Hyksos
(𓋾𓈎𓈉ḥqꜣ-ḫꜣswt,Heqa-kasutfor "Hyksos" ), leading a group ofAamu.
Tomb ofKhnumhotep II(circa 1900 BC).[1][2]
This is one of the earliest known uses of the term "Hyksos".[3]
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TheHyksos(/ˈhɪksɒs/;Egyptianḥqꜣ(w)-ḫꜣswt,Egyptological pronunciation:heqau khasut,[4]"ruler(s) of foreign lands" ), in modernEgyptology,are the kings of theFifteenth Dynasty of Egypt[5](fl. c. 1650–1550 BC).[a]Their seat of power was the city ofAvarisin theNile Delta,from where they ruled overLower EgyptandMiddle Egyptup toCusae.
In theAegyptiaca,a history of Egypt written by the Greco-Egyptian priest and historianManethoin the 3rd century BC, the term Hyksos is used ethnically to designate people of probable West Semitic,Levantineorigin.[1][9]While Manetho portrayed the Hyksos as invaders and oppressors, this interpretation is questioned in modern Egyptology.[10]Instead, Hyksos rule might have been preceded by groups ofCanaanitepeoples who gradually settled in the Nile delta from the end of theTwelfth Dynastyonwards and who may have seceded from the crumbling and unstable Egyptian control at some point during theThirteenth Dynasty.[11]
The Hyksos period marks the first in which Egypt was ruled by foreign rulers.[12]Many details of their rule, such as the true extent of their kingdom and even the names and order of their kings, remain uncertain. The Hyksos practiced many Levantine or Canaanite customs as well as many Egyptian customs.[13]They have been credited with introducing several technological innovations to Egypt, such as thehorseandchariot,as well as thesickle swordand thecomposite bow,a theory which is disputed.[14]
The Hyksos did not control all of Egypt. Instead, they coexisted with theSixteenthandSeventeenth Dynasties,which were based inThebes.[15]Warfare between the Hyksos and the pharaohs of the late Seventeenth Dynasty eventually culminated in the defeat of the Hyksos byAhmose I,who founded theEighteenth Dynasty of Egypt.[16]In the following centuries, the Egyptians would portray the Hyksos as bloodthirsty and oppressive foreign rulers.
Name
[edit]Etymology
[edit]Hyksos inhieroglyphs | ||||||||
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ḥqꜣ-ḫꜣsw/ḥqꜣw-ḫꜣswt,[17][18] "heqau khasut"[4][b] "Hyksos" Ruler(s) of the foreign countries[17] | ||||||||
Greek | Hyksos (Ὑκσώς) Hykussos (Ὑκουσσώς)[21] | |||||||
![]() The sign𓏥marks the plural.[22] |
The term "Hyksos" is derived, via the GreekὙκσώς(Hyksôs), from the Egyptian expression𓋾𓈎𓈉(ḥqꜣ-ḫꜣswtorḥqꜣw-ḫꜣswt,"heqau khasut" ), meaning "rulers [of] foreign lands".[17][18]The Greek form is likely a textual corruption of an earlierὙκουσσώς(Hykoussôs).[21]
The first century AD Jewish historianJosephusgives the name as meaning "shepherd kings" or "captive shepherds" in hisContra Apion(Against Apion), where he describes the Hyksos as Jews as they appeared in the Hellenistic Egyptian historianManetho.[23][24]
Their race bore the generic name of Hycsos, which means ' king-shepherds. For hyc in the sacred language denotes 'king' and sos in the common dialect means 'shepherd' or 'shepherds'; the combined words form Hycsos. Some say that they were Arabians.[25]
Josephus's rendition may arise from a later Egyptian pronunciation ofḥqꜣ-ḫꜣswtasḥqꜣ-šꜣsw,which was then understood to mean "lord of shepherds."[26]It is unclear if this translation was found in Manetho; an Armenian translation of an epitome of Manetho given by the late antique historianEusebiusgives the correct translation of "foreign kings".[27]
Use
[edit]"It is now commonly accepted in academic publications that the termḤqꜣ-Ḫꜣswtrefers only to the individual foreign rulers of the late Second Intermediate Period, "[28]especially of theFifteenth Dynasty,rather than a people. However, it was used as an ethnic term by Josephus.[c]Its use to refer to the population still persists in some academic papers.[31]
In Ancient Egypt, the term "Hyksos" (ḥqꜣ-ḫꜣswt) was also used to refer to various Nubian and especially Asiatic rulers both before and after the Fifteenth Dynasty.[4][32][33]It was used at least since theSixth Dynasty of Egypt(c. 2345–2181 BC) to designate chieftains from theSyro-Palestinearea.[22]One of its earliest recorded uses is found c. 1900 BC in the tomb ofKhnumhotep IIof theTwelfth Dynastyto label anomadorCanaaniteruler named "Abisha the Hyksos" (using the standard𓋾𓈎𓈉,ḥqꜣ-ḫꜣswt,"Heqa-kasut" for "Hyksos" ).[3][34]
Based on the use of the name in a Hyksos inscription ofSakir-Harfrom Avaris, the name was used by the Hyksos as a title for themselves.[36]However,Kim Ryholtargues that "Hyksos" was not an official title of the rulers of the Fifteenth Dynasty, and is never encountered together withroyal titulary,only appearing as the title in the case of Sakir-Har. According to Ryholt, "Hyksos" was rather a generic term which is encountered separately from royal titulary, and in regnal lists after the end of the Fifteenth Dynasty itself.[37]However, Vera Müller writes: "Considering that S-k-r-h-r is also mentioned with three names of the traditional Egyptian titulary (Horus name, Golden Falcon name and Two Ladies name) on the same monument, this argument is somehow strange."[38]Danielle Candelora and Manfred Bietak also argue that the Hyksos used the title officially.[6][39]All other texts in the Egyptian language do not call the Hyksos by this name, instead referring to them as Asiatics (ꜥꜣmw), with the possible exception of theTurin King Listin a hypothetical reconstruction from a fragment.[40]The title is not attested for the Hyksos kingApepi,possibly indicating an "increased adoption of Egyptian decorum".[41]The names of Hyksos rulers in the Turin list are without the royal cartouche and have thethrowstick"foreigners" determinative.[42]
Scarabsalso attest the use of this title for pharaohs usually assigned to theFourteenthor Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt, who are sometimes called "'lesser' Hyksos."[38]The Theban Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt is also given the title in some versions of Manetho, a fact which Bietak attributes to textual corruption.[41]In theTwenty-fifth Dynasty of Egyptand during thePtolemaic Period,the term Hyksos was adopted as a personal title and epithet by several pharaohs or high Egyptian officials, including the Theban officialMentuemhat,Philip III of Macedon,[43][44]andPtolemy XIII.[44]It was also used on the tomb of Egyptian grand priestPetosirisatTuna el-Gebelin 300 BC to designate thePersianrulerArtaxerxes III,although it is unknown if Artaxerxes adopted this title for himself.[44]
Origins
[edit]Ancient historians
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Ring_scarab_-_Pharaoh_exhibit_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Ring_scarab_-_Pharaoh_exhibit_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art_%28cropped%29.jpg)
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In his epitome ofManetho,Josephus connected the Hyksos with the Jews,[45]but he also calls them Arabs.[23]In their own epitomes of Manetho, theLate antiquehistoriansSextus Julius AfricanusandEusebiussay that the Hyksos came fromPhoenicia.[23]Until the excavation and discovery ofTell El-Dab'a(the site of the Hyksos capitalAvaris) in 1966, historians relied on these accounts for the Hyksos period.[9][46]
Modern historians
[edit]Material finds at Tell El-Dab'a indicate that the Hyksos originated in theLevant.[9]The Hyksos' personal names indicate that they spoke aWestern Semiticlanguage and "may be called for convenience sakeCanaanites."[47]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Retjenu%2C_tomb_of_Sobekhotep_18th_Dynasty_Thebes.jpg/150px-Retjenu%2C_tomb_of_Sobekhotep_18th_Dynasty_Thebes.jpg)
Kamose,the last king of the Theban Seventeenth Dynasty, refers toApepias a "Chieftain ofRetjenu"in a stela that implies a Levantine background for this Hyksos king.[48]According to Anna-Latifa Mourad, the Egyptian application of the termꜥꜣmwto the Hyksos could indicate a range of backgrounds, including newly arrived Levantines or people of mixed Levantine-Egyptian origin.[49]
Due to the work of Manfred Bietak, which found similarities in architecture, ceramics and burial practices, scholars currently favor a northern Levantine origin of the Hyksos.[50]Based particularly on temple architecture, Bietak argues for strong parallels between the religious practices of the Hyksos at Avaris with those of the area aroundByblos,Ugarit,AlalakhandTell Brak,defining the "spiritual home" of the Hyksos as "in northernmostSyriaand northernMesopotamia".[51]The connection of the Hyksos to Retjenu also suggests a northern Levantine origin: "Theoretically, it is feasible to deduce that the early Hyksos, as the later Apophis, were of elite ancestry fromRṯnw,a toponym [...] cautiously linked with the Northern Levant and the northern region of the Southern Levant. "[49]
Earlier arguments that the Hyksos names might beHurrianhave been rejected,[52]while early-twentieth-century proposals that the Hyksos were Indo-Europeans "fitted European dreams of Indo-European supremacy, now discredited."[53]Some have suggested that Hyksos or a part of them was ofMaryannuorigins as evident by their use and introduction of chariots and horses into Egypt.[54][55]However, this theory has been too rejected by modern scholarship.
A study of dental traits by Nina Maaranen and Sonia Zakrzewski in 2021 on 90 people of Avaris indicated that individuals defined as locals and non-locals were not ancestrally different from one another. The results were said to be in line with the archaeological evidence, suggesting Avaris was an important hub in the Middle Bronze Age eastern Mediterranean trade network, welcoming people from beyond its borders.[56]
History
[edit]Early contacts between Egypt and the Levant
[edit]Historical records suggest that Semitic people and Egyptians had contacts at all periods of Egypt's history.[57]TheMacGregor plaque,an early Egyptian tablet dating to 3000 BC records "The first occasion of striking the East", with the picture of PharaohDensmiting a Western Asiatic enemy.[58]
During the reign ofSenusret II,c. 1890 BC,parties of Western Asiatic foreigners visiting the Pharaoh with giftsare recorded, as in the tomb paintings of12th-dynastyofficialKhnumhotep II.These foreigners, possiblyCanaanitesornomads,are labelled asAamu(ꜥꜣmw), including the leading man with aNubian ibexlabelled asAbisha the Hyksos(𓋾𓈎𓈉ḥqꜣ-ḫꜣsw,Heqa-kasutfor "Hyksos" ), the first known instance of the name "Hyksos".[1][2][22][34]
Soon after, theSebek-khu Stele,dated to the reign ofSenusret III(reign: 1878–1839 BC), records the earliest known Egyptian military campaign in the Levant. The text reads "His Majesty proceeded northward to overthrow the Asiatics. His Majesty reached a foreign country of which the name was Sekmem (...) Then Sekmem fell, together with the wretchedRetenu",where Sekmem (s-k-m-m) is thought to beShechemand "Retenu" or "Retjenu"are associated with ancientSyria.[59][60]
Background and arrival in Egypt
[edit]The only ancient account of the whole Hyksos period is by the Hellenistic Egyptian historianManetho,who, however, exists only as quoted by others.[61]As recorded by Josephus, Manetho describes the beginning of Hyksos rule thusly:
A people of ignoble origin from the east, whose coming was unforeseen, had the audacity to invade the country, which they mastered by main force without difficulty or even battle. Having overpowered the chiefs, they then savagely burnt the cities, razed the temples of the gods to the ground, and treated the whole native population with the utmost cruelty, massacring some, and carrying off the wives and children of others into slavery (Contra ApionI.75-77).[62]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Hyksos_dagger_handle.jpg/300px-Hyksos_dagger_handle.jpg)
Manetho's invasion narrative is "nowadays rejected by most scholars."[10]It is likely that he was influenced by more recent foreign invasions of Egypt.[6]Instead, it appears that the establishment of Hyksos rule was mostly peaceful and did not involve an invasion of an entirely foreign population.[66]Archaeology shows a continuous Asiatic presence at Avaris for over 150 years before the beginning of Hyksos rule,[67]with gradual Canaanite settlement beginning therec. 1800 BCduring theTwelfth Dynasty.[18]Strontium isotope analysis of the inhabitants of Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period Avaris also dismissed the invasion model in favor of a migration one. Contrary to the model of a foreign invasion, the study didn't find more males moving into the region, but instead found a sex bias towards females, with a high proportion of 77% of females being non-locals.[68][69]
Manfred Bietakargues that Hyksos "should be understood within a repetitive pattern of the attraction of Egypt for western Asiatic population groups that came in search of a living in the country, especially the Delta, since prehistoric times."[67]He notes that Egypt had long depended on the Levant for expertise in areas of shipbuilding and seafaring, with possible depictions of Asiatic shipbuilders being found from reliefs from theSixth DynastyrulerSahure.The Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt is known to have had many Asiatic immigrants serving as soldiers, household or temple serfs, and various other jobs.Avarisin the Nile Delta attracted many Asiatic immigrants in its role as a hub of international trade and seafaring.[70]
The final powerful pharaoh of the EgyptianThirteenth DynastywasSobekhotep IV,who died around 1725 BC, after which Egypt appears to have splintered into various kingdoms, including one based at Avaris ruled by theFourteenth Dynasty.[11]Based on their names, this dynasty was already primarily of West Asian origin.[71]After an event in which their palace was burned,[71]the Fourteenth Dynasty would be replaced by the HyksosFifteenth Dynasty,which would establish "loose control over northern Egypt by intimidation or force,"[72]thus greatly expanding the area under Avaris's control.[73]
Kim Ryholtargues that the Fifteenth Dynasty invaded and displaced the Fourteenth, however Alexander Ilin-Tomich argues that this is "not sufficiently substantiated."[52]Bietak interprets a stela ofNeferhotep IIIto indicate that Egypt was overrun by roving mercenaries around the time of the Hyksos ascension to power.[74]
Kingdom
[edit]The length of time the Hyksos ruled is unclear. The fragmentaryTurin King Listsays that there were six Hyksos kings who collectively ruled 108 years,[75]however in 2018 Kim Ryholt proposed a new reading of as many as 149 years, while Thomas Schneider proposed a length between 160 and 180 years.[76]The rule of the Hyksos overlaps with that of the native Egyptian pharaohs of theSixteenthandSeventeenthDynasties, better known as theSecond Intermediate Period.
The area under direct control of the Hyksos was probably limited to the easternNile delta.[15]Their capital city wasAvarisat a fork on the now-dry Pelusiac branch of the Nile.Memphismay have also been an important administrative center,[77]although the nature of any Hyksos presence there remains unclear.[15]
According to Anna-Latifa Mourad, other sites with likely Levantine populations or strong Levantine connections in the Delta include Tell Farasha and Tell el-Maghud, located between Tell Basta and Avaris,[78]El-Khata'na, southwest of Avaris, andInshas.[79]The increased prosperity of Avaris may have attracted more Levantines to settle in the eastern Delta.[66]Kom el-Hisn at the edge of the Western Delta, shows Near-Eastern goods but individuals mostly buried in an Egyptian style, which Mourad takes to mean that they were most likely Egyptians heavily influenced by Levantine traditions or, more likely, Egyptianized Levantines.[80]The site ofTell Basta(Bubastis), at the confluence of the Pelusiac and Tanitic branches of the Nile, contains monuments to the Hyksos kings Khyan and Apepi, but little other evidence of Levantine habitation.[81]Tell el-Habwa (Tjaru), located on a branch of the Nile near the Sinai, also shows evidence of non-Egyptian presence, however the majority of the population appears to have been Egyptian or Egyptianized Levantines.[82]Tell El-Habwa would have provided Avaris with grain and trade goods.[83]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Headband_with_Heads_of_Gazelles_and_a_Stag_Between_Stars_or_Flowers_ca._1648%E2%80%931540_BCE.jpg/260px-Headband_with_Heads_of_Gazelles_and_a_Stag_Between_Stars_or_Flowers_ca._1648%E2%80%931540_BCE.jpg)
In theWadi Tumilat,Tell el-Maskhutashows a great deal of Levantine pottery and an occupation history closely correlated to the Fifteenth Dynasty,[87]nearby Tell el-Rataba and Tell el-Sahaba show possible Hyksos-style burials and occupation,[88]Tell el-Yahudiyah, located between Memphis and the Wadi Tumilat, contains a large earthwork that may have been built by the Hyksos, as well as evidence of Levantine burials from as early as the Thirteenth Dynasty.[89]The Hyksos settlements in the Wadi Tumilat would have provided access to Sinai, the southern Levant, and possibly theRed Sea.[66]
The sites Tell el-Kabir, Tell Yehud, Tell Fawziya, and Tell Geziret el-Faras are noted by scholars other than Mourad to contain "elements of 'Hyksos culture'", but there is no published archaeological material for them.[90]
The Hyksos claimed to be rulers of bothLowerandUpper Egypt;however, their southern border was marked atHermopolisandCusae.[13]Some objects might suggest a Hyksos presence in Upper Egypt, but they may have been Theban war booty or attest simply to short term raids, trade, or diplomatic contact.[91]The nature of Hyksos control over the region ofThebesremains unclear.[15]Most likely Hyksos rule covered the area fromMiddle Egyptto southernPalestine.[92]Older scholarship believed, due to the distribution of Hyksos goods with the names of Hyksos rulers in places such asBaghdadandKnossos,that Hyksos had ruled a vast empire, but it seems more likely to have been the result of diplomatic gift exchange and far-flung trade networks.[93][15]
Wars with the Seventeenth Dynasty
[edit]The conflict between Thebes and the Hyksos is known exclusively from pro-Theban sources, and it is difficult to construct a chronology.[16]These sources propagandistically portray the conflict as a war of national liberation. This perspective was formerly taken by scholars as well but is no longer thought to be accurate.[94][95]
Hostilities between the Hyksos and the ThebanSeventeenth Dynastyappear to have begun during the reign of Theban kingSeqenenra Taa.Seqenenra Taa's mummy shows that he was killed by several blows of an axe to the head, apparently in battle with the Hyksos.[96]It is unclear why hostilities may have started, but the much later fragmentaryNew KingdomtaleThe Quarrel of Apophis and Seqenenreblames the Hyksos rulerApepi/Apophisfor initiating the conflict by demanding that Seqenenra Taa remove a pool of hippopotamuses near Thebes.[97]However, this is a satire on the Egyptian story-telling genre of the "king's novel" rather than a historical text.[96]A contemporary inscription at Wadi el Hôl may also refer to hostilities between Seqenenra and Apepi.[74]
Three years later, c. 1542 BC,[98]Seqenenra Taa's successorKamoseinitiated a campaign against several cities loyal to the Hyksos, the account of which is preserved on three monumental stelae set up atKarnak.[99][74][100]The first of the three,Carnarvon Tabletincludes a complaint by Kamose about the divided and occupied state of Egypt:
To what effect do I perceive it, my might, while a ruler is in Avaris and another in Kush, I sitting joined with an Asiatic and a Nubian, each man having his (own) portion of this Egypt, sharing the land with me. There is no passing him as far as Memphis, the water of Egypt. He has possession of Hermopolis, and no man can rest, being deprived by the levies of the Setiu. I shall engage in battle with him and I shall slit his body, for my intention is to save Egypt, striking the Asiatics.[101]
Following a common literary device, Kamose's advisors are portrayed as trying to dissuade the king, but the king attacks anyway.[99]He recounts his destruction of the city ofNefrusyas well as several other cities loyal to the Hyksos. On a second stele, Kamose claims to have captured Avaris, but returned to Thebes after capturing a messenger between Apepi and the king ofKush.[96]Kamose appears to have died soon afterward (c. 1540 BC).[98]
Ahmose Icontinued the war against the Hyksos, most likely conquering Memphis,TjaruandHeliopolisearly in his reign, the latter two of which are mentioned in an entry of theRhind mathematical papyrus.[96]Knowledge of Ahmose I's campaigns against the Hyksos mostly comes from the tomb ofAhmose, son of Ebana,who gives a first person account claiming that Ahmose I sacked Avaris:[102]
Then there was fighting in Egypt to the south of this town [Avaris], and I carried off a man as a living captive. I went down into the water—for he was captured on the city side—and crossed the water carrying him. [...] Then Avaris was despoiled, and I brought spoil from there.[103]
Thomas Schneider places the conquest in year 18 of Ahmose's reign.[108]However, excavations ofTell El-Dab'a(Avaris) show no widespread destruction of the city, which instead seems to have been abandoned by the Hyksos.[96]Manetho, as recorded in Josephus, states that the Hyksos were allowed to leave after concluding a treaty:[109]
Thoumosis... invested the walls [of Avaris] with an army of 480,000 men, and endeavoured to reduce [the Hyksos] to submission by siege. Despairing of achieving his object, he concluded a treaty, under which [the Hyksos] were all to evacuate Egypt and go whither they would unmolested. Upon these terms no fewer than two hundred and forty thousand, entire households with their possessions, left Egypt and traversed the desert to Syria. (Contra ApionI.88-89)[110]
Although Manetho indicates that the Hyksos population was expelled to the Levant, there is no archaeological evidence for this, and Manfred Bietak argues on the basis of archaeological finds throughout Egypt that it is likely that numerous Asiatics were resettled in other locations in Egypt as artisans and craftsmen.[111]Many may have remained at Avaris, as pottery and scarabs with typical "Hyksos" forms continued to be produced uninterrupted throughout the Eastern Delta.[74]Canaanite cults also continued to be worshiped at Avaris.[112]
Following the capture of Avaris, Ahmose, son of Ebana records that Ahmose I capturedSharuhen(possiblyTell el-Ajjul), which some scholars argue was a city in Canaan under Hyksos control.[113]
Rule and administration
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Asiatic_official_Munich_%28retouched%29.jpg/220px-Asiatic_official_Munich_%28retouched%29.jpg)
Administration
[edit]The Hyksos show a mix of Egyptian and Levantine cultural traits.[13]Their rulers adopted the fullAncient Egyptian royal titularyand employed Egyptian scribes and officials.[118]They also used Near-Eastern forms of administration, such as employing a chancellor (imy-r khetemet) as the head of their administration.[119]
Rulers
[edit]The names, the order, length of rule, and even the total number of the Fifteenth Dynasty rulers are not known with full certainty. After the end of their rule, the Hyksos kings were not considered to have been legitimate rulers of Egypt and were therefore omitted from most king lists.[120]The fragmentaryTurin King Listincluded six Hyksos kings, however only the name of the last,Khamudi,is preserved.[121]Six names are also preserved in the various epitomes of Manetho, however, it is difficult to reconcile the Turin King List and other sources with names known from Manetho,[122]largely due to the "corrupted name forms" in Manetho.[6]The nameApepi/Apophisappears in multiple sources, however.[123]
Various other archaeological sources also provide names of rulers with the Hyksos title,[124]however, the majority of kings from the second intermediate period are attested once on a single object, with only three exceptions.[125]Ryholt associates two other rulers known from inscriptions with the dynasty,KhyanandSakir-Har.[126]The name of Khyan's son,Yanassi,is also preserved from Tell El-Dab'a.[73]The two best attested kings are Khyan and Apepi.[127]Scholars generally agree that Apepi and Khamudi are the last two kings of the dynasty,[128]and Apepi is attested as a contemporary of Seventeenth-Dynasty pharaohsKamoseandAhmose I.[129]Ryholt has proposed that Yanassi did not rule and that Khyan directly preceded Apepi,[130]but most scholars agree that the order of kings is: Khyan, Yanassi, Apepi, Khamudi.[131]There is less agreement on the early rulers. Sakir-Har is proposed by Schneider, Ryholt, and Bietak to have been the first king.[70][132][133]
Recently, archaeological finds have suggested that Khyan may actually have been a contemporary of Thirteenth-Dynasty pharaohSobekhotep IV,potentially making him an early rather than a late Hyksos ruler.[134]This has prompted attempts to reconsider the entire chronology of the Hyksos period, which as of 2018 had not yet reached any consensus.[135]
Some kings are attested from either fragments of the Turin King List or from other sources who may have been Hyksos rulers. According to Ryholt, kingsSemqenandAperanat,known from the Turin King List, may have been early Hyksos rulers,[136]howeverJürgen von Beckerathassigns these kings to theSixteenth Dynasty of Egypt.[137]Another king known fromscarabs,Sheshi,[122]is believed by many scholars to be a Hyksos king,[138]however Ryholt assigns this king to the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt.[139]Manfred Bietak proposes that a king recorded asYaqub-Harmay also have been a Hyksos king of the Fifteenth Dynasty.[41]Bietak suggests that many of the other kings attested onscarabsmay have been vassal kings of the Hyksos.[140]
Manetho[142] | Turin King List | Genealogy of Ankhefensekhmet | Identification by Redford (1992)[143] | Identification by Ryholt (1997)[144] | Identification by Bietak (2012)[70] | Identification by Schneider (2006) (reconstructed Semitic name in parentheses)[141][145][d] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Salitis/Saites (19 years) | X 15 | Schalek[e] | Sheshi | ?Semqen (Šamuqēnu)? | ?Sakir-Har? | ?(Šarā-Dagan [Šȝrk[n]]) |
Bnon (44 years) | X 16.... 3 years | Yaqub-Har | ?Aper-Anat ('Aper-'Anati)? | ?Meruserre Yaqub-Har? | ?(*Bin-ʿAnu) | |
Apachnan/Pachnan (36/61 years) | X 17... 8 years 3 months | Khyan | Sakir-Har | Seuserenre Khyan | Khyan ([ʿApaq-]Hajran) | |
Iannas/Staan (50 years) | X 18... 10 (20, 30) years | Yanassi (Yansas-X) | Khyan | Yanassi (Yansas-idn) | Yanassi (Jinaśśi’-Ad) | |
Apophis (61/14 years) | X 19... 40 + x years | Apepi (?'A-ken?)[f] | Apepi | Apepi | A-user-Re Apepi | Apepi (Apapi) |
Archles/Assis (40/30 years)[g] | identifies with?Khamudi? | identifies with Khamudi | Identifies with Khamudi | Sakir-Har (Sikru-Haddu) | ||
X 20 Khamudi | ?Khamudi?[h] | Khamudi | Khamudi | not in Manetho(Halmu'di) | ||
Sum: 259 years[i] | Sum: 108 years[j] |
None of the proposed identifications besides of Apepi and Apophis is considered certain.[148]
InSextus Julius Africanus's epitome of Manetho, the rulers ofSixteenth Dynastyare also identified as "shepherds" (i.e. Hyksos) rulers.[124]Following the work of Ryholt in 1997, most but not all scholars now identify the Sixteenth Dynasty as a native Egyptian dynasty based inThebes,followingEusebius's epitome of Manetho; this dynasty would be contemporary to the Hyksos.[149]
Diplomacy
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Khyan.jpg/220px-Khyan.jpg)
The Hyksos engagement in long-distance diplomacy is confirmed by acuneiformletter discovered in the ruins of Avaris. Hyksos diplomacy withCreteandancient Near Eastis also confirmed by the presence of gifts from the Hyksos court in those places.[70]Khyan,one of the Hyksos rulers, is known for his wide-ranging contacts, as objects in his name have been found atKnossosandHattushaindicating diplomatic contacts with Crete and theHittites,and a sphinx with his name was bought on the art market atBaghdadand might demonstratediplomatic contacts with Babylon,possibly with the firstKassitesrulerGandash.[150][151]
The Theban rulers of the Seventeenth Dynasty are known to have imitated the Hyksos both in their architecture and regnal names.[152]There is evidence of friendly relations between the Hyksos and Thebes, including possibly a marriage alliance, prior to the reign of the Theban pharaohSeqenenra Taa.[97]
An intercepted letter between Apepi and theNubianKing ofKerma(also called Kush) to the south of Egypt recorded on the Carnarvon Tablet has been interpreted as evidence of an alliance between the Hyksos and Kermans.[113]Intensive contacts between Kerma and the Hyksos are further attested by seals with the names of Asiatic rulers or with designs known from Avaris at Kerma.[153]The troops of Kerma are known to have raided as far north asElkabaccording to an inscription ofSobeknakht II.[96]According to his second stele, Kamose was effectively caught between the campaign for the siege of Avaris in the north and the offensive of Kerma in the south; it is unknown whether or not the Kermans and Hyksos were able to combine forces against him.[99]Kamose reports returning "in triumph" to Thebes, but Lutz Popko suggests that this "was perhaps a mere tactical retreat to prevent a war on two fronts".[96]Ahmose I was also forced to confront a threat from the Nubians during his own siege of Avaris: he was able to stop the forces of Kerma by sending a strong fleet, killing their ruler named A'ata.[154][155]Ahmose I boasts about these successes on his tomb at Thebes.[154]The Kermans also appear to have provided mercenaries to the Hyksos.[70]
Vassalage
[edit]Many scholars have described the Egyptian dynasties contemporary to the Hyksos as "vassal" dynasties, an idea partially derived from theNineteenth-Dynastyliterary textThe Quarrel of Apophis and Seqenenre,[156]in which it is said "the entire land paid tribute to him [Apepi], delivering their taxes in full as well as bringing all good produce of Egypt."[157]The belief in Hyksos vassalage was challenged by Ryholt as "a baseless assumption."[158]Roxana Flammini suggests instead that Hyksos exerted influence through (sometimes imposed) personal relationships and gift-giving.[159]Manfred Bietak continues to refer to Hyksos vassals, including minor dynasties of West Semitic rulers in Egypt.[160]
Society and culture
[edit]Royal construction and patronage
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Statue_Khyan_CG389_Naville.jpg/170px-Statue_Khyan_CG389_Naville.jpg)
The Hyksos do not appear to have produced any court art,[163]instead appropriating monuments from earlier dynasties by writing their names on them. Many of these are inscribed with the name of KingKhyan.[164]A large palace at Avaris has been uncovered, built in the Levantine rather than the Egyptian style, most likely by Khyan.[165]KingApepiis known to have patronized Egyptian scribal culture, commissioning the copying of theRhind Mathematical Papyrus.[166]The stories preserved in theWestcar Papyrusmay also date from his reign.[167]
The so-called "Hyksos sphinxes"or" Tanite sphinxes "are a group of royal sphinxes depicting the earlier pharaohAmenemhat III(Twelfth Dynasty) with some unusual traits compared to conventional statuary, for example prominent cheekbones and the thick mane of a lion, instead of the traditionalnemesheadcloth. The name "Hyksos sphinxes" was given due to the fact that these were later reinscribed by several of the Hyksos kings, and were initially thought to represent the Hyksos kings themselves. Nineteenth-century scholars attempted to use the statues' features to assign a racial origin to the Hyksos.[168]These Sphinxes were seized by the Hyksos from cities of theMiddle Kingdomand then transported to their capitalAvariswhere they were reinscribed with the names of their new owners and adorned their palace.[161]Seven of those sphinxes are known, all fromTanis,and now mostly located in theCairo Museum.[161][169]Other statues of Amenehat IIIwere found in Tanis and are associated with the Hyksos in the same manner.
Burial practices
[edit]Evidence for distinct Hyksos burial practices in the archaeological record include burying their dead within settlements rather than outside them like the Egyptians.[170]While some of the tombs include Egyptian-style chapels, they also include burials of young females, probably sacrifices, placed in front of the tomb chamber.[165]There are also no surviving Hyksos funeral monuments in the desert in the Egyptian style, though these may have been destroyed.[77]The Hyksos also interred infants who died in imported Canaanite amphorae.[171]The Hyksos also practicedthe burial of horsesand otherequids,likely a composite custom of the Egyptian association of the godSetwith thedonkeyand near-eastern notions of equids as representing status.[172]
Technology
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Rhind_Mathematical_Papyrus.jpg/220px-Rhind_Mathematical_Papyrus.jpg)
The Hyksos use of horse burials suggest that the Hyksos introduced both thehorseand thechariotto Egypt,[173]however no archaeological, pictorial, or textual evidence exists that the Hyksos possessed chariots, which are first mentioned as ridden by the Egyptians in warfare against them byAhmose, son of Ebana,at the close of Hyksos rule.[174]In any case, it does not appear that chariots played any large role in the Hyksos rise to power or their expulsion.[175]Josef Wegner further argues thathorse-ridingmay have been present in Egypt as early as the late Middle Kingdom, prior to the adoption of chariot technology.[176]
Traditionally, the Hyksos have also been credited with introducing a number of other military innovations, such as thesickle-swordandcomposite bow;however, "[t]o what extent the kingdom of Avaris should be credited for these innovations is debatable," with scholarly opinion currently divided.[14]It is also possible that the Hyksos introduced more advanced bronze working techniques, though this is inconclusive. They may have worn full-body armor,[177]whereas the Egyptians did not wear armor or helmets until the New Kingdom.[178]
The Hyksos also introduced better weaving techniques and new musical instruments to Egypt.[177]They introduced improvements invinicultureas well.[74]
-
Egyptian duckbill-shaped axe blade of Syro-Palestinian type, a lethal technology probably introduced by the Hyksos (1981–1550 BC).[178]
-
The horse was probably introduced to Egypt by the Hyksos, and became a favourite subject of Egyptian art, as in this whip handle from the reign ofAmenhotep III(1390–1353 BC).[180]
-
The two-wheeled horse chariot, here found in the tomb ofTutankhamun,may have been introduced to Egypt by the Hyksos.[173]
Trade and economy
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/%22Tell_el-Yahudiya%22_Vase_in_the_Shape_of_a_Duck_MET_23.3.40_left.jpg/170px-%22Tell_el-Yahudiya%22_Vase_in_the_Shape_of_a_Duck_MET_23.3.40_left.jpg)
The early period of Hyksos period established their capital of Avaris "as the commercial capital of the Delta".[181]The trading relations of the Hyksos were mainly withCanaanandCyprus.[13][182]Trade with Canaan is said to have been "intensive", especially with many imports of Canaanite wares, and may have reflected the Canaanite origins of the dynasty.[183]Trade was mostly with the cities of the northern Levant, but connections with the southern Levant also developed.[49]Additionally, trade was conducted withFaiyum,Memphis,oases in Egypt,Nubia,andMesopotamia.[181]Trade relations with Cyprus were also very important, particularly at the end of the Hyksos period.[13][184]Aaron Burke has interpreted the equid burials in Avaris of evidence that the people buried with them were involved in the caravan trade.[185]Anna-Latifa Mourad argues that "Hyksos were particularly interested in opening new avenues of trade, securing strategic posts in the eastern Delta that could give access to land-based and sea-based trade routes."[181]These include the apparent Hyksos settlements of Tell el-Habwa I andTell el-Maskhutain the eastern Delta.[83]
According to theKamosestelae, the Hyksos imported "chariots and horses, ships, timber, gold, lapis lazuli, silver, turquoise, bronze, axes without number, oil, incense, fat and honey".[13]The Hyksos also exported large quantities of material looted from southern Egypt, especially Egyptian sculptures, to the areas of Canaan andSyria.[183]These transfers of Egyptian artifacts to the Near East may especially be attributed to kingApepi.[183]The Hyksos also produced local, Levantine-influenced industries, such asTell el-Yahudiyeh Ware.[181]
There is little evidence of trade betweenUpperandLower Egyptduring the Hyksos period, and Manfred Bietak proposes that there was "a mutual trade boycott". Bietak proposes that this decreased the Hyksos ability to trade with the Mediterranean and weakened their economy.[74]
Religion
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Scarab_of_a_pharaoh_as_weather_god_by_Khruner.jpg/170px-Scarab_of_a_pharaoh_as_weather_god_by_Khruner.jpg)
Temples in Avaris existed both in Egyptian and Levantine style, the latter presumably for Levantine gods.[188]The Hyksos are known to have worshiped the Canaanite storm godBaal,who was associated with the Egyptian godSet.[189]Set appears to have been the patron god of Avaris as early as theFourteenth Dynasty.[190]Hyksos iconography of their kings on somescarabsshows a mixture of Egyptian pharaonic dress with a raised club, the iconography of Baal.[12]Despite later sources claiming the Hyksos were opposed to the worship of other gods, votive objects given by Hyksos rulers to gods such asRa,Hathor,Sobek,andWadjethave also survived.[191]
Potential biblical connections
[edit]In the Manethonian–Josephus tradition
[edit]Josephus,and most of the writers of antiquity, associated the Hyksos with the Jews.[192]Quoting fromManetho'sAegyptiaca,Josephus states that when the Hyksos were expelled from Egypt, they foundedJerusalem(Contra ApionI.90).[193]It is unclear if this is original to Manetho or Josephus's own addition, as Manetho does not mention "Jews" or "Hebrews" in his preserved account of the expulsion.[194]Josephus's account of Manetho connects the expulsion of the Hyksos to another event two hundred years later, in which a group of lepers led by the priestOsarsephwere expelled from Egypt to the abandoned Avaris. There they ally with the Hyksos and rule over Egypt for thirteen years before being driven out, during which time they oppress the Egyptians and destroy their temples. After the expulsion, Osarseph changes his name toMoses(Contra ApionI.227-250).[195]Assmann argues that this second account is largely a mixture of the experiences of the laterAmarna periodwith the Hyksos invasion, with Osarseph likely standing in forAkhenaten.[196][197]The final mention of Osarseph, in which he changes his name to Moses, may be a later interpolation.[198]The second account is sometimes held not to have been written by Manetho at all.[199]
In modern scholarship
[edit]The majority of modern scholars do not believe that the Egyptian story elements in the Bible can be demonstrated with historical methods. However, some scholars have attempted to tie the narratives of the Hyksos period to the exodus period.[200]
Scholars such asJan AssmannandDonald Redford,for instance, have suggested that the story of the biblical exodus may have been wholly or partially inspired by the expulsion of the Hyksos.[201][202][203]An identification with the Hyksos would only depart minimally from accepted biblical chronology, and their expulsion is the only known large-scale expulsion of Asiatics from Egypt.[204]Other scholars, such withManfred Bietak,have pointed out several problems with such theories, including the conflict between the portrayal of the Hyksos as a ruling elite with a background in trade and seafaring and the biblical portrayal of theIsraelitesas oppressed in Egypt.[205]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Semitic_visiters_to_Egypt%2C_in_the_Tomb_of_Knumhotep_II%2C_circa_1900_BCE.jpg/260px-Semitic_visiters_to_Egypt%2C_in_the_Tomb_of_Knumhotep_II%2C_circa_1900_BCE.jpg)
John Brightstates that Egyptian and Biblical records both suggest that Semitic people maintained access to Egypt at all periods of Egypt's history, and he suggested that it is tempting to suppose that Joseph who, according to theOld Testament(Genesis 39:50), was in favour at the Egyptian court and held high administrative positions next to the ruler of the land, was associated to the Hyksos rule in Egypt during the Fifteenth Dynasty. Such a connection might have been facilitated by their shared Semitic ethnicity. He also wrote that there is no proof for these events.[57]Howard Vos has suggested that the "coat of many colors"said to have been worn by Joseph could be similar to the colorful garments seen inthe painting of foreignersin the tomb ofKhnumhotep II.[206]
Ronald B. Geobey notes a number of problems with identifying the narrative of Joseph with events either prior to or during the Hyksos' rule, such as the detail that the Egyptians abhorred Joseph's people ( "shepherds"; Gen. 46:31) and numerous anachronisms.[207]Manfred Bietak suggests that the story fits better with the ambience of the laterTwentieth Dynasty of Egypt,in particular with the xenophobic policy of pharaohSetnakhte(1189–1186 BC).[208]AndDonald Redfordargues that "to read [the Joseph story] as history is quite wrongheaded,"[209]while Megan Bishop Moore and Brad E. Kelle note the lack of any extra-biblical evidence for the events of Genesis, including the Joseph story, or Exodus.[210]
A number of scholars do not believe that the exodus has any historical basis at all, while only scholars "on the fundamentalist fringe" accept the entire biblical account "unless [it] can be absolutely disproved".[211]The current consensus among archaeologists is that, if an Israelite exodus from Egypt occurred, it must have happened instead in theNineteenth Dynasty of Egypt(13th century BC), given the first appearance of a distinctive Israelite culture in the archaeological record.[212]The potential connection of the Hyksos to the exodus is no longer a central focus of scholarly study of the Hyksos,[46]but this supposed connection to the Exodus has continued to inspire popular interest.[53]
Legacy
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Four_Foreign_Chieftains%2C_Tomb_of_Puyemre_MET_DT10871.jpg/220px-Four_Foreign_Chieftains%2C_Tomb_of_Puyemre_MET_DT10871.jpg)
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Block_from_a_Relief_Depicting_a_Battle_MET_213_S3BR2_01GG.jpg/220px-Block_from_a_Relief_Depicting_a_Battle_MET_213_S3BR2_01GG.jpg)
The Hyksos' rule continued to be condemned byNew Kingdompharaohs such asHatshepsut,who, 80 years after their defeat, claimed to rebuild many shrines and temples which they had neglected.[163]
Ramses IImoved Egypt's capital to the Delta, buildingPi-Ramesseson the site of Avaris,[213]where he set upa stela marking the 400th anniversary of the cult of Set.Scholars used to suggest that this marked 400 years since the Hyksos had established their rule, however the lists of Ramesses' ancestors continued to omit the Hyksos and there is no evidence that they were honored during his reign.[214]The Turin King List, which includes the Hyksos and all other disputed or disgraced former rulers of Egypt, appears to date from the reign of Ramesses or one of his successors.[215]The Hyksos are marked as foreign kings via a throw-stick determinative rather than a divine determinative after their names, and the use of the titleḥqꜣ-ḫꜣswtrather than the usual royal title.[216]Kim Ryholtnotes that these measures are unique to the Hyksos rulers and "may therefore have been a direct result of what seems to have been deliberate attempt to obliterate the memory of their kingship after their defeat."[217]
Egyptian presence in the Levant
[edit]It is "often accepted" that Egypt established an empire in Canaan at the end of the wars against the Hyksos.[218]Campaigns against locations in Canaan and Syria were conducted byAhmose IandThutmose Iat the beginning of theEighteenth Dynasty,as recorded in the tombs ofAhmose, son of EbanaandAhmose pen-Nekhebet;Thutmose I is also mentioned as having hunted elephants in Syria in inscriptions at the temple ofHatshepsutatDeir el-Bahari.[219]Thutmose IIIis known to have campaigned widely, conquering the"Shasu"Bedouinsof northernCanaan,and the land ofRetjenu,as far asSyriaandMittaniin numerous military campaigns circa 1450 BC.[220][221]However, Felix Höflmayer argues that there is little evidence of other campaigns and that "there is no evidence that would suggest such a scenario" as an Egyptian empire during the Eighteenth Dynasty.[222]As regards claims that the campaigns in the Near East were spurred on by Hyksos rule, Thomas Schneider argues that "the empire building started with a delay of two generations and seeing a direct nexus may be as much a historical fallacy as it would be to link the fall of the Soviet Union in 1989 to the end of the Second World War in 1945, two generations earlier."[223]
Later accounts
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Ramses-ii-relief-from-memphis2.png/220px-Ramses-ii-relief-from-memphis2.png)
The Nineteenth-Dynasty storyThe Quarrel of Apophis and Seqenenreclaimed that the Hyksos worshiped no god butSet,making the conflict into one betweenRa,the patron of Thebes, and Set as patron of Avaris.[227]Furthermore, the battle with the Hyksos was interpreted in light of the mythical battle between the godsHorusand Set, transforming Set into an Asiatic deity while also allowing for the integration of Asiatics into Egyptian society.[228]
Manetho's portrayal of the Hyksos, written nearly 1300 years after the end of Hyksos rule and found in Josephus, is even more negative than the New Kingdom sources.[163]This account portrayed the Hyksos "as violent conquerors and oppressors of Egypt" has been highly influential for perceptions of the Hyksos until modern times.[229]Marc van de Mieroopargues that Josephus's portrayal of the initial Hyksos invasion is no more trustworthy than his later claims that they were related tothe Exodus,supposedly portrayed in Manetho as performed by a band of lepers.[230]
Early modern depictions
[edit]The discovery of the Hyksos in the 19th century, and their study following thedecipherment of ancient Egyptian scripts,led to various theories about their history, origin, ethnicity and appearance, often illustrated with picturesque and imaginative details.
-
Hyksos invasion as imagined in the 19th century by Hermann Vogel (19th century)
-
The Expulsion of the Hyksos(1906)
See also
[edit]- Mitanni
- Kassites
- Sea peoples
- Philistines
- Maryannu
- Sino-Babylonianism § Later theories
- Anra scarab (artifact)
Notes
[edit]- ^Approximate dates vary by source. Bietak gives c. 1640–1532 BC,[6]Schneider gives c. 1639–1521 BC,[7]and Stiebing gives c. 1630–1530 BC.[8]
- ^Spelling of the hieroglyphs in sources describing the archaeological record of the historical Hyksos: first set of characters is the singular, as appearing inAbisha the Hyksosin the tomb ofKhnumhotep II,c.1900 BC.[19]The second set is in the plural, as appears in the inscriptions of known Hyksos rulersSakir-Har,Semqen,KhyanandAperanat.[20]
- ^"Two separate misconceptions persist, both in the scholarship and more popular works, surrounding the word" Hyksos. "The first is that this term is the name of a defined and relatively large population group (see below), when in fact it is only a royal title held exclusively by individual rulers. Any standalone use of the word" Hyksos "in the following article refers specifically to the foreign kings of the 15th Dynasty."[29]"[Josephus] also misrepresents the Hyksos as a population group (ethnos) as opposed to a dynasty."[6]"Flavius Josephus used the designation" Hyksos "incorrectly as a kind of ethnic term for people of foreign origin who seized power in Egypt for a certain period. In this sense, for the sake of convenience, it is also used in the title and section headings of the present article. One should never forget, however, that, strictly spoken, the" Hyksos "were only the kings of the Fifteenth Dynasty, and of simultaneous minor dynasties, who took the title ḥqꜣw-ḫꜣswt."[30]
- ^While Schneider identifies each of the names in Menatho with a pharaoh, he does not hold to Manetho's order of the reigns. So, for instance, he identifies Sakir-Har with Archles/Assis, the sixth king in Manetho, but proposes he reigned first.[146]
- ^Identified with Salitis by Bietak.[70]
- ^This name appears as a separate individual preceding Apepi, but it appears to mean "brave ass" and may be a disparaging reference to Apepi.[147]
- ^In Eusebius and Africanus's epitomes of Manetho, "Apopis" appears in final position, while Archles appears as the fifth ruler. In Josephus, Assis is the final ruler and Apophis the fifth ruler. The association of the names Archles and Assis with one another is a modern reconstruction.[142]
- ^Redford argues that the name "suits neither Assis nor Apophis".[147]
- ^In the epitome of Manetho byEusebius,the total instead comes to 284 years.[132]
- ^This reading is based on a partially damaged section of the papyrus. Reconstructions of the damaged Turin King List proposed in 2018 would change the reading of years to up to 149 years (Ryholt) or between 160 and 180 years (Schneider).[76]
Citations
[edit]- ^abcdVan de Mieroop 2011,p. 131.
- ^abcBard 2015,p. 188.
- ^abWillems 2010,p. 96.
- ^abcBourriau 2000,p. 174.
- ^Bietak 2001,p. 136.
- ^abcdeBietak 2012,p. 1.
- ^Schneider 2006,p. 196.
- ^Stiebing 2009,p. 197.
- ^abcMourad 2015,p. 10.
- ^abIlin-Tomich 2016,p. 5.
- ^abBourriau 2000,pp. 177–178.
- ^abcMorenz & Popko 2010,p. 104.
- ^abcdefBourriau 2000,p. 182.
- ^abIlin-Tomich 2016,p. 12.
- ^abcdeIlin-Tomich 2016,p. 7.
- ^abMorenz & Popko 2010,pp. 108–109.
- ^abcFlammini 2015,p. 240.
- ^abcBen-Tor 2007,p. 1.
- ^Kamrin 2009.
- ^"The Sakir-Har door jamb inscription (slide 12)"(PDF).The Second Intermediate Period: The Hyksos.Archived(PDF)from the original on 2 February 2019.
- ^abSchneider 2008,p. 305.
- ^abcdeKamrin 2009,p. 25.
- ^abcMourad 2015,p. 9.
- ^Loprieno 2003,p. 144.
- ^Josephus 1926,p. 195.
- ^Morenz & Popko 2010,pp. 103–104.
- ^Verbrugghe & Wickersham 1996,p. 99.
- ^Candelora 2018,p. 53.
- ^Candelora 2018,pp. 46–47.
- ^Bietak 2010,p. 139.
- ^Candelora 2018,p. 65.
- ^Candelora 2017,pp. 208–209.
- ^Ryholt 1997,pp. 123–124.
- ^abcCurry 2018.
- ^Candelora 2017,p. 211.
- ^Candelora 2017,p. 204.
- ^Ryholt 1997,p. 123–125.
- ^abMüller 2018,p. 211.
- ^Candelora 2017,p. 216.
- ^Candelora 2017,pp. 206–208.
- ^abcBietak 2012,p. 2.
- ^Ryholt 2004.
- ^Hölbl 2001,p. 79.
- ^abcCandelora 2017,p. 209.
- ^Assmann 2003,p. 198.
- ^abFlammini 2015,p. 236.
- ^Bietak 2016,pp. 267–268.
- ^abRyholt 1997,p. 128.
- ^abcMourad 2015,p. 216.
- ^Mourad 2015,p. 11.
- ^Bietak 2019,p. 61.
- ^abIlin-Tomich 2016,p. 6.
- ^abVan de Mieroop 2011,p. 166.
- ^Woudhuizen 2006,p. 30.
- ^Glassman 2017,p. 479–480.
- ^Stantis, Chris; Maaranen, Nina (1 January 2021)."The people of Avaris: Intra-regional biodistance analysis using dental non-metric traits".Bioarchaeology of the Near East.
- ^abBright 2000,p. 97.
- ^Russmann & James 2001,pp. 67–68.
- ^Pritchard 2016,p. 230.
- ^Steiner & Killebrew 2014,p. 73.
- ^Raspe 1998,p. 126–128.
- ^Josephus 1926,p. 196.
- ^O'Connor 2009,pp. 116–117.
- ^Wilkinson 2013a,p.96.
- ^Daressy 1906,pp. 115–120.
- ^abcMourad 2015,p. 130.
- ^abBietak 2006,p. 285.
- ^Stantis, Chris; Kharobi, Arwa; Maaranen, Nina; Nowell, Geoff M.; Bietak, Manfred; Prell, Silvia; Schutkowski, Holger (15 July 2020)."Who were the Hyksos? Challenging traditional narratives using strontium isotope (87Sr/86Sr) analysis of human remains from ancient Egypt".PLOS ONE.15(7): e0235414.Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1535414S.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0235414.ISSN1932-6203.PMC7363063.PMID32667937.
- ^Stantis, Chris; Kharobi, Arwa; Maaranen, Nina; Macpherson, Colin; Bietak, Manfred; Prell, Silvia; Schutkowski, Holger (1 June 2021)."Multi-isotopic study of diet and mobility in the northeastern Nile Delta".Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences.13(6): 105.Bibcode:2021ArAnS..13..105S.doi:10.1007/s12520-021-01344-x.ISSN1866-9565.S2CID235271929.
- ^abcdefgBietak 2012,p. 4.
- ^abBietak 2019,p. 47.
- ^Bietak 1999,p. 377.
- ^abBourriau 2000,p. 180.
- ^abcdefBietak 2012,p. 5.
- ^Ryholt 1997,p. 186.
- ^abAston 2018,pp. 31–32.
- ^abBourriau 2000,p. 183.
- ^Mourad 2015,pp. 43–44.
- ^Mourad 2015,p. 48.
- ^Mourad 2015,p. 49–50.
- ^Mourad 2015,p. 21.
- ^Mourad 2015,pp. 44–48.
- ^abMourad 2015,pp. 129–130.
- ^O'Connor 2009,pp. 115–116.
- ^Kopetzky & Bietak 2016,p. 362.
- ^"Hyksos headband".www.metmuseum.org.
- ^Mourad 2015,pp. 51–55.
- ^Mourad 2015,pp. 56–57.
- ^Mourad 2015,pp. 57–61.
- ^Mourad 2015,p. 19.
- ^Popko 2013,p. 3.
- ^Popko 2013,p. 2.
- ^Morenz & Popko 2010,p. 105.
- ^Morenz & Popko 2010,p. 109.
- ^Popko 2013,pp. 1–2.
- ^abcdefgPopko 2013,p. 4.
- ^abcVan de Mieroop 2011,p. 160.
- ^abStiebing 2009,p. 200.
- ^abcVan de Mieroop 2011,p. 161.
- ^Wilkinson 2013,p. 547.
- ^Ritner et al. 2003,p. 346.
- ^Van de Mieroop 2011,p. 177.
- ^Lichthelm 2019,p. 321.
- ^Daressy 1906,p. 117.
- ^Montet 1968,p. 80. "Others were later added to them, things which came from the pharaoh Ahmose, like the axe decorated with a griffin and a likeness of the king slaying a Hyksos, with other axes and daggers."
- ^Morgan 2010,p. 308. A color photograph.
- ^Baker & Baker 2001,p. 86.
- ^Schneider 2006,p. 195.
- ^Bourriau 2000,pp. 201–202.
- ^Josephus 1926,pp. 197–199.
- ^Bietak 2010,pp. 170–171.
- ^Bietak 2012,p. 6.
- ^abStiebing 2009,p. 168.
- ^Candelora, Danielle."The Hyksos".www.arce.org.American Research Center in Egypt.
- ^Roy 2011,pp. 291–292.
- ^Curry 2018,p.3."A head from a statue of an official dating to the 12th or 13th Dynasty (1802–1640 B.C.) sports the mushroom-shaped hairstyle commonly worn by non-Egyptian immigrants from western Asia such as the Hyksos."
- ^Potts 2012,p. 841.
- ^Bietak 2012,p. 3.
- ^Bietak 2012,pp. 3–4.
- ^Ben-Tor 2007,p. 2.
- ^Ryholt 1997,p. 118.
- ^abBietak 1999,p. 378.
- ^Ilin-Tomich 2016,pp. 7–8.
- ^abBourriau 2000,p. 179.
- ^Ryholt 2018,p. 235.
- ^Ryholt 1997,pp. 119–120.
- ^Aston 2018,p. 18.
- ^Ilin-Tomich 2016,pp. 6–7.
- ^Aston 2018,p. 16.
- ^Ryholt 1997,p. 256.
- ^Aston 2018,pp. 15–17.
- ^abcSchneider 2006,p. 194.
- ^Ryholt 1997,p. 201.
- ^Aston 2018,p. 15.
- ^Polz 2018,p. 217.
- ^Ryholt 1997,pp. 121–122.
- ^von Beckerath 1999,pp. 120–121.
- ^Müller 2018,p. 210.
- ^Ryholt 1997,p. 409.
- ^Bietak 2012,pp. 2–3.
- ^abAston 2018,p. 17.
- ^abRedford 1992,p. 107.
- ^Redford 1992,p. 110.
- ^Ryholt 1997,p. 125.
- ^Schneider 2006,pp. 193–194.
- ^Schneider 2006,p. –194.
- ^abRedford 1992,p. 108.
- ^Ilin-Tomich 2016,p. 11.
- ^Ilin-Tomich 2016,p. 3.
- ^abWeigall 2016,p. 188.
- ^ab"Statue".The British Museum.EA987.
- ^Morenz & Popko 2010,p. 108.
- ^Ilin-Tomich 2016,p. 9.
- ^abBunson 2014,pp.2–3.
- ^Bunson 2014,p.197.
- ^Flammini 2015,pp. 236–237.
- ^Ritner et al. 2003,p. 70.
- ^Ryholt 1997,p. 323.
- ^Flammini 2015,pp. 239–243.
- ^Bietak 2012,pp. 1–4.
- ^abcel-Shahawy 2005,p. 160.
- ^Griffith 1891,p. 28. "The name of Khyan on the statue from Bubastis is written over an erasure, that the statue is of the XIIth Dynasty, and that Khyan was a Hyksôs king."
- ^abcBietak 1999,p. 379.
- ^Müller 2018,p. 212.
- ^abBard 2015,p. 213.
- ^Van de Mieroop 2011,pp. 151–153.
- ^Redford 1992,p. 122.
- ^Candelora 2018,p. 54.
- ^Sayce 1895,p. 17.
- ^Bietak 2016,p. 268.
- ^Wilkinson 2013,p. 191.
- ^Mourad 2015,p. 15.
- ^abHernández 2014,p. 112.
- ^Herslund 2018,p. 151.
- ^Stiebing 2009,p. 166.
- ^Wegner 2015,p. 76.
- ^abVan de Mieroop 2011,p. 149.
- ^ab"Hyksos axe".www.metmuseum.org.
- ^"Spearhead".www.metmuseum.org.
- ^"Whip handle".www.metmuseum.org.
- ^abcdMourad 2015,p. 129.
- ^Ryholt 1997,pp. 138–139, 142.
- ^abcRyholt 1997,pp. 138–139.
- ^Ryholt 1997,p. 141.
- ^Burke 2019,p. 80.
- ^Keel 1996,pp. 125–126.
- ^Keel 1996,p. 126.
- ^O'Connor 2009,p. 109.
- ^Bietak 1999,pp. 377–378.
- ^Bourriau 2000,p. 177.
- ^Ryholt 1997,pp. 148–149.
- ^Assmann 2003,p. 197.
- ^Josephus 1926,p. 199.
- ^Assmann 2018,p. 39.
- ^Josephus 1926,pp. 255–265.
- ^Assmann 2003,pp. 227–228.
- ^Assmann 2018,p. 40.
- ^Raspe 1998,p. 132.
- ^Gruen 2016,p. 214.
- ^Moore & Kelle 2011,pp. 91.
- ^Redford 1992,p. 412–413.
- ^Assmann 2014,pp. 26–27.
- ^Faust 2015,p. 477.
- ^Redmount 2001,p. 78.
- ^Bietak 2015,p. 32.
- ^Vos 1999,p. 75.
- ^Geobey 2017,pp. 27–30. Notes that the Hebrew word is completely unrelated to the term "Hyksos."
- ^Bietak 2015,p. 20.
- ^Redford 1992,p. 429.
- ^Moore & Kelle 2011,p. 93.
- ^Grabbe 2017,p. 36.
- ^Geraty 2015,p. 58.
- ^Morenz & Popko 2010,p. 102.
- ^Van de Mieroop 2011,pp. 162–163.
- ^Ryholt 2004,p. 138.
- ^Ryholt 2004,pp. 142–143.
- ^Ryholt 2004,p. 143.
- ^Höflmayer 2015,p. 191.
- ^Höflmayer 2015,pp. 195–196.
- ^Gabriel 2009,p. 204.
- ^Allen 2000,p. 299.
- ^Höflmayer 2015,p. 202.
- ^Schneider 2018,p. 78.
- ^Hawass & Vannini 2009,p. 120. "The foreigners of the fourth register, with long hairstyles and calf-length fringed robes, are labeled Chiefs of Retjenu, the ancient name tor the Syrian region. Like the Nubians, they come with animals, in this case horses, an elephant, and a bear; they also offer weapons and vessels most likely filled with precious substance."
- ^Zakrzewski, Shortland & Rowland 2015,p. 268.
- ^Richardson 2013,p. 14.
- ^Van de Mieroop 2011,p. 163.
- ^Assmann 2003,pp. 199–200.
- ^Van de Mieroop 2011,p. 164.
- ^Van de Mieroop 2011,pp. 164–165.
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Further reading
[edit]- Forstner-Müller, Irene (2022),"The Hyksos State",The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East,vol. III,Oxford University Press,pp. 1–47,doi:10.1093/oso/9780190687601.003.0023,ISBN978-0-19-068760-1
External links
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