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Homo rhodesiensis

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Homo rhodesiensis
Temporal range:Middle Pleistocene1.2–0.3Ma
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Kabwe skull (1922 photograph)
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Suborder: Haplorhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
Family: Hominidae
Subfamily: Homininae
Tribe: Hominini
Subtribe: Hominina
Genus: Homo
Species:
†H. rhodesiensis
Binomial name
†Homo rhodesiensis

Homo rhodesiensisis the species name proposed byArthur Smith Woodward(1921) to classifyKabwe 1(the "Kabwe skull" or "Broken Hill skull", also "Rhodesian Man" ), aMiddle Stone Agefossil recovered fromBroken Hill mineinKabwe,Northern Rhodesia(nowZambia).[1]In 2020, the skull was dated to 324,000 to 274,000 years ago. Other similar older specimens also exist.[2]

H. rhodesiensisis now widely considered a synonym ofH. heidelbergensis.[3]Other designations such asHomo sapiens arcaicus[4]andHomo sapiens rhodesiensis[5]have also been proposed.

Fossils

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Main article:Homo heidelbergensis § Africa
Replica of the Kabwe cranium
Interpretation of "Rhodesian Men" byAmédée Forestier(1922)

A number ofmorphologicallycomparable fossil remains came to light in East Africa (Bodo, Ndutu, Eyasi,Ileret) and North Africa (Salé, Rabat, Dar-es-Soltane, Djbel Irhoud, Sidi Aberrahaman, Tighenif) during the 20th century.[6]

  • Kabwe 1,also called the Broken Hill skull, or "Rhodesian Man", was assigned byArthur Smith Woodwardin 1921 as the type specimen forHomo rhodesiensis;most contemporary scientists forego the taxon "rhodesiensis" altogether and assign it toHomo heidelbergensis.[7]Thecraniumwas discovered inBroken Hill lead minein Mutwe Wa Nsofu Area ofNorthern Rhodesia(nowKabwe,Zambia) on June 17, 1921[8]by two miners. In addition to the cranium, an upperjawfrom another individual, asacrum,atibia,and twofemurfragments were also found.
  • Bodo cranium:The 600,000 year old[9]fossil was found in 1976 by members of an expedition led by Jon Kalb at Bodo D'ar in theAwash Rivervalley ofEthiopia.[10]Although the skull is most similar to those of Kabwe, Woodward's nomenclature was discontinued and its discoverers attributed it toH. heidelbergensis.[11]It has features that represent a transition betweenHomo ergaster/erectusandHomo sapiens.[12]
  • Ndutu cranium,[13]"the hominid fromLake Ndutu"in northern Tanzania, around 600–500,000 years old[14]or 400,000 years old. In 1976 R. J. Clarke classified it asHomo erectusand it has generally been viewed that way, although points of similarity toH. sapienshave also been recognized. After comparative studies with similar finds in Africa allocation to an African subspecies ofH. sapienswas considered most appropriate by Phillip Rightmire.[15]An indirect cranial capacity estimate suggests 1100 ml. Its supratoral sulcus morphology and the presence of protuberance as suggested by Rightmire "give the Nudutu occiput an appearance which is also unlike that ofHomo erectus".And in a 1989 publication Clarke concluded:" It is assigned to archaicHomo sapienson the basis of its expanded parietal and occipital regions of the brain ".[16]But Stinger (1986) pointed out that athickened iliac pillaris typical forHomo erectus.[17]In 2016, Chris Stringer classified the cranium as belonging toHomo heidelbergensis/Homo rhodesiensis(a species considered to be intermediate betweenHomo erectusandHomo sapiens) rather than as earlyH. sapiens,but considers it to display a "more sapiens-like zygomaxillary morphology" than certain other examples ofHomo rhodesiensis.[18]
  • TheSaldanha craniumfound in 1953 in South Africa, and estimated at around 500,000 years old, was subject to at least three taxonomic revisions from 1955 to 1996.[19]

Bodo cranium

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TheBodo cranium[20]is a fossil of an extinct type ofhomininspecies. It was found by members of an expedition led byJon Kalbin 1976.[21]The Rift Valley Research Mission conducted a number of surveys that led to the findings of Acheulean tools and animal fossils, as well as the Bodo Cranium.[22]The initial discovery was by Alemayhew Asfaw and Charles Smart, who found a lower face. Two weeks later, Paul Whitehead and Craig Wood found the upper portion of the face. Pieces of the cranium were discovered along the surface of one of the dry branches of the Awash River in Ethiopia.[20]The cranium, artifacts, and other animal fossils were found over a relatively large area of medium sand, and only a few of the tools were found near the cranium.[23][24]The skull is 600,000 years old.[25]

Observation

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This specimen has an unusually largecranial capacityfor its age that is estimated at around 1250 cc (in the range between ~1,200–1,325 cc) within the (lower) range of modernHomo sapiens.[26] The cranium includes the face, much of thefrontal bone,parts of the midvault and the base anterior to theforamen magnum.The cranial length, width and height are 21 cm (8.3 in), 15.87 cm (6.2 in) and 19.05 cm (7.5 in) respectively. Researchers have suggested that Bodobutcheredanimals becauseAcheuleanhand axesandcleavers,along with animal bones, were found at the site. Cuts on the Bodo cranium show the earliest evidence of removal of flesh immediately after the death of an individual using a stone tool.[23]The findings of symmetrical cut marks with specific patterns and directionality on the cranium serve as strong evidence that de-fleshing was done purposefully for mortuary practices and represents the earliest evidence of non-utilitarian mortuary practices.[23][27]The cut marks were located "laterally among the maxilla" causing speculation among researchers that the specific reason for de-fleshing was to remove the mandible.[28]

Morphology

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The front of the Bodo cranium is very broad and supports large supraorbital structures. The supraorbital torus projects and is heavily constructed, especially in the central parts of the cranium. The Glabella is rounded and projects strongly. Like Homo erectus, the braincase is low and archaic in appearance. The vault bones are also thick like Homo erectus specimens. Due to the large cranial capacity, there is a wider midvault which includes signs ofparietalbossing as well as a high contour of thetemporal squama.The parietal length can’t be accurately determined because that section of the specimen is incomplete. Though the mastoid is missing, insights regarding the specimen can be determined using fragments from the individual collected at the scene in 1981. The cranium’s parietal walls expand relative to the bitemporal width in a way that is characteristic of modern humans. The squamosal suture has a high arch which is present in modern human craniums as well.[29]

Evolutionary significance

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The cranium has an unusual appearance, which has led to debates over its taxonomy. It displays both primitive and derived features, such as a cranial capacity more similar to modern humans and a projecting supraorbital torus more likeHomo erectus.[20][30][31]Bodo and otherMid-Pleistocenehominin fossils appear to represent a lineage betweenHomo erectusandanatomically modern humans,although its exact location in the human evolutionary tree is still uncertain.[32][33]Due to the similarities to both Homo erectus and modern humans, it has been postulated that the Bodo cranium, as well as other members ofHomo heidelbergensiswere part of a group of hominins that evolved distinct from Homo erectus early in the Middle Pleistocene. Despite the similarities, there is still a question of where exactlyHomo heidelbergensisevolved. The increasedencephalizationseen in fossils like the Bodo cranium is thought to have been a driving force in thespeciationof anatomically modern humans.[34][35]

Similarities between the Bodo cranium and Kabwe cranium

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Both the Bodo cranium and theKabwe craniumshare a number of similarities. Both have cranial capacities similar to, but on the low end of the range of modern humans (1250cc vs 1230cc). Both craniums have a very largesupraorbital torus.These two features together suggest that they are a link betweenHomo erectusandHomo sapiens.[36]The morphology and the taxonomy are most similar to other specimens of typeHomo heidelbergensis.[37]Both the Bodo and Kabwe specimens can be described as archaic because they retain certain features in common withHomo erectus.However, both exhibit important differences fromHomo erectusin their anatomy, such as the contour of their parietals, the shape of their temporal bones, thecranial base,and themorphologyof their nose and palate. While there are many similarities, there are a few differences between the specimens, including the entire brow of the Bodo cranium, particularly the lateral segments, which are less thick than the Kabwe specimen.[29]

"Homo bodoensis"

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In 2021, Canadian anthropologist Mirjana Roksandic and colleagues recommended the complete dissolution ofH. heidelbergensisand "H. rhodesiensis",as the namerhodesiensishonours Englishdiamond magnateCecil Rhodeswho disenfranchised the black population in southern Africa. They classified all EuropeanH. heidelbergensisasH. neanderthalensis,and synonymisedH. rhodesiensiswith a new species they named "H. bodoensis"which includes all African specimens, and potentially some from the Levant and the Balkans which have no Neanderthal-derived traits (namely Ceprano, Mala Balanica, HaZore'a and Nadaouiyeh Aïn Askar)."H. bodoensis"is supposed to represent the immediate ancestor of modern humans, but does not include the LCA of modern humans and Neanderthals. They suggested the confusing morphology of the Middle Pleistocene was caused by periodic"H. bodoensis"migration events into Europe following population collapses after glacial cycles, interbreeding with surviving indigenous populations.[38]Their taxonomic recommendations were rejected by Stringer and others as they failed to explain how exactly their proposals would resolve anything, in addition to violating nomenclatural rules.[39][40]

See also

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References

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  1. ^"GBIF 787018738 Fossil ofHomo rhodesiensisWoodward, 1921 ".GBIF org.RetrievedDecember 9,2015.
  2. ^Grün, Rainer; Pike, Alistair; McDermott, Frank; Eggins, Stephen; Mortimer, Graham; Aubert, Maxime; Kinsley, Lesley; Joannes-Boyau, Renaud; Rumsey, Michael; Denys, Christiane; Brink, James; Clark, Tara; Stringer, Chris (2020-04-01)."Dating the skull from Broken Hill, Zambia, and its position in human evolution"(PDF).Nature.580(7803): 372–375.Bibcode:2020Natur.580..372G.doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2165-4.ISSN1476-4687.PMID32296179.S2CID214736650.
  3. ^Ni, Xijun; Ji, Qiang; Wu, Wensheng; Shao, Qingfeng; Ji, Yannan; Zhang, Chi; Liang, Lei; Ge, Junyi; Guo, Zhen; Li, Jinhua; Li, Qiang; Grün, Rainer; Stringer, Chris (2021-08-28)."Massive cranium from Harbin in northeastern China establishes a new Middle Pleistocene human lineage".The Innovation.2(3): 100130.Bibcode:2021Innov...200130N.doi:10.1016/j.xinn.2021.100130.ISSN2666-6758.PMC8454562.PMID34557770.
  4. ^H. James Birx (10 June 2010).21st Century Anthropology: A Reference Handbook.SAGE Publications. p. 48.ISBN978-1-4522-6630-5.
  5. ^Bernard Wood (31 March 2011).Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Human Evolution, 2 Volume Set.John Wiley & Sons. pp. 761–762.ISBN978-1-4443-4247-5.
  6. ^"The evolution and development of cranial form inHomo"(PDF).Department of Anthropology, Harvard University.RetrievedDecember 9,2015.
  7. ^Hublin, J.-J. (2013), "The Middle Pleistocene Record. On the Origin of Neandertals, Modern Humans and Others" in: R. David Begun (ed.),A Companion to Paleoanthropology,John Wiley, pp. 517–537 (p. 523).
  8. ^"Zambia resolute on recovering Broken Hill Man from Britain – Zambia Daily Mail".Daily-mail.co.zm. 2015-01-10. Archived fromthe originalon 2018-03-01.Retrieved2018-06-04.
  9. ^"Bodo – Paleoanthropology site information".Fossilized org.RetrievedDecember 9,2015.
  10. ^"Bodo Skull and Jaw".Skulls Unlimited. Archived fromthe originalon 2015-12-08.RetrievedDecember 9,2015.
  11. ^"Bodo fossil".Britannica Encyclopedia.RetrievedDecember 9,2015.
  12. ^"Meet Bodo and Herto There is some discussion around the species assigned to Bodo".Nutcracker Man. April 7, 2015.RetrievedDecember 9,2015.
  13. ^Rightmire, G. Philip (2005). "The Lake Ndutu cranium and earlyHomo sapiensin Africa ".American Journal of Physical Anthropology.61(2): 245–254.doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330610214.PMID6410925.
  14. ^Mturi, A A (August 1976). "New hominid from Lake Ndutu, Tanzania". Nature 262: 484–485.
  15. ^Rightmire GP (June 3, 1983). "The Lake Ndutu cranium and earlyHomo sapiensin Africa ".Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.61(2): 245–54.doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330610214.PMID6410925.
  16. ^"The Ndutu cranium and the origin ofHomo sapiens– R. J. Clarke "(PDF).American Museum of Natural History. November 27, 1989.RetrievedDecember 9,2015.
  17. ^The Evolution ofHomo erectus:Comparative Anatomical Studies of an Extinct Human Species By G. Philip Rightmire Published by Cambridge University Press, 1993ISBN0-521-44998-7,ISBN978-0-521-44998-4[1]
  18. ^Stringer, C. (2016)."The origin and evolution of Homo sapiens".Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences.371(1698): 20150237.doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0237.PMC4920294.PMID27298468.
  19. ^Wood, Bernard (31 March 2011).Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Human Evolution, 2 Volume Set.John Wiley & Sons.ISBN9781444342475.RetrievedDecember 9,2015.
  20. ^abcRightmire, Philip G. (1996-07-01). "The human cranium from Bodo, Ethiopia: evidence for speciation in the Middle Pleistocene?".Journal of Human Evolution.31(1): 21–39.doi:10.1006/jhev.1996.0046.ISSN0047-2484.
  21. ^"Bodo Skull and Jaw".Skulls Unlimited. Archived fromthe originalon 2015-12-08.Retrieved15 October2012.
  22. ^Conroy, Glenn C.; Weber, Gerhard W.; Seidler, Horst; Recheis, Wolfgang; Zur Nedden, Dieter; Haile Mariam, Jara (2000). "UC Berkeley Library Proxy Login".American Journal of Physical Anthropology.113(1): 111–118.doi:10.1002/1096-8644(200009)113:1<111::aid-ajpa10>3.0.co;2-x.PMID10954624.
  23. ^abcWhite, Tim D. (April 1986). "Cut marks on the Bodo cranium: A case of prehistoric defleshing".American Journal of Physical Anthropology.69(4): 503–509.doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330690410.ISSN0002-9483.PMID3087212.
  24. ^Kalb, Jon E.; Wood, Craig B.; Smart, Charles; Oswald, Elizabeth B.; Mabrete, Assefa; Tebedge, Sleshi; Whitehead, Paul (1980-01-01). "Preliminary geology and palaeontology of the Bodo D'ar hominid Site, Afar, Ethiopia".Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology.30:107–120.Bibcode:1980PPP....30..107K.doi:10.1016/0031-0182(80)90052-8.ISSN0031-0182.
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  26. ^Milner, Richard. "Cranial Capacity." The Encyclopedia of Evolution: Humanity's Search For Its Origins. New York: Holt, 1990: 98. "Living humans have a cranial capacity ranging from about 950 cc to 1800 cc, with the average about 1400 cc."
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  28. ^Pickering, Travis Rayne; White, Tim D.; Toth, Nicholas (2000). "Brief communication: Cutmarks on a Plio-Pleistocene hominid from Sterkfontein, South Africa".American Journal of Physical Anthropology.111(4): 579–584.doi:10.1002/(sici)1096-8644(200004)111:4<579::aid-ajpa12>3.0.co;2-y.ISSN1096-8644.PMID10727975.
  29. ^abRightmire, Philip G. (July 1996)."The human cranium from Bodo, Ethiopia: evidence for speciation in the Middle Pleistocene?".Journal of Human Evolution.31(1): 21–39.doi:10.1006/jhev.1996.0046.ISSN0047-2484.
  30. ^Rightmire, G. Philip (2001-01-01). "Patterns of hominid evolution and dispersal in the Middle Pleistocene".Quaternary International.75(1): 77–84.Bibcode:2001QuInt..75...77R.doi:10.1016/S1040-6182(00)00079-3.ISSN1040-6182.
  31. ^Bräuer, Günter (2008)."The origin of modern anatomy: By speciation or intraspecific evolution?".Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews.17(1): 22–37.doi:10.1002/evan.20157.ISSN1520-6505.S2CID53328127.
  32. ^Rightmire, G. Philip (2013-09-01). "Homo erectus and Middle Pleistocene hominins: Brain size, skull form, and species recognition".Journal of Human Evolution.65(3): 223–252.doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.04.008.ISSN0047-2484.PMID23850294.
  33. ^Krovitz, Gail; McBratney, Brandeis M.; Lieberman, Daniel E. (2002-02-05)."The evolution and development of cranial form in Homo sapiens".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.99(3): 1134–1139.Bibcode:2002PNAS...99.1134L.doi:10.1073/pnas.022440799.ISSN0027-8424.PMC122156.PMID11805284.
  34. ^Rightmire, G. Philip (January 2012)."The evolution of cranial form in mid-Pleistocene Homo".South African Journal of Science.108(3–4): 68–77.doi:10.4102/sajs.v108i3/4.719.ISSN0038-2353.
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  36. ^Balzeau, A.; Buck, Laura; Albessard, L.; Becam, G.; Grimmaud-Herve, D.; Rae, T. C.; Stringer, C. B. (2017-12-08)."The internal cranial anatomy of the Middle Pleistocene Broken Hill 1 cranium".doi:10.17863/CAM.16919.{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal=(help)
  37. ^Rightmire, Philip G. (1996-07-01)."The human cranium from Bodo, Ethiopia: evidence for speciation in the Middle Pleistocene?".Journal of Human Evolution.31(1): 21–39.doi:10.1006/jhev.1996.0046.ISSN0047-2484.
  38. ^Roksandic, M.; Radović, P.; Wu, X.-J.; Bae, C.J. (2021)."Resolving the" muddle in the middle ": The case forHomo bodoensissp. nov ".Evolutionary Anthropology.31(1): 20–29.doi:10.1002/evan.21929.PMC9297855.PMID34710249.
  39. ^Delson, E.; Stringer, C. (2022). "The naming ofHomo bodoensisby Roksandic and colleagues does not resolve issues surrounding Middle Pleistocene human evolution ".Evolutionary Anthropology.17(1): 233–236.doi:10.1002/evan.21950.PMID35758557.S2CID250070886.
  40. ^Sarmiento, E.; Pickford, M. (2022). "Muddying the muddle in the middle even more".Evolutionary Anthropology.31(5): 237–239.doi:10.1002/evan.21952.PMID35758530.S2CID250071605.

Literature

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