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Assembly of the International Space Station

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Animation of the assembly of the International Space Station

The process of assembling theInternational Space Station(ISS) has been under way since the 1990s.Zarya,the first ISS module, was launched by aProton rocketon 20 November 1998. TheSTS-88Space Shuttle mission followed two weeks afterZaryawas launched, bringingUnity,the first of three node modules, and connecting it toZarya.This bare 2-module core of the ISS remained uncrewed for the next one and a half years, until in July 2000 the Russian moduleZvezdawas launched by a Proton rocket, allowing a maximum crew of three astronauts or cosmonauts to be on the ISS permanently.

The ISS has a pressurized volume of approximately 1,000 cubic metres (35,000 cu ft), a mass of approximately 410,000 kilograms (900,000 lb), approximately 100 kilowatts of power output, a truss 108.4 metres (356 ft) long, modules 74 metres (243 ft) long, and a crew of seven.[1]Building the complete station required more than 40 assembly flights. As of 2020,36 Space Shuttle flightsdelivered ISS elements. Other assembly flights consisted of modules lifted by theFalcon 9,RussianProtonrocket or, in the case ofPirsandPoisk,theSoyuz-Urocket.

Some of the larger modules include:

Logistics

[edit]
International Space StationmockupatJohnson Space CenterinHouston, Texas.

Thespace stationis located inorbitaround theEarthat an altitude of approximately 410 km (250 mi), a type of orbit usually termedlow Earth orbit(the actual height varies over time by several kilometers due toatmospheric dragandreboosts). It orbits Earth in aperiodof about 90 minutes; by August 2007 it had completed more than 50,000 orbits since launch ofZaryaon 20 November 1998.

A total of 14 main pressurized modules were scheduled to be part of the ISS by its completion date in 2010.[2]A number of smaller pressurized sections will be adjunct to them (Soyuz spacecraft(permanently 2 as lifeboats – 6 months rotations),Progresstransporters (2 or more), theQuestandPirsairlocks, as well as periodically theH-II Transfer Vehicle).

TheUS Orbital Segmentwas completed in 2011 after the installation of theAlpha Magnetic Spectrometerduring theSTS-134mission. TheRussian Orbital Segmentassembly has been on an indefinite hiatus since the installation of theRassvetmodule in 2010 during theSTS-132mission. TheRassvetmodule on the ISS right now was originally supposed to be the on-ground dynamic testing mock-up of the now-cancelledScience Power Platform.TheNaukascience laboratory module contains new crew quarters, life support equipment that can produce oxygen and water, and a new galley. TheNaukawas originally supposed to be delivered to the ISS in 2007 but cost overruns and quality control problems delayed it for over a decade. TheNaukamodule finally launched in July 2021 and docked to the nadir port of Zvezda module after several days of free flight[3]followed by thePrichalwhich launched on 24 November 2021.

There are plans to add 2 or 3 more modules that would attach toPrichalduring the mid-2020s. Adding more Russian modules will help theZvezdamodule greatly becauseZvezda'soriginally installed central command computers no longer work (threeThinkPadlaptops are now theZvezda'scentral command computers) and itsElektron oxygen generatorsare not replaceable and failed again for a short time in 2020 after multiple malfunctions throughout their history.[4]In Russian modules all the hardware is launched with the equipment permanently installed. It is impossible to replace hardware like in the US Orbital Segment with its very wide 51 inch (105 cm) hatch openings between modules. This potential problem with theZvezdawas made apparent when in October 2020 the toilet, oven, and Elektron all malfunctioned at the same time and the cosmonauts onboard had to make emergency repairs.[5]

The ISS, when completed, will consist of a set of communicating pressurized modules connected to atruss,on which four large pairs ofphotovoltaicmodules (solar panels) are attached. The pressurized modules and the truss are perpendicular: the truss spanning fromstarboardtoportand the habitable zone extending on theaft-forward axis. Although during the construction the stationattitudemay vary, when all four photovoltaic modules are in their definitive position the aft-forward axis will be parallel to the velocity vector.[6]

In addition to the assembly and utilization flights, approximately 30 Progress spacecraft flights are required to provide logistics until 2010. Experimental equipment, fuel and consumables are and will be delivered by all vehicles visiting the ISS: theSpaceX Dragon,the Russian Progress, the EuropeanATVand the JapaneseHTV,and space stationdownmasswill be carried back to Earth facilities on the Dragon.[7]

Columbiadisaster and changes in construction plans

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Columbialifting off on itsfinal mission.

Disaster and consequences

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10 March 2001 – TheLeonardoMulti-Purpose Logistics Modulerests inSpace ShuttleDiscovery's payload bay duringSTS-102.

After theSpace ShuttleColumbiadisasteron 1 February 2003, there was some uncertainty over the future of the ISS. The subsequent two and a half-year suspension of the U.S.Space Shuttle program,followed by problems with resuming flight operations in 2005, were major obstacles.[citation needed]

The Space Shuttle program resumed flight on 26 July 2005, with theSTS-114mission ofDiscovery.This mission to the ISS was intended both to test new safety measures implemented since theColumbiadisaster and deliver supplies to the station. Although the mission succeeded safely, it was not without risk; foam was shed by theexternal tank,leading NASA to announce future missions would be grounded until this issue was resolved.[citation needed]

Between theColumbiadisaster and the resumption of Shuttle launches, crew exchanges were carried out solely using the RussianSoyuz spacecraft.Starting withExpedition 7,two-astronaut caretaker crews were launched in contrast to the previously launched crews of three. Because the ISS had not been visited by a shuttle for an extended period, a larger than planned amount of waste accumulated, temporarily hindering station operations in 2004. HoweverProgresstransports and theSTS-114shuttle flight took care of this problem.[citation needed]

Changes in construction plans

[edit]
Construction of the International Space Station over New Zealand.

Many changes were made to the originally planned ISS, even before theColumbiadisaster. Modules and other structures were cancelled or replaced, and the number of Shuttle flights to the ISS was reduced from previously planned numbers. However, more than 80% of the hardware intended to be part of the ISS in the late 1990s was orbited and is now part of the ISS's configuration.[citation needed]

During the shuttle stand-down, construction of the ISS was halted and the science conducted aboard was limited due to the crew size of two, adding to earlier delays due to Shuttle problems and the Russian space agency's budget constraints.[citation needed]

In March 2006, a meeting of the heads of the five participating space agencies accepted the new ISS construction schedule that planned to complete the ISS by 2010.[8]

As of May 2009, a crew of six has been established following 12 Shuttle construction flights after the second "Return to Flight" missionSTS-121.Requirements for stepping up the crew size included enhanced environmental support on the ISS, a second Soyuz permanently docked on the station to function as a second 'lifeboat', more frequent Progress flights to provide double the amount of consumables, more fuel for orbit raising maneuvers, and a sufficient supply line of experimental equipment.[citation needed]As of November 2020, the crew capacity has increased to seven due to the launch ofCrew DragonbySpaceX,which can carry 4 astronauts to the ISS.

Later additions included theBigelow Expandable Activity Module(BEAM) in 2016, and numerous Russian components are planned as part of the in-orbit construction ofOPSEK.[citation needed]

Assembly sequence

[edit]
ISS elements
Structure of the International Space Station in mid-June 2023, after the installation of sixiROSAs

The ISS is made up of 16 pressurized modules: six Russian modules (Zarya,Zvezda,Poisk,Rassvet,Nauka,andPrichal), eight US modules (BEAM,[9]Leonardo,Harmony,Quest,Tranquility,Unity,Cupola,andDestiny), one Japanese module (Kibō) and one European module (Columbus).

At least one Russian pressurized module (Pirs) is deorbited till now.[10]

Although not permanently docked with the ISS,Multi-Purpose Logistics Modules(MPLMs) formed part of the ISS during some Shuttle missions. An MPLM was attached toHarmony(initially toUnity) and was used for resupply and logistics flights.[citation needed]

Spacecraft attached to the ISS also extend the pressurized volume. At least one Soyuz spacecraft is always docked as a 'lifeboat' and is replaced every six months by a new Soyuz as part of crew rotation. Table below shows the sequence in which these components were added to the ISS.[11]Decommissioned and deorbited Modules are shown in gray.

Element Assembly
flight 		Launch
date 		Launch
vehicle 		Length Diameter Mass Isolated View Station View
Zarya(FGB) 1A/R 1998-11-20 Proton-K 12.56 m (41.2 ft) 4.1 m (13 ft) 24,968 kg (55,045 lb)
Unity(Node 1) 2A 1998-12-04 Space ShuttleEndeavour(STS-88) 5.5 m (18 ft) 4.3 m (14 ft) 11,895 kg (26,224 lb)
PMA-1 1.86 m (6 ft 1 in) 1.9 m (6 ft 3 in) 1,589 kg (3,503 lb)
PMA-2 1.86 m (6 ft 1 in) 1.9 m (6 ft 3 in) 1,376 kg (3,034 lb)
Zvezda(Service Module) 1R 2000-07-12 Proton-K 13.1 m (43 ft) 4.2 m (14 ft) 24,604 kg (54,243 lb)
Z1 Truss 3A 2000-10-11 Space ShuttleDiscovery(STS-92) 4.6 m (15 ft) 4.2 m (14 ft) 8,755 kg (19,301 lb)
PMA-3 1.86 m (6 ft 1 in) 1.9 m (6 ft 3 in) 1,183 kg (2,608 lb)
P6 Truss & Solar Arrays 4A 2000-11-30 Space ShuttleEndeavour(STS-97) 18.3 m (60 ft) 10.7 m (35 ft) deployed 15,824 kg (34,886 lb)
Destiny(US Laboratory) 5A 2001-02-07 Space ShuttleAtlantis(STS-98) 9.2 m (30 ft) 4.3 m (14 ft) 14,515 kg (32,000 lb)
ESP-1 5A.1 2001-03-08 Space ShuttleDiscovery(STS-102) 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in) 0.46 m (1 ft 6 in)
Canadarm2(SSRMS) 6A 2001-04-19 Space ShuttleEndeavour(STS-100) 17.6 m (58 ft) 35 cm (14 in) 1,800 kg (4,000 lb)
Quest(Joint Airlock) 7A 2001-07-12 Space ShuttleAtlantis(STS-104) 5.5 m (18 ft) 4.0 m (13.1 ft) 9,923 kg (21,876 lb)
Pirs(Docking Compartment) 4R 2001-09-14 Soyuz-U(Progress M-SO1) 4.9 m (16 ft) 2.55 m (8.4 ft) 3,838 kg (8,461 lb)
S0 Truss[12] 8A 2002-04-08 Space ShuttleAtlantis(STS-110) 13.4 m (44 ft) 4.6 m (15 ft) 13,971 kg (30,801 lb)
Mobile Base System UF2 2002-06-05 Space ShuttleEndeavour(STS-111) 1,438 kg (3,170 lb)
S1 Truss 9A 2002-10-07 Space ShuttleAtlantis(STS-112) 13.7 m (45 ft) 4.6 m (15 ft) 14,124 kg (31,138 lb)
P1 Truss 11A 2002-11-23 Space ShuttleEndeavour(STS-113) 13.7 m (45 ft) 4.6 m (15 ft) 14,003 kg (30,871 lb)
ESP-2 LF1 2005-07-26 Space ShuttleDiscovery(STS-114) 2.6 m (8 ft 6 in) 4.3 m (14 ft)
P3/P4 Truss & Solar Arrays[13] 12A 2006-09-09 Space ShuttleAtlantis(STS-115) 13.7 m (45 ft) 4.6 m (15 ft) 15,824 kg (34,886 lb)
P5 Truss[14] 12A.1 2006-12-09 Space ShuttleDiscovery(STS-116) 3.37 m (11.1 ft) 4.55 m (14.9 ft) 1,864 kg (4,109 lb)
S3/S4 Truss & Solar Arrays 13A 2007-06-08 Space ShuttleAtlantis(STS-117) 13.7 m (45 ft) 10.7 m (35 ft) 15,824 kg (34,886 lb)
S5 Truss 13A.1 2007-08-08 Space ShuttleEndeavour(STS-118) 3.37 m (11.1 ft) 4.55 m (14.9 ft) 1,864 kg (4,109 lb)
ESP-3 2.6 m (8 ft 6 in) 4.3 m (14 ft)
Harmony(Node 2) 10A 2007-10-23 Space ShuttleDiscovery(STS-120) 7.2 m

(24 ft)

4.4 m

(14 ft)

14,300 kg (31,500 lb)
Relocation of
P6 Truss 		18.3 m (60 ft) 10.7 m (35 ft) deployed 15,824 kg (34,886 lb)
Columbus(European Laboratory)[15] 1E 2008-02-07 Space ShuttleAtlantis(STS-122) 7 m

(23 ft)

4.5 m

(15 ft)

12,800 kg (28,219 lb)
Dextre(SPDM) 1J/A 2008-03-11 Space ShuttleEndeavour(STS-123) 3.5 m (11 ft) 7 m (23 ft) outstretched 1,662 kg (3,664 lb)
Experiment Logistics Module(ELM) 4.21 m (13.8 ft) 4.39 m (14.4 ft) 8,386 kg (18,488 lb)
JEM Pressurized Module(JEM-PM)[16][17] 1J 2008-05-31 Space ShuttleDiscovery(STS-124) 11.19 m (36.7 ft) 4.39 m (14.4 ft) 15,900 kg (35,100 lb)
JEM Remote Manipulator System(JEMRMS) 10 m (33 ft)
S6 Truss & Solar Arrays 15A 2009-03-15 Space ShuttleDiscovery(STS-119) 18.3 m (60 ft) 10.7 m (35 ft) deployed 15,824 kg (34,886 lb)
KiboExposed Facility(JEM-EF) 2J/A 2009-07-15 Space ShuttleEndeavour(STS-127)
Poisk(MRM-2)[18][19] 5R 2009-11-10 Soyuz-U(Progress M-MIM2) 4.049 m (13.28 ft) 2.55 m (8 ft 4 in) 3,670 kg (8,090 lb)
ELC-1 ULF3 2009-11-16 Space ShuttleAtlantis(STS-129) 6,280 kg (13,850 lb)
ELC-2 6,100 kg (13,400 lb)
Tranquility(Node 3) 20A 2010-02-08 Space ShuttleEndeavour(STS-130) 6.706 m (22.00 ft) 4.48 m (14.7 ft) 19,000 kg (42,000 lb)
Cupola 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) 2.95 m (9 ft 8 in) 1,880 kg (4,140 lb)
Rassvet(MRM-1)[20] ULF4 2010-05-14 Space ShuttleAtlantis(STS-132) 6 m (20 ft) 2.35 m (7 ft 9 in) 8,015 kg (17,670 lb)
NaukaScience Airlock 1,050 kg (2,310 lb)
NaukaRTOd Radiator
ERAportable workpost
Leonardo(PMM) ULF5 2011-02-24 Space ShuttleDiscovery(STS-133) 6.6 m

(22 ft)

4.57 m (15.0 ft) 4,082 kg (8,999 lb)
ELC-4 3,735 kg (8,234 lb)
AMS-02 ULF6 2011-05-16 Space ShuttleEndeavour(STS-134) 7,500 kg (16,500 lb)
OBSS 15.24 m (50.0 ft) 35 cm (14 in)
ELC-3 6,361 kg (14,024 lb)
HRSGF CRS SpX-2 2013-03-13 Falcon 9(SpaceX CRS-2)
BEAM[21] CRS SpX-8 2016-04-08 Falcon 9(SpaceX CRS-8) 4.01 m (13.2 ft) 3.23 m (10.6 ft) 1,413 kg (3,115 lb)
IDA-2[22][23] CRS SpX-9 2016-07-18 Falcon 9(SpaceX CRS-9) 110 cm (43 in) 160 cm (63 in) 526 kg (1,160 lb)
IDA-3[24] CRS SpX-18 2019-07-25 Falcon 9(SpaceX CRS-18) 110 cm (43 in) 160 cm (63 in) 526 kg (1,160 lb)
Bartolomeo[25] CRS SpX-20 2020-03-06 Falcon 9(SpaceX CRS-20).
Nanoracks Bishop Airlock CRS SpX-21 2020-12-06 Falcon 9(SpaceX CRS-21) 1.80 m (5 ft 11 in) 2.014 m (6 ft 7.3 in) 1,059 kg (2,335 lb)
iROSA1 and 2 CRS SpX-22 2021-06-03 Falcon 9(SpaceX CRS-22) 325 kg (717 lb)
Nauka(MLM-U)[26] 3R 2021-07-21 Proton-M 13 m (43 ft) 4.25 m (13.9 ft) 20,300 kg (44,800 lb)
European Robotic Arm 11.3 m (37 ft) 630 kg (1,390 lb)
NaukaSSPA-GM temporary docking adapter
MLM Means of Attachment of Large payloads
(LCCS Part) 		79P 2021-10-28 Soyuz 2.1a(Progress MS-18)
Prichal 6R 2021-11-24 Soyuz 2.1b(Progress M-UM) 4.91 m (16.1 ft) 3.3 m (11 ft) 3,890 kg (8,580 lb)
MLM Means of Attachment of Large payloads
(SCCS Part) 		82P 2022-10-26 Soyuz 2.1a(Progress MS-21)
iROSA3 and 4 CRS SpX-26 2022-11-26 Falcon 9(SpaceX CRS-26) 325 kg (717 lb)
iROSA5 and 6 CRS SpX-28 2023-06-05 Falcon 9(SpaceX CRS-28) 325 kg (717 lb)

Future elements

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  • In January 2021, NASA announced plans to upgrade the station's solar arrays by installingnew arrayson top of all the station's eight existing arrays.[27]Six were delivered in three pairs, each pair aboardSpaceX CRS-22in June 2021,SpaceX CRS-26in November 2022 andSpaceX CRS-28in June 2023.[28]Two more will be delivered in one pair aboard a future mission in 2025.[29]
  • Axiom Spaceplans on launching several modules to connect where PMA-2 is currently at as part of the commercialAxiom Stationproject. At the end of the ISS's life, Axiom Station could be detached from the ISS and continue in orbit as a commercial low orbit platform.[30]

Cancelled modules

[edit]
Diagram of the planned ISS circa 1999

Unused modules

[edit]

The following module was built, but has not been used in future plans for the ISS as of January 2021.

  • AmericanNode 4– Also known as the Docking Hub System (DHS),[34]would allow the station to have more docking ports for visiting vehicles and would allow inflatable habitats and technology demonstrations to be tested as part of the station.[35]

Cost

[edit]

TheISSis credited as the most expensive item ever built, costing around $150 billion (USD),[36]making it more expensive than Skylab (costing US$2.2 billion)[37]and Mir (US$4.2 billion).[38]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^"4 Astronauts Aboard SpaceX Crew Dragon Successfully Dock With Space Station".www.npr.org.17 November 2020.Retrieved16 August2021.
  2. ^"Consolidated Launch Manifest".NASA.Archivedfrom the original on 7 July 2006.Retrieved15 July2006.
  3. ^"Новости. Подготовка" Науки "– идет четвёртый стартовый день".www.roscosmos.ru.Retrieved2 November2021.
  4. ^"Oxygen supply system deactivated in Russian ISS section due to malfunction".TASS.Retrieved23 January2023.
  5. ^Retrieved 15 December 2020
  6. ^"What are the ISS attitudes?".NASA. Archived fromthe original(Flash)on 2 September 2006.Retrieved11 September2006.
  7. ^ Black, Charles (24 December 2012)."When Dragon made commercial spaceflight a reality".SEN.Retrieved26 December2012.[Dragon's] ability to return goods is currently unique because all the other regular supply ships – Europe's Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV), Japan's HTV (or "Kounotori" ) and Russia's Progress – all burn up during controlled re-entry.
  8. ^Coppinger, Rob (3 March 2006)."NASA commits to Shuttle missions to International Space Station".FlightGlobal.Retrieved16 September2006.
  9. ^Retrieved 27 November 2017.
  10. ^Gebhardt, Chris (25 July 2021)."Farewell, Pirs; ISS module decommissioned, destructively reentered".NASASpaceFlight.com.Retrieved9 April2022.
  11. ^"Reference Guide to the International Space Station"(PDF).NASA.September 2015.Retrieved8 June2019.
  12. ^"Space Station Assembly: Integrated Truss Structure".NASA.Archivedfrom the original on 7 December 2007.Retrieved2 December2007.
  13. ^"P3 and P4 to expand station capabilities, providing a third and fourth solar array"(PDF).Boeing. July 2006.Retrieved2 December2007.
  14. ^"STS-118 Mission Overview: Build the Station… Build the Future"(PDF).NASA PAO. July 2007.Archived(PDF)from the original on 1 December 2007.Retrieved2 December2007.
  15. ^"Columbus laboratory".ESA. 10 January 2009.Archivedfrom the original on 30 March 2009.Retrieved6 March2009.
  16. ^"About Kibo".JAXA. 25 September 2008. Archived fromthe originalon 10 March 2009.Retrieved6 March2009.
  17. ^"Kibo Japanese Experiment Module".NASA. 23 November 2007.Archivedfrom the original on 23 October 2008.Retrieved22 November2008.
  18. ^Zak, Anatoly."Docking Compartment-1 and 2".RussianSpaceWeb.com.Archivedfrom the original on 10 February 2009.Retrieved26 March2009.
  19. ^Bergin, Chris (9 November 2009)."Russian module launches via Soyuz for Thursday ISS docking".NASASpaceflight.com.Archivedfrom the original on 13 November 2009.Retrieved10 November2009.
  20. ^"NASA Extends Contract With Russia's Federal Space Agency"(Press release). NASA. 9 April 2007.Archivedfrom the original on 23 June 2007.Retrieved15 June2007.
  21. ^"NASA to Test Bigelow Expandable Module on Space Station".NASA. 16 January 2013.Retrieved16 January2013.
  22. ^Jason Rhian (18 July 2016)."SpaceX Conducts Second Ground Landing After Launch Of CRS-9 Dragon To ISS".Spaceflight Insider.
  23. ^Harwood, William (19 August 2016)."Spacewalkers attach docking adapter to space station for commercial vehicles".Spaceflight.Retrieved20 August2016.
  24. ^"Spacewalkers Complete Installation of Second Commercial Docking Port – Space Station".blogs.nasa.gov.
  25. ^"Successful launch for Airbus' Bartolomeo".Airbus(Press release). 9 March 2020.Retrieved4 January2021.
  26. ^"FGB-based Multipurpose Lab Module (MLM-U)".Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Centre. Archived fromthe originalon 27 September 2007.Retrieved31 October2008.
  27. ^"NASA to upgrade space station solar arrays".SpaceNews.12 January 2021.
  28. ^"New solar arrays ready to upgrade International Space Station's power grid".Spaceflight Now. 2 June 2021.Retrieved19 August2022.
  29. ^Davenport, Justin (15 June 2023)."ISS finishes initial iROSA upgrade with two EVAs this month".NASASpaceFlight.com.Retrieved18 June2023.
  30. ^"Axiom Commercial Space Station".Axiom Space.
  31. ^"Nautilus X Holderman – 1 26 11 | PDF | Flight Controller | International Space Station".Scribd.
  32. ^"Научно-энергетический модуль запустят на" Ангаре "с Восточного"[The Science Power Module will be launched on an Angara from Vostochny].Roscosmos(in Russian). 24 April 2021.Retrieved26 April2021.
  33. ^Zak, Anatoly (16 April 2021)."Russian Orbital Service Station, ROSS".RussianSpaceWeb.Retrieved26 April2021.
  34. ^Harding, Pete (20 December 2010)."ISS Managers review long-term configuration of International Space Station".
  35. ^"Spaceflight Now | Breaking News | Test article could facilitate space station applications".spaceflightnow.com.
  36. ^"Is The International Space Station The Most Expensive Single Item Ever Built?".Science 2.0.27 August 2014.Retrieved3 May2018.
  37. ^"The Space Review: Costs of US piloted programs".www.thespacereview.com.Retrieved3 May2018.
  38. ^Tyler, Patrick E. (24 March 2001)."Russians Find Pride, and Regret, in Mir's Splashdown".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331.Retrieved3 May2018.
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