoons– featured segments with, for instance, looks behind the scenes at film-making processes or with new live-action adventures.

William Hanna and Joseph Barbera (the creators of Tom and Jerry) continued asHanna-Barberaafter Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer closed their animation studio in 1957 when MGM considered their back catalog sufficient for further sales.While Hanna-Barbera only made one theatrically released series withLoopy de Loop(1959–1965), they proved to be the most prolific and successful producers of animated television series for several decades. Starting withThe Ruff and Reddy Show(1957–1960), they continued with successful series likeThe Huckleberry Hound Show(1958, the first half-hour television program to feature only animation)andThe Quick Draw McGraw Show(1959–1961).

Other notable programs includeUPA'sGerald McBoing Boing(1956–1957), Soundac'sColonel Bleep(1957–1960, the first animated TV series in color),Terrytoons'sTom Terrific(1958), and Jay Ward'sThe Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle and Friends(1959–1964).

In contrast to the international film market (developed during the silent era when language problems were limited to title cards), TV-pioneering in most countries (often connected to radio broadcasting) focused on the domestic production of live programs. Rather than importing animated series that usually would have to be dubbed, children's programming could more easily and more cheaply be produced in other ways (for instance, featuring puppetry). One notable method was the real-time "animation" of cutout figures inCaptain Pugwash(1957) on theBBC.One of the few early animated series for TV that was seen abroad wasBelvision Studios'Les Aventures de Tintin, d'après Hergé (Hergé's Adventures of Tintin)(Belgium 1957–1964, directed byRay Goossens), broadcast by the BBC in 1962 andsyndicatedin the United States from 1963 to 1971.

Theatrical short cartoons in the 1950s

Warner Bros. introduced new charactersGranny,Sylvester Jr.(both in 1950),Speedy Gonzales,Ralph Wolf and Sam Sheepdog(all three in 1953), andTasmanian Devil(1954).

Theatrical feature animation in the 1950s

Disney

After a string of package features and live-action/animation combos, Disney returned to fully animated feature films withCinderellain 1950 (the first sinceBambi). Its success practically saved the company from bankruptcy. It was followed byAlice in Wonderland(1951), which flopped at the box office and initially received negative reviews.Peter Pan(1953) andLady and the Tramp(1955) were hits. The ambitious, much delayed, and more expensiveSleeping Beauty(1959) lost money at the box office and caused doubts about the future of Walt Disney's animation department. Like "Alice in Wonderland" and most of Disney's flops, it would later be commercially successful through re-releases and would eventually be regarded as a true classic.

Non-US

• Jeannot l'intrépide (Johnny the Giant Killer)(France, 1950 feature)
• Érase una vez...(Spain, 1950 feature)
• Le Roi et l'Oiseau (The King and the Mockingbird)(France, 1952 unfinished feature release, 1980 finished release, influential forHayao MiyazakiandIsao Takahata)
• Animal Farm(U.K./U.S.A., 1954 feature)
• Ô nha vi thập ma thị hắc đích (Why Is the Crow Black-Coated)(China, 1956 short film,Venice Film Festival)
• Снежная королева (The Snow Queen)(Soviet Union, 1957 feature)
• Krtek (Mole)(Czechoslovakia, 1956 short film series)
• Bạch xà vân (Panda and the Magic Serpent)(Japan, 1958 feature)
• Thiếu niên viên phi tá trợ (Magic Boy)(Japan, 1959 feature, first anime released in the U.S. in 1961)

1960s

US animated TV series and specials in the 1960s

Total Televisionwas founded in 1959 to promoteGeneral Millsproducts with original cartoon characters inCocoa Puffscommercials (1960–1969) and the General Mills-sponsored TV seriesKing Leonardo and His Short Subjects(1960–1963, repackaged shows until 1969),Tennessee Tuxedo and His Tales(1963–1966, repackaged shows until 1972),The Underdog Show(1964–1967, repackaged shows until 1973) andThe Beagles(1966–1967). Animation for all series was produced at Gamma Studios in Mexico. Total Television stopped producing after 1969 when General Mills no longer wanted to sponsor them.

Many of the American animated TV series from the 1960s to 1980s were based on characters and formats that had already proved popular in other media. UPA producedThe Dick Tracy Show(1961–1962), based on comic books.Filmation,active from 1962 to 1989, created few original characters, but many adaptations ofDC Comics,live-action TV series (includingLassie's Rescue Rangers(1973–1975) andStar Trek: The Animated Series), some live-action features (includingJourney to the Center of the Earth(1967–1969), andmuch more).Grantray-Lawrence Animationwas the first studio to adaptMarvel Comicssuperheroes in 1966. Pop groups got animated versions inThe Beatles(1965–1966) andRankin/Bass'sThe Jackson 5ive(1971–1972) andThe Osmonds(1972). Hanna-Barbera turned comedians into cartoon characters withLaurel and Hardy(1966–1967) andThe Abbott and Costello Cartoon Show(1967–1968).Format Films'The Alvin Show(1961–1962) was a spin-off of a 1958 novelty song and the subsequent comic books with redesigned versions ofAlvin and the Chipmunks.Other series contained unlicensed appropriations. For instance, Hanna-Barbera'sThe Flintstones(1960–1966) was inspired by the sitcomThe Honeymoonersand creatorJackie Gleasonconsidered suing Hanna-Barbera, but he did not want to be known as "the guy who yanked Fred Flintstone off the air".

The Flintstoneswas the firstprime-timeanimated series and became immensely popular, it remained the longest-running network animated television series until that record was broken three decades later. Hanna-Barbera scored more hits withThe Yogi Bear Show(1960–1962),The Jetsons(1962–1963, 1985, 1987), andScooby-Doo, Where Are You!(1969–1970, later followed by other Scooby-Doo series).

From around 1968, after theassassination of Martin Luther King Jr.,thenRobert F. Kennedy'sand other violent acts made the public less at ease with violence in entertainment, networks hired censors to ban anything deemed too violent or suggestive from children's programming.

Apart from regular TV series, there were several noteworthy animated television (holiday) specials, starting with UPA'sMister Magoo's Christmas Carol(1962), followed a few years later by other classic examples such as the string ofBill Melendez'Peanutsspecials (1965–2011, based onCharles M. Schulz's comic strip), and Chuck Jones'sHow the Grinch Stole Christmas!(1966, based on the story byDr. Seuss).

Cambria Productions

Cambria Productionsonly occasionally used traditional animation and would often resort to camera movements, real-time movements between foreground and background cels, and integration of live-action footage. CreatorClark Haasexplained: "We are not making animated cartoons. We are photographing 'motorized movement' and—the biggest trick of all—combining it with live-action... Footage that Disney does for $250,000 we do for $18,000."Their most famous trick was theSyncro-Voxtechnique of superimposing talking lips on the faces of cartoon characters instead of animating mouths synchronized to dialogue. This optical printing system had been patented in 1952 by Cambria's partner and cameramanEdwin Gilletteand was first used for popular "talking animal" commercials. The method would later be widely used for comedic effect, but Cambria used it straight in their seriesClutch Cargo(1959–1960),Space Angel(1962), andCaptain Fathom(1965). Thanks to imaginative stories,Clutch Cargowas a surprise hit. Their last seriesThe New 3 Stooges(1965–1966) no longer used Syncro-Vox. It contained 40 new live-action segments with the originalThree Stoogesthat was spread and repeated throughout 156 episodes together with new animation (occasionally causing people to turn off their TV when live-action footage was repeated, convinced that they had already seen the episode).

US theatrical animation in the 1960s

ForOne Hundred and One Dalmatians(1961) production costs were restrained, helped by thexerographyprocess that eliminated the inking process. Although the relatively sketchy look produced by the xerox process is often maligned by historians and critics, the animators at the time embraced being able to have their drawings transferred directly onto the finished picture. This period at Disney also coincided with the maturation of the "Nine Old Men", a tightly knit group of animators whom Walt entrusted with the development and animation of the films especially as Walt devoted increasingly more time to the construction of parks and other projects. Animators typically regard this period in the studio's history as the most accomplished in terms of the draftsmanship and overall quality of animation. Animation, character designs, and model sheets from this period are often used as reference by animation schools and studios today. "One Hundred and One Dalmatians"was a hit for the studio as wasThe Sword in the Stone(1963) though over the years it has become one of the least-known Disney features. 1964 saw the release of the live-action/animation hybridMary Poppins(1964) which received 13 Academy Awards nominations, including Best Picture. Disney's biggest animated feature of the 1960s wasThe Jungle Book(1967) which was both a critical and commercial success. This was also the final film that was overseen byWalt Disneybefore his death in 1966. After Walt's passing, the studio went into a period of long decline. Led by the Nine Old Men, the studio continued to produce films that were successful enough to enable the continuation of the studio. As veteran animators began to age, a training program was introduced to nurture the next generation of talent. The departure of Don Bluth sapped the studio of many veterans and forced many young animators into taking on bigger responsibilities. By the early 1980s the Nine Old Men had retired, many veterans were gone, and this cohort was struggling to keep the studio viable.

UPA produced their first feature1001 Arabian Nights(1959) (starring Mr. Magoo as Alladin's uncle) for Columbia Pictures, with little success. They tried again withGay Purr-eein 1962, released by Warner Bros. It was well received by critics, but failed at the box office and would be the last feature the studio ever made.

Decline of the theatrical short cartoon

The Supreme Court ruling of theHollywood Anti-trust Case of 1948prohibited "block bookings" in which hit feature films were exclusively offered to theatre owners in packages together with newsreels and cartoons or live-action short films. Instead of receiving a reasonable percentage of a package deal, short cartoons had to be sold separately for the prices that theatre owners were willing to pay for them. Short cartoons were relatively expensive and could now be dropped from the program without people losing interest in the main feature, which became a sensible way to reduce costs when more and more potential movie-goers seemed to stay at home to watch movies on their television sets. Most cartoons had to be re-released several times to recoup the invested budget.By the end of the 1960s most studios had ceased producing theatrical cartoons. Even Warner Bros. and Disney, with occasional exceptions, stopped making short theatrical cartoons after 1969. Walter Lantz was the last of the classic cartoon producers to give up when he closed his studio in 1973.

DePatie–Freleng

DePatie–Freleng Enterprises,founded byFriz FrelengandDavid H. DePatiein 1963 after Warner Bros. closed their animation department, was the only studio that found new success with short theatrical cartoon series after the 1950s. They createdPink Pantherin 1963 for the opening and closing credits of the live-actionThe Pink Pantherfilm series featuringPeter Sellers.Its success led to aseries of short films(1964–1980) andTV series(1969–1980). Pink Panther was followed by the spin-offThe Inspector(1965–1969),The Ant and the Aardvark(1969–1971), and a handful of other theatrical series.The Dogfather(1974–1976) was the last new series, but Pink Panther cartoons appeared in theaters until 1980, shortly before the demise of the studio in 1981. From 1966 to 1981 DePatie–Freleng also produced many TV series and specials.

Rise of anime

Japan was notably prolific and successful with its style of animation, which became known in the English language initially as Japanimation and eventually asanime.In general, anime was developed with limited-animation techniques that put more emphasis on aesthetic quality than on movement, in comparison to US animation. It also applies a relatively "cinematic" approach with zooming, panning, complex dynamic shots, and much attention to backgrounds that are instrumental to creating an atmosphere.

Anime was first domestically broadcast on TV in 1960. The export of theatrical anime features started around the same time. Within a few years, several anime TV series was made that would also receive varying levels of airplay in the United States and other countries, starting with the highly influentialThiết oản アトム (Astro Boy)(1963), followed byジャングル đại đế (Kimba the White Lion)(1965–1966),エイトマン (8th Man)(1965),Ma pháp sử いサリー (Sally the Witch)(1966–1967) andマッハGoGoGo (Mach GoGoGo a.k.a. Speed Racer)(1967).

The domestically popularサザエさん / Sazae-sanstarted in 1969 and is probably the longest-running animated TV show in the world, with more than 7,700 episodes.

Early adult-oriented and counterculture animation

Before the end of the 1960s, hardly anyadult-oriented animationhad been produced. A notable exception was the pornographic shortEveready Harton in Buried Treasure(1928), presumably made by famous animators for a private party in honor of Winsor McCay, and not publicly screened until the late 1970s. After 1934, theHays codegave filmmakers in the United States little leeway to release risky material, until the code was replaced by theMotion Picture Association of America film rating systemin 1968. While television programming of animation had made most people think of it as a medium for children or family entertainment, new theatrical animations proved otherwise.

Arguably, the philosophical, psychological, and sociological overtones of thePeanutsTV specials were relatively adult-oriented, while the specials were also enjoyable for children. In 1969 director Bill Mendelez expanded the success of the series to cinemas withA Boy Named Charlie Brown.The theatrical follow-upSnoopy Come Home(1972) was a box-office flop, despite positive reviews.Race for Your Life, Charlie Brown(1977) andBon Voyage, Charlie Brown (and Don't Come Back!!)(1980) were the only other theatrical traditionally animated feature films forPeanuts,while the TV specials continued until 2011.

The anti-establishmentcounterculture boom at the end of the 1960simpacted Hollywoodearly on. In animation, anti-war sentiments were present in several short underground films likeWard Kimball'sEscalation(1968) (made independently from his employment at Disney) and the parodyMickey Mouse in Vietnam(1969). The less political parodyBambi meets Godzilla(1969) by Marv Newland, another underground short film for adults, is considered a great classic and was included inThe 50 Greatest Cartoons(1994) (based on a poll of 1,000 people working in the animation industry).

The popularity ofpsychedeliareportedly made the 1969 re-release of Disney'sFantasiapopular among teenagers and college students, and the film started to make a profit. Similarly, Disney'sAlice in Wonderlandbecame popular with TV screenings in this period and with its 1974 theatrical re-release.

Also influenced by the psychedelic revolution,The Beatles' animated musical featureYellow Submarine(1968) showed a broad audience how animation could be quite different from the well-known television cartoons and Disney features. Its distinctive design came from the art directorHeinz Edelman.The film received widespread acclaim and would prove to be influential.Peter Maxfurther popularized a similar visual style in his artworks.

Non-US animation in the 1960s

• わんぱく vương tử の đại xà thối trị (The Little Prince and the Eight-Headed Dragon)(Japan, 1963 feature)
• Đại nháo thiên cung (Havoc in Heaven)(China, 1963 feature)
• ガリバーの vũ trụ lữ hành (Gulliver's Travels Beyond the Moon)(Japan, 1965 feature)
• Calimero(Italy/Japan 1963–1972, TV series)
• Belvision'sPinocchio in Outer Space(Belgium/USA 1965, feature directed byRay Goossens)
• West and Soda(Italy 1965, first feature byBruno Bozzetto)

1970s

Breakthrough of adult-oriented and counterculture feature animation

Ralph Bakshithought that the idea of "grown men sitting in cubicles drawing butterflies floating over a field of flowers, while American planes are dropping bombs in Vietnam and kids are marching in the streets, is ludicrous."He, therefore, created a more sociopolitical type of animation, starting withFritz the Cat(1972), based onRobert Crumb's comic books and the first animated feature to receive anX-rating.The X-rating was used to promote the film and it became the highest-grossing independent animated film of all time. The success ofHeavy Traffic(1973) made Bakshi the first since Disney to have two financially successful animated feature films in a row. The film utilized an artistic blend of techniques with still photography as the background in parts, a live-action scene of models with painted faces rendered in negative cinematography, a scene rendered in very limited sketchy animation that was only partly colored, detailed drawing, archival footage, and most characters animated in a consistent cartoon style throughout it all, except the last ten minutes which were fully filmed as a standard live-action film. He continued to experiment with different techniques in most of his next projects. His next projectsHey Good Lookin'(finished in 1975, but shelved by Warner Bros. until release in an adjusted version in 1982) andCoonskin(1975, suffered from protests against its perceived racism while satirizing it) was far less successful, but received more appreciation later on and became cult films.

Bakshi found new success with the fantasy filmsWizards(1977) andThe Lord of the Rings(1978). Both used rotoscoping for massive battle scenes. ForWizardsthe technique was used on archival footage as a solution to budgetary problems and rendered in psychedelic and artistic style. ForThe Lord of the Ringsit became a means to create a look that Bakshi described as "real illustration as opposed to cartoons" for a film that he wanted to be true toTolkien's work, with reference material shot with costumed actors in Spain. The more family-oriented television filmThe Return of the King(1980) byRankin/BassandTopcraftis sometimes regarded as an unofficial sequel after Bakshi's intended second part was not made, but they had already independently started their adaptation of the story on television withThe Hobbitin 1977.

The imaginative French/Czech science fiction productionLa Planète sauvage(1973) was awarded theGrand Prix special jury prizeat the1973 Cannes Film Festival,and in 2016, it was ranked the 36th-greatest animated movie ever byRolling Stone.

The British productionWatership Down (film)(1978) was a huge international success. It featured animal characters that looked more realistic than anthropomorphic, against watercolor backgrounds. Despite its dark and violent aspects, it was deemed suitable for all ages in the UK and ratedPGin the United States.

Anime in Europe

Anime import offered relatively inexpensive animated series, but some European broadcasters thought of animation as something for young children and all too easily programmed anime series accordingly. This led to much criticism when some programs were deemed too violent for children.Child-friendly adaptions of European stories ensured much more success in Europe, with popular titles such asアルプスの thiếu nữ ハイジ (Heidi, Girl of the Alps)(1974) andみつばちマーヤの mạo 険 (Maya the Honey Bee)(1975).

Only a few animation studios were active in Europe and starting a new studio required much time, effort, and money. For European producers interested in animated series, it made sense to collaborate with Japanese studios that could provide affordable animation of relatively high quality. Resulting productions includeBarbapapa(The Netherlands/Japan/France 1973–1977),Wickie und die to starken Männer/ tiểu さなバイキング ビッケ (Vicky the Viking)(Austria/Germany/Japan 1974),Il était une fois... (Once Upon a Time...)(France/Japan 1978) andDoctor Snuggles(The Netherlands/West Germany/Japan/US 1979).

Artistic short-animation highlights

Short animated films mostly became a medium for film festivals in which independent animators showcased their talents. With the big studios away from the field, theAcademy Award for Best Animated Short Filmand nominations of the 1970s and 1980s were usually for relatively unknown artists.

La Linea(Italy 1971, 1978, 1986) is a popular animation series with the main character that consists of a part of an otherwise straight white line that runs horizontally across the screen.

Soviet/Russian animatorYuri Norstein"is considered by many to be not just the best animator of his era, but the best of all time".He released a handful of award-winning short films in the 1970s:

• The Battle of Kerzhenets(Сеча при Керженце,1971), in collaboration withIvan Ivanov-Vano
• The Fox and the Hare(Лиса и заяц,1973).
• The Heron and the Crane(Цапля и журавль,1974).
• Hedgehog in the Fog(Ёжик в тумане,1975).
• Tale of Tales(Сказка сказок,1979).

Norstein has since 1981 been working onThe Overcoat(Шинель) and participated inWinter Days(Đông の nhật,2003).

Early animated music videos

Although the combination of music and animation had a long tradition, it took some time before animation became part ofmusic videosafter the medium became a proper genre in the mid-1970s.

Halas and Batchelor produced an animated video for Roger Glover'sLove Is All(1974) that was broadcast internationally over decades, often as aninterstitial program.

Pink Floyd's 1977Welcome to the Machinemusic video,animated by Gerald Scarfe, was initially only used as a backdrop for concert performances.

Elvis Costello'sAccidents Will Happen(1979) was made by Annabelle Jackel and Rocky Morton, known for their animated commercials. Despite an initially lukewarm reception,the video has since received acclaim.

Roger MainwoodandJohn Halascreated an animated music video forKraftwerk'sAutobahnin 1979.The short wordless documentaryMaking it move...showed the production process.

A cartoon forLinda McCartney'sSeaside Womanwas made by Oscar Grillo and won a Palme d'Or for Best Short Film at the Cannes festival in 1980.

1980s

US Animation Explosion (the 1980s)

Animation for Saturday morning US TV programming had grown formulaic by the end of the 1970s being based on older cartoons and comic strip characters (Superfriends, Scooby Doo, Popeye)The demand for more cartoon content arose with the Reagan administration deregulation of children's cartoons allowing for morning and afternoon time onUHFand cable channels now targeted toward children.Cartoons reflecting action, fantasy, and science fiction were common, with more complex narratives than cartoons of the previous decade. Several popular animated TV series of this time were based on toy lines, includingMattell'sHe-Man and the Masters of the Universe(1983–1985) andHasbro'sG.I. Joe(1983–1986),The Transformers(1984–1987) andMy Little Pony(1986–1987). Other cartoons were based on superhero comics, TV personalities (Garry Coleman, Chuck Norris, Mr. T), other live-action shows (Alf, Punky Brewster) adult action or science fiction movies (Robocop, Rambo, Ghostbusters, Teen Wolf), video games (Pac-Man,Pole Position,Captain N), or children's literature (The Littles,Berenstain Bears). Japanese anime series were also edited and combined match to American broadcast guidelines (Robotech,Force Five).

Mostly in retrospect, Disney feature films have been perceived as going through a dark age in the first decades after Walt Disney died in 1966 (despite a more steady string of box office successes than during the decennia in which Walt was alive). The failure ofThe Black Cauldron(1985), made on an ambitious budget, was a new low.Tim Burtoncited Disney's failure to train new animators during the 1960s and early 1970s as a reason for the decline, with Disney relying instead on an aging group of veterans.

Don Bluth,who had left Disney in 1979 together with nine other animators, started to compete with his former employer in cinemas in 1982 withThe Secret of NIMH.The film garnered critical acclaim but was only a modest success at the box office.

Europe

In comparison to the US animation output around the start of the 1980s, international co-productions seemed more imaginative and more promising.The Smurfs(1981–1989), produced by BelgianFreddy Monnickendam's SEPP International in collaboration with Hanna-Barbera, was highly successful, and followed bySnorks(1984–1989) andFoofur(1986–1988). Production for Bzz Films'Bibifoc (Seabert)(1984–1988) was also handled by SEPP. Other notable international co-productions includeInspector Gadget(France/U.S.A. 1983) andThe Wonderful Wizard of Oz(Canada/Japan 1986–1987).

In the U.K.,Cosgrove Hall Films' very successful TV seriesDanger Mousedebuted in September 1981 and would continue until 1992, receiving 11BAFTAnominations between 1983 and 1987. Also broadcast on Nickelodeon, the wittysecret agentparody featuring a mouse became popular with young as well as adult American audiences and spawned theCount Duckula(1988–1993) spin-off.

Studio Ghibli and TV anime

Main article:History of anime § 1980s

Anime, together with printedmanga,had built enormous fandom in Japan and became a big part of the country's mainstream culture. Among anime's many genres,mecha(giant-robot science fiction) became particularly iconic. Print manga in particular entered into agolden ageduring the 1980s, buoyed by series such asDragon Ball(1984–1995), and these series received long-running successful anime adaptations. The relatively newhome videomarket grew very large andoriginal video animation(OVA) became a much-appreciated medium, often with higher-quality productions than those made for TV (in contrast to the US, wheredirect-to-videowas mainly a medium for releases that were not expected to be popular enough to warrant a theatrical release or TV broadcast and therefore often produced on a much lower budget). Naturally, the OVA medium suited the consumption of erotic and pornographic animation. The first erotic ova release was theロリータアニメ (Lolita Anime)series from February 1984 to May 1985, soon followed by theCream Lemonseries (August 1984 – 2005). The genre became internationally known ashentaiand is infamous for often containing perverse subject matter, including underage sex, monster sex, andtentacle sex(originally devised as a means to bypass Japanese censorship regulations). New anime series based on European material includedニルスのふしぎな lữ (The Wonderful Adventures of Nils)(1980–1981) andスプーンおばさん (Mrs. Pepper Pot)(1983–1984).

Hayao Miyazaki's epic theatrical featuresNausicaä of the Valley of the Wind(1984), based on his manga, andThiên không の thành ラピュタ (Castle in the Sky)(1986) are regularly praised as some ofthe greatest animated films of all time.Castle in the Skywas the first feature forStudio Ghibli,founded in 1985 by Miyazaki withIsao Takahataand others. Studio Ghibli continued its success with Takahata's WWII filmHỏa thùy るの mộ (Grave of the Fireflies)(1988) and Miyazaki's iconicとなりのトトロ (My Neighbor Totoro)(1988) andMa nữ の trạch cấp tiện (Kiki's Delivery Service)(1989).

Renaissance of US animation

Beginning in the mid-1980s, US animation would see a renaissance. This has been credited to a wave of talent that emerged from theCalifornia Institute of the Arts- primarily among the cohort that had studied there in the 1970s underMarc Davis,a member of thenine old menthat had influenced the language of animation in the 1920s and 1930s. At this time, many of the nine were in the process of retiring. As an inside joke, many students in the classroomA113have inserted the room code into their films, television series, and so forth in the years since. The students of A113 includeJerry Rees,John Lasseter,Tim Burton,Michael Peraza,andBrad Bird.Two other members of the nine old men,Ollie JohnstonandFrank Thomas,publishedThe Illusion of Lifein 1981, an instructional book that has been voted the best animation book of all time and influencedJames Baxteramong other modern animators.

In cinemas,Robert Zemeckis' live-action/animation hitWho Framed Roger Rabbit(1988) also harked back to the quality and zany comedy of the golden age of cartoons, with cameos of many of the superstars of that era, including Mickey, Minnie, Donald, Goofy, Betty Boop, Droopy, Woody Woodpecker and the Mel Blanc-voiced Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, Porky Pig, Tweety, and Sylvester, in addition to original characters such asRoger Rabbit,Jessica Rabbit,Baby HermanandBenny the Cab.The film won several Oscars and helped revive interest in theatrical feature animation and classic cartoons. The fully animatedRoger Rabbit short filmTummy Trouble(1989) was then packaged with the live-action family comedyHoney, I Shrunk the Kidsand believed to have helped that movie's quick start at the box-office.In collaboration withSteven Spielberg'sAmblin Entertainment,Bluth'sAn American Tail(1986) became the highest-grossing non-Disney animated film at the time.The Land Before Time(1988) was equally successful, but Bluth's next five feature films flopped.

Mighty Mouse: The New Adventures(1987–1989) was one of the first animated TV shows to recapture the earlier quality and originality of American cartoons. It was produced by Ralph Bakshi and the first season was supervised byJohn Kricfalusi,who allowed much artistic freedom for the animators. Rather than making a nostalgic rehash of the original Terrytoons series, it tried to recreate the quality and the zany humor of theLooney Tunesclassics.

Matt Groening'sThe Simpsonsstarted in April 1987 as a short segment in-sketch comedy showThe Tracey Ullman Show,and then launched as a separate prime-time half-hour sitcom in December 1989. It became one of the biggest cartoon hits in history and is thelongest-running scripted US primetime television series.

While the successes ofThe Great Mouse Detective(1986) andOliver and Company(1988) had already helped to get the Disney studio back on track, they struck gold with the box office record-breaking hitThe Little Mermaid(1989). A shot for the rainbow sequence at the end ofThe Little Mermaidwas the first piece of feature animation to be created with theComputer Animation Production System(CAPS) system that Disney andPixarhad collaboratively assembled. Thisdigital ink and paintsystem replaced the expensive method of inking and coloring cells by hand and provided filmmakers with new creative tools. By 1990, the boom of animated hits was heralded as a comeback that might rival the golden age of cartoons.

Adult-oriented theatrical animation in the 1980s

Bakshi's rock musicalAmerican Pop(1981) was another success, mostly made with the rotoscope technique in combination with some watercolors, computer graphics, live-action shots, and archival footage. His next filmFire and Ice(1983) was a collaboration with artistFrank Frazetta.It was one of many films in thesword and sorcerygenre released after the success ofConan the Barbarian(1982) andThe Beastmaster(1982). Critics appreciated the visuals and action sequences, but not its script and the film flopped at the box office. After failing to get several projects off the ground, Bakshi retired for a few years.

The Canadian anthology hit filmHeavy Metal(1981) was based on comics published in the popularHeavy Metalmagazineand co-produced by its founder. Mixed reviews thought the film was uneven, juvenile, and sexist. It was eventually followed in 2000 by the poorly receivedHeavy Metal 2000and re-imagined as theNetflixseriesLove, Death & Robotsin 2019.

The dark rock opera filmPink Floyd – The Wall(1982) contained 15 minutes worth of animated segments by British cartoonistGerald Scarfe,who had already designedrelated artwork for the 1979 albumand1980-81 concert tour.Some of the film's animated material was previously used for the 1979music videofor "Another Brick in the Wall: Part 2"and for the tour. Scarfe had also made animations for Pink Floyd's 1977In the Fleshtour.

The successful British nucleardisaster filmWhen the Wind Blows(1986) showed hand-drawn characters against real backgrounds, with stop-motion for objects that moved.

The violentpost-apocalypticcyberpunkanimeAkira(1988) garnered increased popularity of anime outside Japan and is now widely regarded as a classic.

MTV and animated videos

MTVlaunched in 1981 and further popularized the music-video medium, which allowed relatively much artistic expression and creative techniques, since all involved wanted their video to stand out. Many of the most celebrated music videos of the 1980s featured animation, often created with techniques that differed from standard cel animation. For instance, the iconic video for Peter Gabriel'sSledgehammer(1986) featuredclaymation,pixilation,and stop motion byAardman Animationsand theBrothers Quay.

A-ha's "Take On Me"(1985) famously combined live-action with realistic pencil-drawing animation byMichael Patterson.The video was directed bySteve Barron,who would also direct the groundbreaking computer-animatedDire Straits"Money for Nothing"in the same year. The a-ha video was inspired by Alex Patterson'sCalArtsgraduation filmCommuter(1984), which had attracted the attention of Warner Bros. Records executivesand would be partly used again for A-ha'sTrain of Thoughtvideo.

Patterson also directedPaula Abdul'sOpposites Attract(1989), featuring his animated creationMC Skat Kat.

The Rolling Stones' "The Harlem Shuffle"(1986) featured animated elements directed byRalph BakshiandJohn Kricfalusi,created in a few weeks.

The original Moon landing bumpers on MTV were pulled in early 1986 in the wake of theChallengerdisasterMTV then furthered its wild artisticpostmodernimage through a plethora of experimental ident bumpers, most of them animated.Animators usually went uncredited, but were free to work in their identifiable styles. For instance, Canadian animatorDanny Antonucci's contribution anonymously featured hisLupo the Butchercharacter that was allowed to utter his psychotic ramblings.

From around 1987MTV had a dedicated Animation departmentand slowly started introducing more animation in between its music-related programming.Bill Plympton'sMicrotoonsis an early example.

Rise of computer animation

Main article:History of computer animation

Early experiments with computers to generate (abstract) moving images had been conducted since the 1940s but had not garnered much attention until commercial (coin-operated)video gamesstarted to get marketed in the early 1970s.Pong(1972) byAtari, Inc.,with very simple two-dimensional black-and-white graphics, andTaito'sSpace Invadersbecame huge successes that paved the way for a medium that can be regarded as an interactive branch ofcomputer animation.Since 1974 the annualSIGGRAPHconventions have been organized to demonstrate current developments and new research in the field ofcomputer graphics(includingCGI), but computer animation had seldom been seen on TV or in movie theaters (with notable exceptions of some demonstrations of3Dwire-frame modelsas futuristic technologies seen on screens in a few big Hollywood productions asFutureworld(1976) andStar Wars(1977)).

3D computer animation started to have a much wider cultural impact during the 1980s, demonstrated for instance in the 1982 movieTronand the music video forMoney for Nothing(1985) by the Dire Straits. The concept even spawned a popular faux 3D-animatedAIcharacter:Max Headroom(introduced in 1985).

During the 1980s, computer animation also started to become a relatively common means to createmotion graphicsfor logos and text inTV-commercialsand moviestitle sequences.

1990s

Disney Renaissance

Main article:Disney Renaissance

The 1990s saw Disney release numerous films that were both critically and commercially successful, returning to heights not seen since their heyday from the1930s to 1960s.The period from 1989 to 1999 is now referred to as theDisney Renaissanceor the Second Golden Age and began with the release ofThe Little Mermaid(1989). Their success led other major film studios to establish new animation divisions such asAmblimation,Fox Animation StudiosorWarner Bros. Feature Animationto replicate Disney's success by turning their animated films into Disney-styled musicals. The 90s cartoons are sometimes referred to as the "Renaissance Age of Animation" for animation as a whole, this is in both theatrical animated films and cartoon TV series.

Disney'sBeauty and the Beast(1991) (the first animated film in history to be nominated for theAcademy Award for Best Picture),Aladdin(1992) andThe Lion King(1994) successively broke box-office records.Pocahontas(1995) opened to mixed reviews from critics but was a financial success, it received twoAcademy Awardsand was well received by viewers.Mulan(1998) andTarzan(1999) did not surpassThe Lion Kingas thehighest-grossing (traditionally) animated film of all timebut the viewer and financial reception of both films were successful and each grossing over $300 million worldwide.The Hunchback of Notre Dame(1996) was a financial success at the time but contained very dark and adult themes and has since become one of Disney's lesser-known films, although now it has acult following.Only the sequelThe Rescuers Down Under(1990) andHercules(1997) underperformed at box-office expectations, but they were both well received amongst the viewers like the other Disney Renaissance films.

FromThe Return of Jafarin 1994 toTinker Bell and the Legend of the NeverBeastin 2015, Disney continued to producefeature-length sequelsto successful titles, but only asdirect-to-videoreleases byWalt Disney Studios Home Entertainment.In many ways, these direct-to-video films were similar to theLive Action Disney Remakesfrom the 2010Alice in Wonderlandmovie onwards.

Television

John Kricfalusi's influentialThe Ren & Stimpy Show(1991–1996) garnered widespread acclaim. Throughout its initial run, it was the most popular cable TV show in the United States. Although it was programmed as a children's cartoon, it was notoriouslycontroversialfor itsdark humor,sexual innuendos,adult jokes,andshock value.The Ren & Stimpy Showwas the third cartoon that premiered together withDoug(1991–1994, 1996–1999) andRugrats(1991–1994, 1997–2004) at theNickelodeonpay television channel.Klasky Csupo,the animation studio behind Rugrats, produced and animated era-defining shows for the children's network, in the 1990s and 2000s. Once the studio faded into obscurity in 2008, they were succeeded byFrederator Studios,the studio behindThe Fairly OddParents(2001–2006, 2009–2017). Frederator remained active for most of the 2000s and the 2010s, before fading into obscurity by 2017.

Before 1991, Nickelodeon would import cartoons from other channels to their network, which is a practice that remains ongoing. Examples of imported cartoons to Nickelodeon areAngela Anaconda(1999–2001) fromFox Family Channel(with foreign releases),Wayside(2005, 2007–2008), from the Canadian channel ofTeletoonandGrowing Up Creepie(2006–2008) fromDiscovery Kids.The most successful imported cartoon to the channel isPAW Patrol(2013-present), from another Canadian networkSpin Master,and is on Nickeoldeon's sub-channelNick Jr.,where programs on that station are aimed attoddlersrather thanchildrenorteenagers.The most successful cartoon native to Nick Jr. isDora the Explorer(2000-2019). Years before Nick's heyday in the 90s, Nickelodeon launched the (unaired) pilot ofVideo Dream Theatrein 1979 or 1980, and it was soon to be followed by two more failed attempts of original animation, which were the aired pilots ofChristmas in Tattertownin 1988 andNick's Thanksgiving Festin 1989.

The early shows paved the way for laterNicktoons,includingRocko's Modern Life(1993–1996, 2019),Hey Arnold!(1996–2004, 2017),The Angry Beavers(1997–2001), andCatDog(1998-2001/2005). The 21st century Nicktoons includedInvader Zim(2001–2006, 2019),Jimmy Neutron(2001, 2002–2006),ChalkZone(2002–2008),Avatar: The Last Airbender(2005–2008), andCatscratch(2005-2007). The latter cartoon is considered by many to be the lastclassicNicktoon. Following thechannel's primefrom 1991-2005, there have been cartoons withcult followingsof Nickelodeon'slater yearsfrom 2005 to the present, includingBack at the Barnyard(2006, 2007-2011),The Mighty B!(2008-2011), Avatar'sspin-offseriesThe Legend of Korra(2012–2014),Sanjay and Craig(2013–2016),Harvey Beaks(2015–2017),The Loud House(2016–present), the TLH spinoffThe Casagrandes(2019-2022, 2024).It's Pony(2020–2022),Glitch Techs(2020),Middlemost Post(2021-2022),Star Trek: Prodigy(2021-2022)Big Nate(2022-2024), andRock Papper Scissors(2024-present). Initially the long-running NicktoonRugratswas theflagshipfranchiseof Nickelodeon before being surpassed bySpongeBob SquarePants(1999–present) in 2004 when the networkrebranded itselfwith the release of thefirst SpongeBob film.

On September 13, 1993, Fox Kids aired the first episode ofAnimaniacs(1993–1998, 2020–2023). But then, in 1999, there was a film called "Wakko's Wish".Similar to TRASS, Animaniacs had innuendos, like:" There'sBoloneyin our slacks! "is an example.

The enormous success ofThe Simpsons(1989-present) andThe Ren & Stimpy Show(1991-1996) prompted more original and relatively daring series, includingSouth Park(1997-present),King of the Hill(1997–2010),Family Guy(1999-present), andFuturama(1999–2003, 2008–2013, 2023–present).

The use of animation on MTV increased when the channel started to make more and more shows that did not fit its "music television" moniker.Liquid Television(1991 to 1995) showcased contributions that were mostly created by independent animators specifically for the show and spawned separateÆon Flux,Beavis and Butt-Head(1993–1997) andDaria(1997–2002). Other 1990s cartoon series on MTV includedThe Head(1994–1996) andThe Maxx(1995), both under theMTV's Odditiesbanner. By 2001, MTV closed its animation department, began to outsource its animated series, and eventually imported shows from associated networks.

Warner Brothers' 24-hourcable channelCartoon Networkwas launched in the United States on October 1, 1992, and was soon followed by its firstinternational versions.Originally the programming consisted of classic cartoons from the back catalogs of Warner Bros, MGM, Fleischer/Famous, and Hanna-Barbera. From 1996 to 2003, new original series ran asCartoon Cartoonsand introduced the popular titlesDexter's Laboratory(1996–2003),Johnny Bravo(1997–2004),Cow and Chicken(1997–1999),I Am Weasel(1997–2000),The Powerpuff Girls(1998–2005),Ed, Edd n Eddy(1999–2009), andCourage the Cowardly Dog(1999–2002). Examples of CN cartoons of the 21st century areSamurai Jack(2001–2004, 2017),Codename: Kids Next Door(2002–2008),Teen Titans(2003–2006),Ben 10(2005–2008),Adventure Time(2010–2018), theRegular Show(2010–2017) andThe Amazing World of Gumball(2011–2019).

Television animation for children also continued to flourish in the United States on other specialized cable channels likeDisney Channel/Disney XD,PBS Kids,and in syndicated afternoon time slots. Examples of animated Disney cartoons in the 90s areTaleSpin(1990–1991),Darkwing Duck(1991–1992),Goof Troop(1992, 1995, 2000),Aladdin(1994–1995, 1996),Gargoyles(1994–1997),Timon & Pumbaa(1995–1999),101 Dalmatians(1997–1998),Pepper Ann(1997–2000), andDisney's Recess(1997–2001, 2003). Following the Disney Renaissance, they've beenKim Possible(2002–2006, 2007),Phineas and Ferb(2007–2015),Gravity Falls(2012–2016),Star vs. the Forces of Evil(2015–2019),The Lion Guard(2016–2019),DuckTales(2017–2021),Big City Greens(2018-present),Amphibia(2019–2022), andThe Owl House(2020–2023).

Cartoons produced in the 1990s are sometimes referred to as the "Renaissance Age of Animation" for cartoons in general, particularly for American animated children's programs. The Disney Channel (owned byDisney Branded Television), Nickelodeon (owned byViacom,now known asParamount Global), and Cartoon Network (owned byWarner Bros. Animation) would dominate the animated television industry. These three channels are considered to be the "Big Three", of children's entertainment, even today, but especially in their heyday of the 1990s.

Breakthrough of computer animation and new media

During the 1990s, 3D animation became more and more mainstream, especially in video games, and eventually had a big breakthrough in 1995 withPixar's feature film hitToy Story.

More or less photo-realistic 3D animation has been used for special effects in some commercials and films since the 1980s before breakthrough effects were seen inTerminator 2: Judgment Day(1991) andJurassic Park(1993). Since then, techniques have developed to the stage that the difference between CGI and real-life cinematography is seldom obvious. Filmmakers can blend both types of images seamlessly withvirtual cinematography.The Matrix(1999) and its two sequels are usually regarded as breakthrough films in this field.

The creation ofvirtual worldsallowsreal-timeanimation invirtual reality,a medium that has been experimented with since 1962 and started to see commercial entertainment applications in the 1990s.

The launch of theWorld Wide Webincreased interest in motion graphics and computer animation, spawning many new applications, techniques, and markets for what became known asnew media.

2000s–2010s: traditional techniques overshadowed by computer animation

Amotion capturesystem for character animation

After the success ofPixar'sToy Story(1995) andDreamWorks Animation'sShrek(2001), computer animation grew into the dominant animation technique in the US and many other countries. Even animation that looked traditional was more and more often created fully with computers, helped by for instance cel-shadingtechniques to replicate the much-appreciated look of traditional animation (true real-time cel-shading was first introduced in 2000 bySega'sJet Set Radiofor theirDreamcastconsole). By 2004, only small productions were still created with traditional techniques.

The first decades of the 21st century also saw3D filmturn mainstream in theatres. The production process and visual style of CGI lend themselves perfectly to 3D viewing, much more than traditional animation styles and methods. However, many traditionally animated films can be very effective in 3D. Disney successfully released a 3D version ofThe Lion Kingin 2011, followed byBeauty and the Beastin 2012. A planned 3D version ofThe Little Mermaidwas canceled whenBeauty and the Beastand two3D-convertedPixar titles were not successful enough at the box office.

Disney-Pixar

Disney started producing their own 3D-style computer-animated features withDinosaurandChicken Little,but continued to make animated features with traditional look:The Emperor's New Groove(2000),Atlantis: The Lost Empire(2001),Lilo & Stitch(2002),Treasure Planet(2002),Brother Bear(2003) andHome on the Range(2004).

Treasure PlanetandHome on the Rangewere big flops on big budgets and it looked like Disney would only continue with 3D computer animation. Financial analysis in 2006 proved that Disney had lost money on their animation productions of the previous ten years.In the meantime, Pixar's CGI features did extremely well. To turn things around Disney acquired Pixar in 2006, and put creative control over both Pixar andWalt Disney Animation Studiosin the hands of Pixar'sJohn Lasseteras part of the deal. The studios would remain separatelegal entities.Under Lasseter, the Disney studio developed both traditionally styled and 3D-styled animation projects.

The theatrical shortHow to Hook Up Your Home Theater(2007) tested whether new paperless animation processes could be used for a look similar to cartoons of the 1940s and 1950s, with Goofy returning to his "Everyman"role in his first solo appearance in 42 years.

Ron ClementsandJohn Musker's featureThe Princess and the Frog(2009) was a moderate commercial and critical success, but not the comeback hit for traditional features that the studio had hoped it would be. Its perceived failure was mostly blamed on the use of "princess" in the title causing potential movie-goers to think it was only for little girls, and old-fashioned.

Winnie the Pooh(2011) received favorable reviews, but failed at the box office and became Disney's most recent traditional feature to date, though the studio stated in 2019 and 2023 that they are open to proposals from filmmakers for future hand-drawn feature projects.Frozen(2013) was originally conceived in the traditional style but switched to 3D CGI to enable the creation of certain required visual elements. It became Disney's biggest hit at the time, surpassing bothThe Lion Kingand Pixar'sToy Story 3as thehighest-grossing animated film of all time,and winning the studio's first Academy Award for a best-animated feature.

Anime

Especially worldwide, hand-drawn animation continued to be very popular, most notably in Japan, where traditionally styled anime remained the dominant technique. The popularity of anime continued to rise domestically, with a record-high 340 anime series airing on television in 2015, as well as internationally, with a dedicatedToonamiblock on Cartoon Network (1997–2008) andAdult Swim(since 2012) and with streaming services likeNetflixandAmazon Primelicensing and producing an increasing amount of anime.

Ghibli continued its enormous success with Miyazaki'sSpirited Away(2001),ハウルの động く thành (Howl's Moving Castle)(2004),Nhai の thượng のポニョ (Ponyo)(2008) andPhong lập ちぬ (The Wind Rises)(2013) andHiromasa YonebayashiTá りぐらしのアリエッティ(The Secret World of Arrietty)(2010), all grossing more than $100 million worldwide and appearing in the top 10 of thehighest-grossing anime filmsof all time (as of 2020). Takahata'sかぐや cơ の vật ngữ (The Tale of the Princess Kaguya)(2013) was nominated for an Oscar for Best Animated Feature Film Academy Award and many other awards.

Makoto ShinkaidirectedQuân の danh は. (Your Name)(2016, highest-grossing anime film of all time internationally) andThiên khí の tử (Weathering with You)(2019).

Stop motion

Main article:Stop motion

After the pioneering work by the likes ofJ. Stuart Blackton,Segundo de Chomón,andArthur Melbourne-Cooper,stop motion became a branch of animation that has been much less dominant than hand-drawn animation and computer animation. Nonetheless, there have been many successful stop-motion films and television series. Among the animators whose work with animated puppets has received the highest acclaim areWladyslaw Starewicz,George Pal,andHenry Selick.Popular titles usinganimated clayincludeGumby(1953),Mio Mao(1970),The Red and the Blue(1976),Pingu(1990–2000) and manyAardman Animationsproductions (Morph(1977) andWallace and Gromit(1989)).

In the hands of influential filmmakers such asJan SvankmajerandBrothers Quay,stop motion has been regarded as a highly artistic medium.

Until largely replaced by computer-animated effects, stop motion was also a popular technique for special effects in live-action films. PioneerWillis O'Brienand his protégéRay Harryhausenanimated many monsters and creatures for live-action Hollywood films, using models or puppets with armatures. In comparison, hand-drawn animation has relatively often been combined with live-action, but usually in an obvious fashion and often used as a surprising gimmick that combines a "real" world and a fantasy or dream world. Only very occasionally has hand-drawn animation been used as convincing special effects (for instance in the climax ofHighlander(1986)).

Cutout animation

Main article:cutout animation

Cutout techniques were relatively often used in animated films until cel animation became the standard method (at least in the United States). The earliest animated feature films, byQuirino CristianiandLotte Reiniger,were cutout animations.

Before 1934, Japanese animation mostly used cutout techniques rather than cel animation, because celluloid was too expensive.

As cutouts often have been hand-drawn and some productions combine several animation techniques, cutout animation can sometimes look very similar to hand-drawn traditional animation.

While sometimes used as a simple and cheap animation method in children's programs (for instance inIvor the Engine), cutout animation has remained a relatively artistic and experimental medium in the hands of filmmakers likeHarry Everett Smith,Terry GilliamandJim Blashfield.

Today, cutout-style animation is frequently produced usingcomputers,with scanned images orvector graphicstaking the place of physically cut materials.South Parkis a notable example of the transition since itspilot episodewas made with paper cutouts before switching tocomputer software.Similar stylistic choices and blends with different techniques in computer animation have made it harder to differentiate between "traditional", cutout, andFlash animationstyles.

Other developments per region

Americas

See also:History of Brazilian animation,History of Canadian animation,Animation in the United States during the silent era,Golden age of American animation,World War II and American animation,Animation in the United States in the television era,andModern animation in the United States

History of Cuban animation

• 1970:Juan Padróncreates the character ofElpidio Valdés,the star of a long-running series of shorts and two motion pictures.
• 1992: An animation category is added to theFestival Internacional del Nuevo Cine Latinoamericano.

History of Mexican animation

• 1935: Alfonso Vergara producesPaco Perico en premier,an animated short film.
• 1974: Fernando Ruiz produces Lostres Reyes Magos,Mexico's first animated feature-length film.
• 1977: Anuar Badin creates the filmLos supersabios,based on the comic.
• 1983: Roy del espacio

Europe

See also:History of British animation,Czech animation,Estonian animation,History of French animation,History of Hungarian animation,History of Russian animation,Spanish animation,andHistory of Ukrainian animation

History of Italian animation

• 1977: The classicAllegro Non Troppo,a parody/homage to Disney'sFantasiais directorBruno Bozzetto's most ambitious work and his third feature-length animation, after theSpaghetti WesternWest and Sodaand the superhero parodyVIP my Brother Superman,and after several notable shorts (includingMr. Rossiand the Oscar-nominatedGrasshoppers(Cavallette)).

History of animation in Croatia (in former Yugoslavia)

• 1953:Zagreb Filminaugurates theZagrebschool of animation.
• 1975:Škola Animiranog Filma Čakovec(ŠAF) inaugurates theČakovecschool of animation.

Asia

See also:History of anime,History of Chinese animation,History of animation in India,History of Korean animation,History of Iranian animation,andMalaysian Animation

Media

• A 1921sequeltoWinsor McCay's "Gertie the Dinosaur",1914, the first cartoon with personality animation

See also

• Firsts in animation
• History of anime
• History of art
• History of Cartoon Network
• History of comics
• History of Disney Channel
• History of film
• History of manga
• History of Nickelodeon
• History of television
• History of video games
• History of YouTube

References

Works cited

Bibliography

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• Bendazzi, Giannalberto (1994).Cartoons: One Hundred Years of Cinema Animation.Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press.ISBN0-253-20937-4.
• Buchan, Suzanne (2013).Pervasive Animation.New York and London: Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-80723-4.
• Clements, Jonathan;McCarthy, Helen(2006).The Anime Encyclopedia: A Guide to Japanese Animation Since 1917.Stone Bridge Press.ISBN978-1-84576-500-2.
• Crafton, Donald (1993).Before Mickey: The Animated Film 1898–1928.Chicago: University of Chicago Press.ISBN0-226-11667-0.
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Online sources

• Anime News Network staff (2005-08-07)."Oldest Anime Found".Anime News Network.Retrieved2014-02-12.
• Cohn, Neil (February 15, 2006)."The Visual Linguist: Burnt CityanimationVL ".The Visual Linguist.
• Ball, Ryan (March 12, 2008)."Oldest Animation Discovered In Iran".Animation Magazine.
• Bendazzi, Giannalberto (1996)."The Untold Story of Argentina's Pioneer Animator".Animation World Network.Retrieved2011-03-28.

External links

• Llewellyn, Richard (2013)."Chronology of Animation Introduction".Richard's Animated Divots.
• "List of animation films produced in Europe".Animation Europe.
• Herbert, Stephen."Animation before film".Wheel of Life.
• Chinese Film Classics: Animation and cartoons (manhua):Examples and discussion of animation in the early Chinese film industry, from the scholarly website chinesefilmclassics.org