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Horror film

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"Horror Movie" redirects here. For the Skyhooks song, seeHorror Movie (song).
Max SchreckasCount Orlokin the 1922 filmNosferatu.Critic and historianKim Newmandeclared it as a film that set the template for the horror film.[1]

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Horroris afilm genrethat seeks to elicitfearordisgustin its audience for entertainment purposes.[2]

Horror films often explore dark subject matter and may deal withtransgressive topics or themes.Broad elements includemonsters,apocalyptic events,andreligiousorfolkbeliefs.

Horror films have existed formore than a century.Early inspirations from before the development of film includefolklore,religious beliefs andsuperstitionsof different cultures, and theGothicandhorror literatureof authors such asEdgar Allan Poe,Bram Stoker,andMary Shelley.From origins insilent filmsandGerman Expressionism,horror only became a codifiedgenreafter the release ofDracula(1931). Many sub-genres emerged in subsequent decades, includingbody horror,comedy horror,erotic horror,slasher films,splatter films,supernatural horrorandpsychological horror.The genre has been produced worldwide, varying in content and style between regions. Horror is particularly prominent in the cinema ofJapan,Korea,andThailand,among other countries.

Despite being the subject of social and legal controversy due to their subject matter, some horror films and franchises have seen majorcommercial success,influenced society and spawned several popularculture icons.

Characteristics

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See also:Horror and terror

The Dictionary of Film Studiesdefines the horror film as representing "disturbing and dark subject matter, seeking to elicit responses offear,terror,disgust,shock,suspense,and, of course, horror from their viewers. "[2]In the chapter "The American Nightmare: Horror in the 70s" fromHollywood from Vietnam to Reagan(2002), film criticRobin Wooddeclared that the commonality between horror films is that "normality is threatened by the monster."[3]This was further expanded upon byThe Philosophy of Horror, or Parodoxes of the HeartbyNoël Carrollwho added that "repulsion must be pleasurable, as evidenced by the genre's popularity."[3]

Prior to the release ofDracula(1931), historianGary Don Rhodesexplained that the idea and terminology of horror film did not exist yet as a codifiedgenre,although critics used the term "horror" to describe films in reviews prior toDracula's release.[4]"Horror" was a term used to describe a variety of meanings. In 1913,Moving Picture Worlddefined "horrors" as showcasing "striped convicts, murderous Indians, grinning 'black-handers', homicidal drunkards"[5]Some titles that suggest horror such asThe Hand of Horror(1914) was a melodrama about a thief who steals from his own sister.[5]During the silent era, the term horror was used to describe everything from "battle scenes" in war films to tales of drug addiction.[6]Rhodes concluded that the term "horror film" or "horror movie" was not used in early cinema.[7]

Themystery filmgenre was in vogue and early information onDraculabeing promoted as a mystery film was common, despite thenovel,playand the film's story relying on thesupernatural.[8]Newman discussed the genre inBritish Film Institute'sCompanion to Horrorwhere he noted that Horror films in the 1930s were easy to identify, but following that decade, "the more blurred distinctions become, and horror becomes less like a discrete genre than an effect which can be deployed within any number of narrative settings or narrative patterns".[9]In the 1940s, the horror film was viewed in different terms. CriticSiegfried KracauerincludedThe Lost Weekendamong films described as "terror films" along withShadow of a Doubt,The Dark Corner(1946),Gaslight(1944),Shock(1946),The Spiral Staircase(1946),The Stranger(1946)Spellbound(1945) while two years earlier, theNew York Timesdescribed a new cycle of "horror" productions includedGaslight,The Woman in the Window(1944),Dark Waters(1944),LauraandPhantom Lady(1944).[10]Mark Jancovich wrote inThe Shifting Definitions of Genre: Essays on Labeling Films, Television Shows and Media(2008) that the term was virtually synonymous with mystery as a generic term, not being limited to films concerned with the strange, eerie and uncanny.[10]

Various writings on genre from Altman, Lawrence Alloway (Violent America: The Movies 1946-1964(1971)) and Peter Hutchings (Approaches to Popular Film(1995)) implied it is easier to view films ascyclesopposed to genres, suggesting theslasher filmviewed as a cycle would place it in terms of how the film industry was economically and production wise, the personnel involved in their respective eras, and how the films were marketed exhibited and distributed.[11] Mark Jancovich in an essay, declared that "there is no simple 'collective belief' as to what constitutes the horror genre" between bothfansandcriticsof the genre.[12]Jancovich found that disagreements existed from audiences who wanted to distinguish themselves. This ranged from fans of different genres who may view a film likeAlien(1979) as belonging toscience fiction,and horror fan bases dismissing it as being inauthentic to either genre.[13]Further debates exist among fans of the genre with personal definitions of "true" horror films, such as fans who embracecult figureslikeFreddy Krugerof theA Nightmare on Elm Streetseries, while others disassociate themselves from characters and series and focusing on genreauteurdirectors likeDario Argento,while others fans would deem Argento's films as too mainstream, having preferences moreunderground films.[14]Andrew Tudor wrote inMonsters and Mad Scientists: A Cultural History of the Horror Moviesuggested that "Genre is what we collectively believe it to be"[15]

In addition to these perspectives, Rhodes emphasizes the evolution of the horror genre through various cultural and historical contexts. He discusses the impact of socio-political factors on thegenre,such as the influence ofWorld War Iand II, theGreat Depression,and theCold War,which shaped the themes and narratives of horror films. For instance, the anxieties of the post-war era manifested in horror films as fears ofinvasion,contamination, and the unknown, reflecting the collective psyche of the time. Rhodes also highlights the significance of technological advancements, such as the advent of sound in cinema, which revolutionized the horror genre by enhancing its ability to evoke fear and suspense through auditory effects.[16]

Moreover, the horror genre's flexibility and adaptability are crucial to its enduring popularity. As Rhodes notes, the genre continuously evolves, incorporating elements from other genres and responding to contemporary societal fears and anxieties. This adaptability is evident in the various sub-genres that have emerged over the years, such as psychological horror, body horror, and found footage horror, each addressing different aspects of human fear and the unknown.[17]

Rhodes also explores the role ofcensorshipand regulation in shaping the horror genre. The enforcement of the Hays Code in the 1930s and subsequent rating systems influenced the depiction ofviolenceand sexuality in horror films. This regulation often pushed filmmakers to find creative ways to imply horror elements without explicit content, leading to a focus on atmosphere, suggestion, and psychological horror. The relaxation of censorship in the late 20th century allowed for more graphic and explicit horror, contributing to the emergence of sub-genres like splatter films and torture porn.[18]

Cinematic techniques

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Mirrorsare often used to create a sense of tension in horror films.

In a study by Jacob Shelton, the many ways that audience members are manipulated through horror films was investigated in detail.[19]Negative spaceis one such method that can play a part in inducing a reaction, causing one's eyes to remotely rest on anything in the frame – a wall, or the empty black void in the shadows.[19]

Thejump scareis a horror filmtrope,where an abrupt change in image accompanied with a loud sound intends to surprise the viewer.[19]This can also besubvertedto create tension, where an audience may feel more unease and discomfort by anticipating a jump scare.[19]

Mirrorsare often used in horror films is to create visual depth and build tension. Shelton argues mirrors have been used so frequently in horror films that audiences have beenconditionedto fear them, and subverting audience expectations of a jump scare in a mirror can further build tension.[19]Tight framingandclose-upsare also commonly used; these can build tension and induceanxietyby not allowing the viewer to see beyond what is around theprotagonist.[19]

The interaction between horror films and their audiences is another significant aspect discussed by Rhodes. He notes that horror films often serve as a safe space for viewers to confront and process their fears. This cathartic experience can provide psychological relief and a sense of empowerment as viewers face and overcome their anxieties in a controlled environment. The communal experience of watching horror films in theaters or discussing them in fan communities also plays a crucial role in the genre's impact and popularity.[6]

Music

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Main article:Horror film score
Filmmaker and composerJohn Carpenter,who has directed and scorednumerous horror films,performing in 2016

Musicis a key component of horror films. InMusic in the Horror Film(2010), Lerner writes "music in horror film frequently makes us feel threatened and uncomfortable" and intends to intensify the atmosphere created in imagery and themes.Dissonance,atonalityand experiments withtimbreare typical characteristics used bycomposersin horror film music.[20]

Themes

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Frankenstein's monster
ApocalypsebyAlbert Goodwin
Ademonin theBook of Wonders
Charles Derry proposed the three key components of horror are that of personality, Armageddon and the demonic.

In the bookDark Dreams,author Charles Derry conceived horror films as focusing on three broadthemes:the horror ofpersonality,horror ofArmageddonand the horror of thedemonic.[21]The horror of personality derives frommonstersbeing at the centre of the plot, suchFrankenstein's monsterwhose psychology makes them perform unspeakable horrific acts ranging fromrapes,mutilationsandsadistickillings.[21]Other key works of this form areAlfred Hitchcock'sPsycho,which feature psychotic murderers without the make-up of a monster.[21]The second 'Armageddon' group delves on the fear oflarge-scale destruction,which ranges fromscience fiction worksbut also ofnatural events,such as Hitchcock'sThe Birds(1963).[21]The last group of the "Fear of the Demonic" features graphic accounts ofsatanic rites,witchcraft,exorcismsoutside traditional forms of worship, as seen in films likeThe Exorcist(1973) orThe Omen(1976).[22]

Some critics have suggested horror films can be a vessel for exploring contemporary cultural, political and social trends. Jeanne Hall, a film theorist, agrees with the use of horror films in easing the process of understanding issues by making use of their optical elements.[23]The use of horror films can help audiences understand international prior historical events occurs, for example, to depict the horrors of theVietnam War,theHolocaust,the worldwideAIDS epidemic[24]orpost-9/11pessimism.[25]In many occurrences, the manipulation of horror presents cultural definitions that are not accurate,[according to whom?]yet set an example to which a person relates to that specific cultural from then on in their life.[clarification needed][26]

History

[edit]
This section is an excerpt fromHistory of horror films.[edit]
Poster forLe Manoir du diable(1896), sometimes described as the first horror film

Thehistory of horror filmswas described by authorSiegbert Solomon Praweras difficult to read as a linear historical path, with the genre changing throughout the decades, based on thestate of cinema,audience tastesandcontemporary world events.

Films prior to the1930s,such as earlyGerman expressionist cinemaandtrick films,have been retrospectively described as horror films as the genre did not become a codified genre until the release ofDracula(1931).Draculawas a box office success, leading toUniversaland several other American film studios to develop and popularise horror films well into the1940s.Bythe 1950s,horror would often be made withscience fictionthemes, and towards the end of the decade horror was a more common genre of international productions.

The1960ssaw further developments, with material based on contemporary works instead of classical literature. The release of films likePsycho,Black SundayandNight of the Living Deadled to an increase of violence and erotic scenes within the genre. The1970swould expand on these themes with films that would delve into gorier pictures, as well as films that were near or straightpornographichybrids. Genre cycles in this era include thenatural horror film,and the rise ofslasher filmswhich would expand in the early1980s.Towards the 1990s,postmodernismentered horror, while some of the biggest hits of the decade includedfilms from Japanwith the success ofRing(1998).

In the 21st century,streaming mediapopularised horror trends, whilst trends includedtorture porninfluenced by the success ofSaw,films using a "found footage"technique, and independent productions such asGet Out,Hereditaryand theInsidiousseries which were box office hits.

Sub-genres of horror films

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Horror is a malleable genre and often can be altered to accommodate other genre types such asscience fiction,making some films difficult to categorize.[27]

Body horror

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Main article:Body horror

A genre that emerged in the 1970s, body horror films focus on the process of a bodily transformation. In these films, the body is either engulfed by some larger process or heading towards fragmentation and collapse.[28][29]The focus can be on apocalyptic implication of an entire society being overtaken, but the focus is generally upon an individual and their sense of identity, primarily them watching their own body change.[28]The earliest appearance of the sub-genre was the work of directorDavid Cronenberg,specifically with early films likeShivers(1975).[28][29]Mark Jancovich of the University of Manchester declared that the transformation scenes in the genre provoke fear and repulsion, but also pleasure and excitement such as inThe Thing(1982) andThe Fly(1986).[30]

Christmas horror

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Main article:Christmas horror

Christmas horroris a film genre that emerged in the 1970s with films such asWhoever Slew Auntie Roo?(1971) andSilent Night, Bloody Night(1972),[31]which were soon followed by the influentialBlack Christmas(1974).[31][32]Defining the Christmas horror genre has been described as challenging,[33]as it has generally been regarded as a sub-genre of theslasher film.[34][35]Adam Rockoff, inRue Morgue,noted that the sub-genre sits within a trend of holiday-themed slasher films, alongside films such asMy Bloody Valentine(1981) andApril Fool's Day(1986).[35]Others take a broader view that Christmas horror is not limited to the slasher genre,[34]noting how it evolved from the English Christmas tradition of telling ghost stories.[31]Christmas in literature has historically included elements of "darkness" —fright, misery, death and decay—tracing its literary antecedents as far back as the biblical account of theMassacre of the Innocentsand more recently in works such as E. T. A. Hoffmann's "The Nutcracker and the Mouse King"(1816) and Charles Dickens'A Christmas Carol(1843).[31][32]Although ghosts have largely been replaced by serial killers, Christmas horror creates an outlet through which to explore "a modern reinvention of the Christmas ghost story".[31]

Erotic horror

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Main article:Erotic horror

Erotic horroris a subgenre of horror fiction that blends sensual and sexual imagery with horrific themes for the sake ofsexual arousal.Erotic horror has had influences on French[36]and American horror cinema. TheworksofJean Rollin,such asLe Viol du VampireandFascination,are considered quintessential erotic horror films, blending deeply sexual imagery with gore.[36]American cinema has also featured notable erotic horror film franchises, such asCandyman.[37]An example of a British erotic horror film series isHellraiser.[38]Alienfeatures heavy erotic imagery, with the design of theXenomorphbyH. R. Gigerfeaturing bothphallicand vaginal imagery, intended to symbolize patriarchal guilt[39]as well as sex, rape, and pregnancy.[40]

Folk horror

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Main article:Folk horror

Folk horroruses elements offolkloreor otherreligiousand cultural beliefs to instil fear in audiences. Folk horror films have featuredrural settingsand themes of isolation, religion and nature.[41][42]Frequently cited examples areWitchfinder General(1968),The Blood on Satan's Claw(1971),The Wicker Man(1973),The Witch(2015), andMidsommar(2019).[41][42]Local folklore and beliefs have been noted as being prevalent in horror films from theSoutheast Asiaregion, includingThailandandIndonesia.[43][44]

Found footage horror

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Thefound footage horrorfilm "technique" gives the audience afirst person viewof the events on screen, and presents the footage as being discovered after. Horror films which are framed as being made up of "found-footage" merge the experiences of the audience and characters, which may induce suspense, shock, and bafflement.[45]Alexandra Heller-Nicholas noted that the popularity of sites likeYouTubein 2006 sparked a taste for amateur media, leading to the production of further films in the found footage horror genre later in the 2000s including the particularly financially successfulParanormal Activity(2007).[46]

Gothic horror

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Main article:Gothic film
Frankenstein(1931), one of theUniversal horrorfilms

In their bookGothic film,Richard J. McRoy and Richard J. Hand stated that "Gothic" can be argued as a very loose subgenre of horror, but argued that "Gothic" as a whole was a style likefilm noirand not bound to certain cinematic elements like theWesternorscience fiction film.[47]The term "gothic" is frequently used to describe a stylized approach to showcasing location, desire, and action in film. Contemporary views of the genre associate it with imagery of castles at hilltops and labyrinth like ancestral mansions that are in various states of disrepair.[48]Narratives in these films often focus on an audience's fear and attraction to social change and rebellion.[49]The genre can be applied to films as early asThe Haunted Castle(1896),Frankenstein(1910) as well as to more complex iterations such asPark Chan-wook'sStoker(2013) andJordan Peele'sGet Out(2017).[47]

The gothic style is applied to several films throughout the history of the horror film. This includesUniversal Pictures' horror filmsof the 1930s, the revival of gothic horror in the 1950s and 1960s with films from Hammer,Roger Corman's Poe-cycle, and several Italian productions.[50]By the 1970s American and British productions often had vampire films set in a contemporary setting, such as Hammer Films had theirDraculastories set in a modern setting and made other horror material which pushed the erotic content of their vampire films that was initiated byBlack Sunday.[51][52][53]In the 1980s, the older horror characters of Dracula and Frankenstein's monster rarely appeared, with vampire themed films continued often in the tradition of authors likeAnne Ricewhere vampirism becomes a lifestyle choice rather than plague or curse.[54]Following the release ofFrancis Ford Coppola'sBram Stoker's Dracula(1992), a small wave of high-budgeted gothic horror romance films were released in the 1990s.[55]

Natural horror

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See also:List of natural horror films

Also described as "eco-horror", thenatural horror filmis a subgenre "featuring nature running amok in the form of mutated beasts, carnivorous insects, and normally harmless animals or plants turned into cold-blooded killers."[56][57]In 1963,Alfred Hitchcockdefined a new genre nature taking revenge on humanity withThe Birds(1963) that was expanded into a trend into the 1970s. Following the success ofWillard(1971), a film about killer rats, 1972 had similar films withStanley(1972) and an official sequelBen(1972).[58]Other films followed in suit such asNight of the Lepus(1972),Frogs(1972),Bug(1975),Squirm(1976) and what Muir described as the "turning point" in the genre withJaws(1975), which became the highest-grossing film at that point and moved the animal attacks genres "towards a less-fantastic route" with less giant animals and more real-life creatures such asGrizzly(1976) andNight Creature(1977),Orca(1977), andJaws 2(1978).[58][59][60]The film is linked with the environmental movements that became more mainstream in the 1970s and early 1980s suchvegetarianism,animal rights movements,and organizations such asGreenpeace.[61]FollowingJaws,sharks became the most popular animal of the genre, ranging from similar such asMako: The Jaws of Death(1976) andGreat White(1981) to theSharknadofilm series.[61]James Marriottfound that the genre had "lost momentum" since the 1970s while the films would still be made towards the turn of the millennium.[62]

Psychological horror

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Main article:Psychological horror

Bill Gibron ofPopMattersdeclared a mixed definition of the psychological horror film, ranging from definitions of anything that created a sense of disquiet or apprehension to a film where an audience's mind makes up what was not directly displayed visually. Gibron concluded it as a "clouded gray area between all out splatter and a trip through a cinematic dark ride."[63]

Religious horror

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Main article:Religious horror

Religious horror is a subgenre of horror film whose common themes are based on religion and focus heavily on supernatural beings, often withdemonsas the main antagonists that bring a sense of threat.[64][65]Such films commonly use religious elements, including the crucifix or cross, holy water, the Bible, the rosary, the sign of the cross, the church, and prayer, which are forms of religious symbols and rituals used to depict the use of faith to defeat evil.[66]

Slasher film

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Main article:Slasher film

Theslasher filmis a horror subgenre which involves a killer murdering a group of people (often teenagers), usually by use of bladed tools.[67]In his book on the genre, author Adam Rockoff wrote that these villains represented a "rogue genre" of films that are "tough, problematic, and fiercely individualistic."[68]Following the financial success ofFriday the 13th(1980), at least 20 other slasher films appeared in 1980 alone.[69]These films usually revolved around three properties: unique social settings (campgrounds, schools, holidays) and a crime from the past committed (an accidental drowning, infidelity, a scorned lover) and a ready made group of victims (camp counselors, students, wedding parties).[70]The genre was derided by several contemporary film critics of the era such as Ebert, and often were highly profitable in the box office.[71]The release ofScream(1996), led to a brief revival of the slasher films for the 1990s.[72]Other countries imitated the American slasher film revival, such as South Korea's early 2000s cycle withBloody Beach(2000),Nightmare(2000) andThe Record(2000).[73]

Supernatural horror

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Main article:Supernatural horror film

Supernatural horror filmsintegratesupernatural elements,such as theafterlife,spirit possessionand religion into the horror genre.[74]

Teen horror

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Teen horroris a horror subgenre that victimizes teenagers while usually promoting strong,anti-conformityteenage leads, appealing to young generations. This subgenre often depicts themes of sex, under-aged drinking, and gore.[75]Horror films aimed a young audience featuring teenage monsters grew popular in the 1950s with several productions fromAmerican International Pictures(AIP) and productions ofHerman CohenwithI Was a Teenage Werewolf(1957) andI Was a Teenage Frankenstein(1957).[76]This led to later productions likeDaughter of Dr. Jekyll(1957) andFrankenstein's Daughter(1958).[76]Teen horror cycle in the 1980s often showcased explicit gore and nudity, with John Kenneth Muir described as cautionary conservative tales where most of the films stated if you partook in such vices such as drugs or sex, your punishment of death would be handed out.[77] Prior toScream,there were no popular teen horror films in the early 1990s.[78]After the financial success ofScream,teen horror films became increasingly reflexive and self-aware until the end of the 1990s with films likeI Know What You Did Last Summer(1997) and non-slasherThe Faculty(1998).[79][78]The genre lost prominence as teen films dealt with threats with more realism in films likeDonnie Darko(2001) andCrazy/Beautiful(2001).[80]In her book on the 1990s teen horror cycle, Alexandra West described the general trend of these films is often looked down upon by critics, journals, and fans as being too glossy, trendy, and sleek to be considered worthwhile horror films.[81]

Regional horror films

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Asian horror films

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Main article:Horror films of Asia

Horror films inAsiahave been noted as being inspired by national, cultural or religiousfolklore,particularly beliefs inghostsor spirits.[43][82]InAsian Horror,Andy Richards writes that there is a "widespread and engrained acceptance ofsupernaturalforces "in many Asian cultures, and suggests this is related toanimist,pantheistandkarmicreligious traditions, as inBuddhismandShintoism.[82]AlthoughChinese,Japanese,ThaiandKoreanhorror has arguably received the most international attention,[82]horror also makes up a considerable proportion ofCambodian[83]andMalaysiancinema.[84]

European horror films

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Main article:Horror films of Europe

Ian Olney described the horror films ofEuropewere often more erotic and "just plain stranger" than their British and American counter-parts.[85]European horror films (generally referred to as Euro Horror)[86]draw from distinctly European cultural sources, includingsurrealism,romanticism,decadent tradition,early 20th centurypulp-literature,film serials,anderotic comics.[87]In comparison to the narrative logic in American genre films, these films focused on imagery, excessiveness, and the irrational.[88]

Between the mid-1950s and the mid-1980s, European horror films emerged from countries like Italy, Spain and France, and were shown in the United States predominantly at drive-in theatre andgrindhousetheaters.[85]As producers and distributors all over the world were interested in horror films, regardless of their origin, changes started occurring in European low-budget filmmaking that allowed for productions in the 1960s and 1970s for horror films from Italy, France, Germany, the United Kingdom and Spain, as well as co-productions between these countries.[89]Several productions, such as those in Italy, were co-productions due to the lack of international stars within the country.[90]European horror films began developing strongcult followingsince the late 1990s.[85]

Oceania

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Australia

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It is unknown whenAustralia's cinemafirst horror title may have been, with thoughts ranging fromThe Strangler's Grip(1912) toThe Face at the Window(1919) while stories featuring ghosts would appear inGuyra Ghost Mystery(1921).[91]By 1913, the more prolific era of Australian cinema ended with production not returning with heavy input of government finance in the 1970s.[92]It took until the 1970s for Australia to develop sound film with television films that eventually received theatrical release withDead Easy(1970) andNight of Fear(1973).The Cars That Ate Paris(1974) was the first Australian horror production made for theatrical release.[91]1970s Australian art cinema was funded by state film corporations, who considered them more culturally acceptable than local exploitation films (Ozploitation), which was part of the Australian phenomenon called thecultural cringe.[93]The greater success of genre films likeMad Max(1979),The Last Wave(1977) andPatrick(1978) led to theAustralian Film Commissionto change its focus to being a more commercial operation. This closed in 1980 as its funding was abused by investors using them as tax avoiding measures. A new development known as the10BA tax shelter schemewas developed ushering a slew of productions, leading to what Peter Shelley, author ofAustralian Horror Films,suggested meant "making a profit was more important than making a good film."[93]Shelley called these films derivative of "American films and presenting generic American material".[93]These films included the horror film productions ofAntony I. Ginnane.[94]While Australia would have success with international films between the mid-1980s and the 2000s, less than five horror films were produced in the country between 1993 and 2000.[95][96]It was only after the success ofWolf Creek(2005) that a new generation of filmmakers would continuously make horror genre films in Australia that continued into the 2010s.[95][96]

New Zealand

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By 2005,New Zealandhas produced around 190 feature films, with about 88% of them being made after 1976.[97]New Zealand horror film history was described by Philip Matthews ofStuffas making "po-faced gothic and now we do horror for laughs."[98]Among the earliest known New Zealand horror films productions areStrange Behavior(1981), a co-production with Australia andDeath Warmed Up(1984) a single production.[99]Early features such asMelanie Read'sTrial Run(1984) where a mother is sent to remote cottage to photograph penguins and finds it habitat to haunted spirits, and Gaylene Preston'sMr. Wrong(1984) purchases a car that is haunted by its previous owner.[100]Other films imitate American slasher and splatter films withBridge to Nowhere(1986), and the early films ofPeter Jacksonwho combined splatter films with comedy withBad Taste(1988) andBraindead(1992) which has the largest following of the mentioned films.[99]Film producerAnt Timpsonhad an influence curating New Zealand horror films, creating the Incredibly Strange Film Festival in the 1990s and producing his own horror films over the 2010s includingThe ABCs of Death(2012),Deathgasm(2015), andHousebound(2014).[98]Timpson noted the latter horror entries from New Zealand are all humorous films likeWhat We Do in the Shadows(2014) withJonathan King,director ofBlack Sheep(2006) andThe Tattooist(2007) stating "I'd love to see a genuinely scary New Zealand film but I don't know if New Zealand audiences – or the funding bodies – are keen."[98]

Americas

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Mexico

[edit]
Main article:Horror films of Mexico

After the 1931 release of a US-produced Spanish-language version ofDraculabyGeorge Melfordfor the Latin-American market employing Mexican actors, Mexican horror films were produced throughout the 1930s and 1940s, often reflecting on the overarching theme ofscience vs. religion conflict.[101]Ushered by the release ofEl vampiro,the Mexploitation horror film era started in 1957, with films characterised by their low production values and camp appeal, often featuring vampires, wrestlers, and Aztec mummies.[102]A key figure in the Mexican horror scene (particularly inGermán Robles-starred vampire films) was producerAbel Salazar.[103]The late 1960s saw the advent of the prominence ofCarlos Enrique Taboadaas an standout Mexican horror filmmaker, with films such asHasta el viento tiene miedo(1967),El libro de piedra(1968),Más negro que la noche(1975) orVeneno para las hadas(1984).[104]Mexican horror cinema has been noted for the mashup of classic gothic and romantic themes and characters with autochthonous features of the Mexican culture such as theRancheríasetting, the colonial past or the myth ofLa Llorona(shared with other Hispanic-American nations).[105]

Horror has proven to be a dependable genre at the Mexican box office in the 21st-century, with Mexico ranking as having the world's largest relative popularity of the genre among viewers (ahead of South Korea), according to a 2016 research.[106]

Effects on audiences

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Psychological effects

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In a study done by Uri Hasson et al., brain waves were observed viafunctional magnetic resonance imaging(fMRI). This study used the inter-subject correlation analysis (ISC) method of determining results. It was shown that audience members tend to focus on certain facets in a particular scene simultaneously and tend to sit as still as possible while watching horror films.[107]

In another study done by John Greene & Glenn Sparks, it was found that the audience tends to experience theexcitation transfer process(ETP) which causes a physiological arousal in audience members. The ETP refers to the feelings experienced immediately after an emotion-arousing experience, such as watching a horror film. In this case, audience members' heart rate, blood pressure and respiration all increased while watching films with violence. Audience members with positive feedback regarding the horror film have feelings similar to happiness or joy felt with friends, but intensified. Alternatively, audience members with negative feedback regarding the film would typically feel emotions they would normally associate with negative experiences in their life.[citation needed]

Only about 10% of the American population enjoy the physiological rush felt immediately after watching horror films. The population that does not enjoy horror films could experience emotional fallout similar to that ofPTSDif the environment reminds them of particular scenes.[citation needed]

A 2021 study suggested horror films that exploregriefcan provide psychological benefits to the bereaved, with the genre well suited to representing grief through its genre conventions.[108]

Physical effects

[edit]

In a study by Medes et al., prolonged exposure toinfrasoundand low-frequency noise (<500 Hz) in long durations has an effect on vocal range (i.e. longer exposure tends to form a lower phonation frequency range).[109]Another study by Baliatsas et al. observed that there is a correlation between exposure to infrasound and low-frequency noises and sleep-related problems.[110]Though most horror films keep the audio around 20–30 Hz, the noise can still be unsettling in long durations.[19]

Another technique used in horror films to provoke a response from the audience iscognitive dissonance,which is when someone experiences tension in themselves and is urged to relieve that tension.[111]Dissonance is the clashing of unpleasant or harsh sounds.[112]A study by Prete et al. identified that the ability to recognize dissonance relied on the left hemisphere of the brain, while consonance relied on the right half.[113]There is a stronger preference for consonance; this difference is noticeable even in early stages of life.[113]Previous musical experience also can influence a dislike for dissonance.[113]

Skin conductance responses(SCRs), heart rate (HR), andelectromyographic(EMG) responses vary in response to emotional stimuli, showing higher fornegative emotionsin what is known as the "negative bias."[114]When applied to dissonant music, HR decreases (as a bodily form of adaptation to harsh stimulation), SCR increases, and EMG responses in the face are higher.[114]The typical reactions go through a two-step process of first orienting to the problem (the slowing of HR), then a defensive process (a stronger increase in SCR and an increase in HR).[114]This initial response can sometimes result in afight-or-flight response,which is the characteristic of dissonance that horror films rely on to frighten and unsettle viewers.[19]

Reception

[edit]

In film criticism

[edit]
See also:Vulgar auteurism

CriticRobin Woodwas not the first film critic to take the horror film seriously, but his articleReturn of the Repressedin 1978 helped inaugurate the horror film into academic study as a genre.[115]Wood later stated that he was surprised that his work, as well as the writing of Richard Lippe and Andrew Britton would receive "historic importance" intellectual views of the film genre.[115]William Paul in his bookLaughing Screamingcomments that "the negative definition of the lower works would have it that they are less subtle than higher genres. More positively, it could be said that they are more direct. Where lower forms are explicit, higher forms tend to operate more by indirection. Because of this indirection the higher forms are often regarded as being more metaphorical, and consequently more resonant, more open to the exegetical analyses of the academic industry."[116]

Steffen Hantke noted that academic criticism about horror cinema had "always operated under duress" noting that challenges in legitimizing its subject, finding "career-minded academics might have always suspected that they were studying something that was ultimately too frivolous, garish, and sensationalistic to warrant serious critical attention".[117]

Some commentary has suggested that horror films have been underrepresented or underappreciated as serious works worthy offilm criticismand major films awards.[118][119]As of 2021, only six horror films have been nominated for theAcademy Award for Best Picture,withThe Silence of the Lambsbeing the sole winner.[120][121]However, horror films have still won major awards.[122]

Critics have also commented on therepresentation of women[123][124][125][126]anddisability[127]in horror films, as well as theprevalence of racial stereotypes.[128][129]

Censorship

[edit]

Many horror films have been the subject ofmoral panic,censorshipand legal controversy.

In the United Kingdom,film censorshiphas frequently been applied to horror films.[130]A moral panic over severalslasherfilms in the 1980s led to many of them being banned but released on videotape; the phenomenon became popularly termed "video nasties".[131][132]Constraints on permitted subject matter inIndonesian filmshas also influencedIndonesian horror films.[133]In March 2008,China bannedall horror films from its market.[134]

In the U.S., theMotion Picture Production Codewhich was implemented in 1930, set moral guidelines for film content, restraining movies containing controversial themes, graphic violence, explicit sexuality and/or nudity. The gradual abandonment of the Code, and its eventual formal repeal in 1968 (when it was replaced by theMPAA film rating system)[135]offered more freedom to the movie industry.

References

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^Marriott & Newman 2018,p. 20.
  2. ^abKuhn, Annette; Westwell, Guy (20 December 2012),"horror film",A Dictionary of Film Studies,Oxford University Press,doi:10.1093/acref/9780199587261.001.0001,ISBN978-0-19-958726-1,retrieved20 December2021
  3. ^abBalmain 2008,p. 4.
  4. ^Rhodes 2014,p. 91.
  5. ^abRhodes 2018b,p. 97.
  6. ^Rhodes 2018b,p. 98.
  7. ^Rhodes 2018b,p. 97-98.
  8. ^Rhodes 2014,p. 90.
  9. ^Balmain 2008,p. 5.
  10. ^abJancovich 2008,p. 28.
  11. ^Jancovich 2000,p. 31-32.
  12. ^Jancovich 2000,p. 25-26.
  13. ^Jancovich 2000,p. 26-27.
  14. ^Jancovich 2000,p. 28.
  15. ^Tudor 1991,p. 6-7.
  16. ^Rhodes 2018b,p. 79.
  17. ^Rhodes 2018b,p. 82.
  18. ^Rhodes 2018b,p. 83.
  19. ^abcdefgh"15 Ways You Didn't Even Realize Horror Movies Are Manipulating You into Fear".Ranker.Retrieved22 November2019.
  20. ^Lerner, Neil (16 December 2009).Music in the Horror Film: Listening to Fear.Routledge.ISBN978-1-135-28044-4.
  21. ^abcdPrawer 1989,p. 16.
  22. ^Prawer 1989,p. 17.
  23. ^Lizardi, Ryan (31 August 2010). "'Re-Imagining' Hegemony and Misogyny in the Contemporary Slasher Remake ".Journal of Popular Film and Television.38(3): 113–121.doi:10.1080/01956051003623464.S2CID191466131.
  24. ^Heller-Nicholas, Alexandra.History and Horror.Screen Education.
  25. ^Aston & Walliss 2013,p. 4.
  26. ^Carta, Silvio (October 2011). "Orientalism in the Documentary Representation of Culture".Visual Anthropology.24(5): 403–420.doi:10.1080/08949468.2011.604592.S2CID144730190.
  27. ^Odell & Le Blanc 2007,p. 15.
  28. ^abcJancovich 1994,p. 26.
  29. ^abJancovich 1992,p. 112.
  30. ^Jancovich 1992,p. 115.
  31. ^abcdeNewby 2018.
  32. ^abUlaby 2015.
  33. ^DuPée 2022,p. 6.
  34. ^abDuPée 2022,p. 5.
  35. ^abRockoff 2003,p. 30.
  36. ^ab"Kinoeye | French horror: Jean Rollin - an introduction".www.kinoeye.org.Retrieved22 October2023.
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  40. ^"What's the Meaning Behind the Sexual Imagery in" Alien "? | Watch | The Take".What's the Meaning Behind the Sexual Imagery in "Alien"? | Watch | The Take.19 May 2015.Retrieved22 October2023.
  41. ^abHurley, Andrew Michael (28 October 2019)."Devils and debauchery: why we love to be scared by folk horror".The Guardian.ISSN0261-3077.Retrieved5 February2020.
  42. ^abMurphy, Bernice M."Beyond Midsommar: 'folk horror' in popular fiction".The Irish Times.Retrieved12 November2019.
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  44. ^Rithdee, Kong."Into the devil's lair".Bangkok Post.Retrieved19 January2022.
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  46. ^Heller-Nicholas 2014,p. 4.
  47. ^abHand & McRoy 2020,p. 3.
  48. ^Hand & McRoy 2020,p. 1.
  49. ^Hand & McRoy 2020,p. 2.
  50. ^Hand & McRoy 2020,p. 5-6.
  51. ^Muir 2012,p. 10.
  52. ^Muir 2012,p. 11.
  53. ^Curti 2015,p. 38.
  54. ^Marriott & Newman 2018,p. 220.
  55. ^Marriott & Newman 2018,p. 272.
  56. ^"Natural Horror Top rated Most Viewed – AllMovie".Allrovi.com. Archived fromthe originalon 7 February 2012.Retrieved24 April2012.
  57. ^Gregersdotter, Hoglund & Hallen 2015,p. 32.
  58. ^abMuir 2012,p. 17.
  59. ^Muir 2012,p. 19.
  60. ^Muir 2012,p. 20.
  61. ^abGregersdotter, Hoglund & Hallen 2015,p. 31.
  62. ^Marriott & Newman 2018,p. 187.
  63. ^Gibron 2013.
  64. ^"From 'The Exorcist' to 'Saint Maud': 8 of The Best Religious Horror Movies".Collider.24 June 2022.Retrieved30 June2023.
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  67. ^Clayton, Wickham, ed. (2015).Style and form in the Hollywood slasher film.Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN9781137496478.OCLC927961472.
  68. ^Muir 2007,p. 17.
  69. ^Marriott & Newman 2018,p. 218.
  70. ^Muir 2007,p. 21.
  71. ^Muir 2007,p. 18-19.
  72. ^Marriott & Newman 2018,p. 274.
  73. ^Chung 2013,p. 87.
  74. ^"Supernatural".The Script Lab.26 March 2011.Retrieved19 December2021.
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  76. ^abMarriott & Newman 2018,p. 70.
  77. ^West 2018,p. 4.
  78. ^abShary 2005,p. 99.
  79. ^Shary 2005,p. 102.
  80. ^Shary 2005,p. 103.
  81. ^West 2018,pp. 3–4.
  82. ^abcRichards, Andy (21 October 2010).Asian Horror.Oldcastle Books.ISBN978-1-84243-408-6.
  83. ^Chronister, Kay(1 March 2020)."'My Mother, the Ap': Cambodian Horror Cinema and the Gothic Transformation of a Folkloric Monster ".Gothic Studies.22(1): 98–113.doi:10.3366/gothic.2020.0040.ISSN1362-7937.S2CID216404862.
  84. ^Ainslie, Mary J. (2016), Siddique, Sophia; Raphael, Raphael (eds.),"Towards a Southeast Asian Model of Horror: Thai Horror Cinema in Malaysia, Urbanization, and Cultural Proximity",Transnational Horror Cinema: Bodies of Excess and the Global Grotesque,London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 179–203,doi:10.1057/978-1-137-58417-5_9,ISBN978-1-137-58417-5,retrieved24 January2022
  85. ^abcOlney 2013,p. xi.
  86. ^Wynter 2016,p. 44.
  87. ^Olney 2013,p. 6.
  88. ^Olney 2013,p. 7.
  89. ^Lazaro-Reboll 2012,p. 11-12.
  90. ^Heffernan 2004,p. 141.
  91. ^abShelley 2012,p. 9.
  92. ^Shelley 2012,p. 5-6.
  93. ^abcShelley 2012,p. 10.
  94. ^Odell & Le Blanc 2007,p. 192.
  95. ^abShelley 2012,p. 12.
  96. ^abWithers 2016.
  97. ^Conrich 2005,p. 115.
  98. ^abcMatthews 2017.
  99. ^abConrich 2005,p. 117.
  100. ^Conrich 2005,p. 116.
  101. ^Green, Doyle (2005).Mexploitation Cinema: A Critical History of Mexican Vampire, Wrestler, Ape-Man and similar films, 1957-1977.McFarland & Company, Inc.ISBN0-7864-2201-7.
  102. ^Green 2005,pp. 6–9.
  103. ^Flores, Silvana (2018)."Entre monstruos, leyendas ancestrales y luchadores populares: La inserción del Santo en el cine fantástico mexicano".Secuencias.Madrid:UAM Ediciones:17.doi:10.15366/secuencias2018.48.001(inactive 2 September 2024).hdl:10486/690219.ISSN1134-6795.S2CID213113335.{{cite journal}}:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (link)
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  105. ^García Ruiz, Pedro Enrique (2019). "El cine de terror mexicano: más que romanticismo y gótico".Cine mexicano y filosofía(PDF).Ciudad de México:Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.p. 40.ISBN978-607-30-2039-8.
  106. ^Gallón, Angélica (26 August 2022)."¿Qué dice de México que sea el primer país del mundo que más cine de terror consume?".El País.
  107. ^Hasson, Uri; Landesman, Ohad; Knappmeyer, Barbara; Vallines, Ignacio; Rubin, Nava; Heeger, David J. (1 June 2008)."Neurocinematics: The Neuroscience of Film".Projections.2(1): 1–26.doi:10.3167/proj.2008.020102.ISSN1934-9696.S2CID5680951.
  108. ^Millar, Becky; Lee, Jonny (1 July 2021)."Horror Films and Grief".Emotion Review.13(3): 171–182.doi:10.1177/17540739211022815.ISSN1754-0739.S2CID235779574.
  109. ^Bonanca, Iris; Caetano, Marlene; Castelo Branco, NunoA.A.; Ferraria, Renata; Graca, Andreia; Jorge, Ana; Mendes, Ana P; Oliveira, Nadia; Santos, Carolina; Alves-Pereira, Mariana (2014)."Voice acoustic profile of males exposed to occupational infrasound and low-frequency noise".Journal of Laryngology and Voice.4(1): 12.doi:10.4103/2230-9748.141460.hdl:10400.26/14507.S2CID53399379.
  110. ^Baliatsas, Christos; van Kamp, Irene; van Poll, Ric; Yzermans, Joris (July 2016)."Health effects from low-frequency noise and infrasound in the general population: Is it time to listen? A systematic review of observational studies".Science of the Total Environment.557–558: 163–169.Bibcode:2016ScTEn.557..163B.doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.03.065.PMID26994804.
  111. ^"Dissonance theory".TheFreeDictionary.com.Retrieved22 November2019.
  112. ^"dissonance",The Free Dictionary,retrieved22 November2019
  113. ^abcPrete, Giulia; Fabri, Mara; Foschi, Nicoletta; Brancucci, Alfredo; Tommasi, Luca (4 May 2015). "The 'consonance effect' and the hemispheres: A study on a split-brain patient".Laterality: Asymmetries of Body, Brain and Cognition.20(3): 257–269.doi:10.1080/1357650X.2014.959525.PMID25256169.S2CID31138548.
  114. ^abcDellacherie, Delphine; Roy, Mathieu; Hugueville, Laurent; Peretz, Isabelle; Samson, Séverine (March 2011). "The effect of musical experience on emotional self-reports and psychophysiological responses to dissonance: Psychophysiology of musical emotion".Psychophysiology.48(3): 337–349.doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2010.01075.x.PMID20701708.
  115. ^abPeirse & Martin 2013,p. 7.
  116. ^Paul 1994,p. 32.
  117. ^Hantke 2007.
  118. ^Barber, Nicholas."Is horror the most disrespected genre?".BBC.Retrieved20 December2021.
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  120. ^Durkan, Deirdre (1 March 2018)."'Jaws' to 'Get Out': The Only 6 Horror Films Ever Nominated for Oscar's Best Picture ".The Hollywood Reporter.Retrieved20 December2021.
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  123. ^Linz, Daniel G.;Donnerstein, Edward;Penrod, Steven (1988)."Effects of long-term exposure to violent and sexually degrading depictions of women".Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.55(5): 758–768.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.55.5.758.ISSN1939-1315.PMID3210143.
  124. ^Clover, Carol J. (1 October 1987)."Her Body, Himself: Gender in the Slasher Film".Representations.20(20): 187–228.doi:10.2307/2928507.ISSN0734-6018.JSTOR2928507.
  125. ^Spines, Christine."Chicks dig scary movies".Entertainment Weekly.Retrieved15 April2012.
  126. ^Nowell, Richard (2011). "'There's More Than One Way to Lose Your Heart': The American Film Industry, Early Teen Slasher Films, and Female Youth ".Cinema Journal.51(1): 115–140.doi:10.1353/cj.2011.0073.JSTOR41342285.S2CID144874450.GaleA277106285.
  127. ^Sutton, Travis (9 September 2014), Benshoff, Harry M. (ed.),"Avenging the Body: Disability in the Horror Film",A Companion to the Horror Film(1 ed.), Wiley, pp. 73–89,doi:10.1002/9781118883648.ch5,ISBN978-0-470-67260-0,retrieved30 September2022
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  135. ^Hunt, Kristin (28 February 2018)."The End of American Film Censorship".JSTOR Daily.Retrieved30 June2022.

Bibliography

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Further reading

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[edit]
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