Ibadi Islam

For other uses, seeIbadi (disambiguation).

Ibadism
الإباضية‎ al-ʾIbāḍiyya
The Ibadi Mosque of Guellala inJerba,Tunisia
Type	School of Islam
Classification	Kharijism
Theology	Monotheism
Language	Classical Arabic
Territory	Majority reside in: Oman Minority reside in: Algeria(Mzab) Libya(Nafusa) Tunisia(Djerba) Tanzania(Zanzibar)
Founder	Abdallah ibn Ibad
Origin	c. 692 AD Basra
Members	c.2.72 million– 7 million

TheIbadi movementorIbadism(Arabic:الإباضية,romanized:al-ʾIbāḍiyya,Arabic pronunciation:[alʔibaːˈdˤijja]) is a branch inside Islam, which many believe is descended from the Kharijites.The followers of Ibadism are known as theIbadisor, as they call themselves,The People of Truth and Integrity(Arabic:أهل الحقّ والاستقامة).

Ibadism emerged around 60 years after the Islamic prophetMuhammad's death in 632 ADas a moderate school of theKhawarijmovement, although contemporary Ibāḍīs strongly object to being classified as Kharijites.Ibadis consider and view themselves like Shia as being the oldest and most genuine sect ofIslam.

Today, the largest of these communities and the most prosperous is inOmanin the southeast peninsula of Arabia. It is also practiced to a lesser extent inAlgeria(Mzab),Tunisia(Djerba),Libya(Nafusa), andTanzania(Zanzibar).

History

Background

Main article:Kharijites

The Ibadis emerged as a moderate school of theKharijites,an Islamic sect that originated from theMuhakkima(محكمة) and al-Haruriyya (الحرورية). The Muhakkima and al-Haruriyya were supporters ofAliin theFirst Fitnawho abandoned theAlidcause after rejecting arbitration between Ali andMu'awiya Iat theBattle of Siffinin 657 CE.

Following the Battle of Siffin, the Kharijites became involved in almost constant conflict with supporters of both the Alids and Umayyads. The Kharijites were organised inside major Muslim settlements, often becoming involved in local rebellions against Umayyad authorities. After theSecond Fitnacommenced in 680 CE, the Kharijites gradually split into four principal groups (usul al-Khawarij) of varying levels of moderation and extremism. The Ibadi school emerged as a moderate grouping inBasra,based on the teachings ofAbdallah ibn Ibadof theBanu Tamim,who was recognised, perhaps posthumously, asimamby his followers.

Kharijite split

The Ibadi school of Kharijites traces its origins to the aftermath of thesiege of Meccain 683 CE. Abd Allāh ibn Ibāḍ was one of a group of Basran Kharijites who, under the leadership ofNafi ibn al-Azraq,joined the defenders of the city ofMeccafighting against theUmayyadsin the early stages of the second Muslim civil war. After the siege was lifted, the Kharijites were disappointed by the Mecca-based CaliphAbd Allah ibn al-Zubayr's refusal to denounce the late CaliphUthmānand returned to Basra. Once back in Basra, they were imprisoned by the Umayyad governorUbayd Allah ibn Ziyad.

The Kharijite prisoners of Basra were freed after the city overthrew Umayyad rule in support of the rival CaliphAbd Allah ibn al-Zubayrin late 683 or early 684.After being freed, Ibn al-Azraq led many of the Kharijites to the city ofAhvazinKhuzestan,denouncing the Basrans for their support of Ibn al-Zubayr and accusing them of being"polytheists".Ibn Ibāḍ remained in Basraand wrote a defence of other Kharijites who had also chosen to stay behind. By defending the Basrans against the charge of polytheism and accusing them of no more than "ingratitude", Ibn Ibāḍ justified the decision of true Muslims to live among them. According toAbū Mikhnaf,who died in 774 and is the earliest source on Ibn Ibāḍ's life, Ibn Ibāḍ also wrote against the intermediate position of ʿAbd Allāh ibn al-Ṣaffār, founder of theSufrisect of Kharijites. According toal-Madāʾinī,Ibn Ibāḍ also received opposition from Abū Bayhas, founder of the Bayhasiyya Kharijite sect, who took a position closer to Ibn al-Azraq's.

In Basra, a school of followers led byJābir ibn Zaydbegan to develop a moderate Kharijite doctrine from Ibn-Ibadi's teachings.Missionaries were sent to propagate this doctrine in different parts of the Caliphate including Oman, Yemen, Hadramawt, Khurasan, and North Africa, although the leaders in Basra adopted the policy ofkitman:concealing beliefs so as to avoid persecution after the Umayyads retook Basra underAbd al-Malik ibn Marwanin 691.

Omani Imamate

Jābir ibn Zayd was eventually recognised as the secondImam of the Ibadissometime after the death of Ibn Ibad.Ibn Zayd'scriticisms of the narrations of Muhammad's companionsformed the corpus of the Ibadi interpretation of Islamic law.The position of Ibadi Imam was elected, unlike the dynastic succession of the Sunnis and Shi'as, and was not exclusive, with individual communities encouraged to elect their Imam.These imams exercised political, spiritual and military functions.

In 745,Talib al-Haqqestablished thefirst Ibadi statein theHadhramautand succeeded in capturingYemenin 746 from the Umayyad Caliphate. The Ibadi insurrection then spread to theHejaz,withAbu Hamza al-Mukhtarconquering Mecca and Medina. In response, the CaliphMarwan IIled a 4000-strong army and routed the Ibadis first inMecca,then inSana'ainYemen,and finally surrounded them inShibamin the western Hadhramaut in 748,defeating and killing Abu Hamza and Ibn Yahya and destroying the first Ibadi state.Problems back in their heartland ofIslamic Syrialed the Umayyads to sign a peace accord with the Ibadis, who were allowed to retain a community in Shibam.

A second Ibadi state was established in Oman in 750, but fell to the newly formedAbbasid Caliphatein 752. Another Ibadi state was established in Oman in 793,surviving for a century until the Abbasid recapture in 893. However, Abbasid influence after reconquest was nominal and Ibadi imams continued to wield considerable power.Ibadi imamates were re-established in subsequent centuries.Ibadis still form the majority of the contemporary Omani population and the royal family of Oman are Ibadi.

Further expansion

The IbadiRustamid dynastyruled the region occupied by modern-day Algeria for over a century.

Ibadi missionary activity was met with considerable success inNorth Africa.In 757, Ibadis seizedTripoliand capturedKairouanthe next year. Driven out by the Abbasid army in 761, Ibadi leaders founded a state, which became known asRustamid dynasty,inTahart.It was overthrown in 909 by theFatimid Caliphate.Ibadi communities continue to exist in theNafusa Mountainsin northwestern Libya, the island ofDjerbain Tunisia, and in theM'zabin Algeria.InEast Africa,they are found inZanzibar.Ibadi missionary activity also reached Persia, India, Egypt, Sudan, Spain and Sicily, although Ibadis communities in these regions ceased to exist.

By the year 900, Ibadism had spread toSindh,Khorosan,the Hadhramaut,Dhofar,theImamate of Oman,Muscat,theNafusa Mountains,andQeshm, Hormozgan;by 1200, the sect was present inal-Andalus,Sicily,M'zab and the western part of theSahelas well.In the 14th century, historianIbn Khaldunmade reference to vestiges of Ibadi influence in Hadhramaut, though the sect no longer exists in the region today.

Views

Ibadis state that their school predates mainstream Islamic schools and some western non-muslim writers agree. In particular,Donald Hawley's view was that Ibadism should be considered an early and highly orthodox interpretation of Islam.

Ibadi imamate and political theory

Unlike the Sunni theory of thecaliphateof theRashidun,and the Shi'i notion of divinely appointedImamate,the leaders of Ibadi Islam—called Imams—do not need to rule the entire Muslim world; Muslim communities are considered capable of ruling themselves.The Ibadis reject the belief that the leader of the Muslim community must be descended from theQuraysh tribe.(This differs from the Shia belief that ideally and eventually they will be ruled by theMahdi,who will be descended from Muhammad's Household (Ahl al-Bayt)—Muhammad having been a member of the Quraysh tribe.)Rather, the two primary qualifications of an Ibadi imam are that he is the most pious man of the community and the most learned infiqh,or Islamic jurisprudence; and that he has the military knowledge to defend the Ibadi community against war and oppression.In the Omani tradition, an imam who is learned in the Islamic legal sciences is considered "strong" (qawī), and an imam whose primary skills are military without scholarly qualifications is considered "weak" (ḍaʻīf). Unlike a strong imam, a weak imam is obliged to consult theulamāʾ,or community of scholars, before passing any judgement.A weak imam is appointed only at times of dire necessity, when the community is threatened with destruction.

Contemporary Ibadis uphold four "states of the religion" (masālik ad-dīn), which are four different types of imams each appropriate to certain contexts.Theimām al-kitmān"Imam of secrecy" is a learned scholar who "rules" inpolitical quietism,practicingtaqiyyato avoid persecution, in times when the Ibadi community cannot reveal itself openly.In some cases, a state ofkitmānmay be necessary even when there is no imam available. In this case, the Ibadiulamāʾtakes over as surrogate rulers in place of the imam. This has been the case for most of the history of the North African Ibadis since the fall of theRustumidimamate in 909,unlike their Omani coreligionists, who periodically reestablished imamates until 1958.

The second state, that of theimām al-shārī"Imam of exchange", are Ibadi imams who "exchange" their lives in theliving worldfor a favorable place in theafterlifeby engaging in military struggle (jihād) against an unbearable tyrannical authority with the goal of creating an Ibadi state.An example is the early Basran Kharijite leaderAbu Bilal Mirdas,who was later held by the Ibadiyya to be a prototype of the "Imam of exchange". A would-beimām al-shārīcannot begin military action until they have found at least forty followers, as Abu Bilal had, willing to die for the cause; once the war has begun, the imam must continue to fight until there are only three followers remaining. A particularly ascetic lifestyle is required of theimām al-shārīand his followers, as suggested in the following speech by Abu Bilal:

You go out to fight in the way of God desiring His pleasure, not wanting anything of the goods of the present world, nor have you any desire for it, nor will you return to it. You are the ascetic and the hater of this life, desirous of the world to come, trying with all in your power to obtain it: going out to be killed and for nothing else. So know that you are [already] killed and have no return to this life; you are going forward and will not turn away from righteousness till you come to God. If such is your concern, go back and finish up your needs and wishes for this life, pay your debts, purchase yourself, take leave of your family and tell them that you will never return to them.

The third state, that of theimām al-zuhūr"Imam of glory", are imams as active rulers of an Ibadi state. The first two caliphsAbu BakrandUmarare considered ideal models of theimām al-zuhūr.A ruling imam who sins must be removed from power; the Ibadi model for this is the assassination of the third caliphUthmanand the Kharijite revolt against Ali, both actions being viewed as legitimate resistance to a sinful ruler.

Finally, the state of theimām al-difā'"imam of defense" involves appointing an imam for a predetermined period of time when the Ibadi community is under foreign attack. He is removed once the threat has been defeated.

Views on other denominations

Ibadis believe that all who profess the belief in oneness of God and belief in the prophethood of Muhammad as the last messenger are members of the Islamic community. It is the duty of Ibadis to correct those who differ with them in their beliefs. Only the righteous Ibadis, referred to as theahl al-istiqāmah"people of uprightness", are worthy of being called "Muslims".Non-Ibadi Muslims are termed theahl al-khilaf"people of opposition". Nonetheless, non-Ibadi Muslims are still respected as fellow members of theummahor wider Islamic community, who possess the various privileges accorded to Muslims in Islamic law and who Ibadis may intermarry with.All non-Ibadi Muslims and even Ibadi sinners are considered guilty ofkufr(usually translated as "unbelief" ), although contemporary Ibadis distinguish betweenkufrshirk,or religious disbelief, andkufrnifaq,or infidelity in the form of sinning. The termshirk— "polytheism" in conventional Islamic theology—has a wider use in Ibadi doctrine, where it is used to describe all forms of religious error beyond polytheism alone.

Classical Ibadi theologians have stated that only theahl al-istiqāmahwill go toparadise,and that all sinning Ibadis as well as all non-Ibadis will burn inhellforever. Ibadis traditionally reject Sunni beliefs that all Muslims in hell will eventually enter paradise, and hold that hell is eternal and inescapable for all humans who were not righteous Ibadis in life.

The notions ofwalayah"affiliation" andbara'a"disassociation" are central to the theology of Ibadi relations with non-Ibadi people. Only righteous Ibadis are considered worthy of friendship and association, whereas sinners and non-Ibadi Muslims are subject to dissociation, sometimes to the point of ostracism.Modern Ibadi scholars suggest that the duty of dissociation does not require rudeness or social avoidance, and that an Ibadi may have genuine affection for a non-Ibadi; nonetheless, "an inner awareness of separation" between upright Ibadis and non-Ibadis must be maintained.In practice, however, Ibadi Muslims have generally been very tolerant of non-Ibadi religious practice.During the period ofimām al-kitmān,the duties of affiliation and disassociation are no longer valid.

Some have characterised the works of some Ibadi scholars as being particularlyanti-Shi'itein nature,and some state that Ibadi scholars, like al-Warjalani, held Nasibi views.

Ibadi beliefs remain understudied by outsiders, both non-Muslim and other Muslim.Ibadis have stated that whilst they read the works of both Sunnis and Shias, the learned scholars of those two sects never read Ibadi works and often repeat myths and false information when they address the topic of Ibadism without performing proper research.

Theological viewpoints

The development ofIbadi theologyhappened thanks to the works of scholars and imams of the community, whose histories, lives, and personalities are part of theIslamic history.Ibāḍī theology can be understood on the basis of the works of Ibn Ibāḍ,Jābir bin Zayd,Abū ‘Ubaida, Rabī‘ b. Ḥabīb and Abū Sufyān among others.Basrais the foundation of the Ibāḍī community.Various Ibāḍī communities were established insouthern Arabia,with bases inOman,North Africa,andEast Africa.

In terms ofscholastic theology,the Ibadi creed resembles that of theMuʿtazilain many aspects, except in the central question ofpredestination.Like the Muʿtazila and unlike the modern Sunni, the Ibadis believe that:

• Human knowledge of God is innate through the use of reason, rather than being learned. Therefore, a Quranic verse that appears to contradict with human reason must be metaphorically reinterpreted in the light of reason rather than being taken as fact. It is forbidden to decide matters of religious belief bytaqlid,or deference to a clerical or otherwise human authority. This view is generally held among Sunni Muslims too
• The attributes of God are not distinct from his essence. Mercy, power, wisdom, and otherdivine attributesare merely different ways to describe the single unitary essence of God, rather than independent attributes and qualities that God possesses.
• Some Ibadis believe thatthe Quran was createdby God at a certain point in time. While these Ibadis uphold the fact that "essential speech" is a way to describe his essence, they do not believe that the Quran is identical to this essence. To them, the Quran is simply a created indicator of his essence. This is in contrast to the Sunnis who believe that the Quran has always existed (it is uncreated).However historically earlier Ibadis believed that neither is the Qur'an created nor uncreated, and amongst contemporary Omani Ibadis some hold the Sunni position.
• LikeSunniMuslims, they interpretanthropomorphicreferences to God in the Quran symbolically rather than literally. Therefore, God does not actually have hands, a face, a throne, or other physical attributes, as he cannot be perceived by human senses and is not physical.They thus believe that Muslims will not see God on theDay of Resurrection,a belief shared with the Shi'a but not the Sunni.Similarly, Ibadis hold that the Scale on which God judges human deeds is metaphoric, as actions cannot be weighed.

But unlike the Mu'tazila, Ibadis follow theAsh'ariposition ofoccasionalism,which holds that all events are caused directly by God and that what appear to be laws ofcausation,such as that a fire produces smoke, is only because God chooses to create fire, and then to create smoke. One Ibadi scholar has even stated that this single difference means that the Muʿtazila are more misguided than the Sunni.

Ibadi jurisprudence

Thefiqhor jurisprudence of Ibadis is based on the same fundamental principles as Sunni and Shi'a juristic traditions, but the Ibadis rejecttaqlidor deference and stress the importance ofijtihad,or independent reasoning. Contemporary Ibadis hold that believers are allowed to follow incorrect opinions derived throughijtihadas long as they believe it to be true after having made an effort to arrive at the correct opinion; certain now-extinct Ibadi sects once held that those with incorrect opinions were disbelievers.Many early Ibadis rejectedqiyasordeductiveanalogical reasoning as a basis for jurisprudence, but the importance of analogies is now widely accepted by Ibadi jurists.

Ibadis believe that the stage of theimām al-kitmāncorresponds to Muhammad's life in Mecca before theHijrah,when no independent Muslim community existed that could enforce Islamic laws. Therefore,ḥudūdpunishments are suspended under animām al-kitmān,except the punishments for apostasy, blasphemy, and murder. Ibadis also do not holdFriday prayersin the absence of a legitimate ruling imam.

Like the Shi'a but not the Sunni, they do not allow a couple who has committedzināʾ(unlawful sex) to marry each other.

During theRamadanfast,Ibadis requireghuslor full-body ablution to be undertaken prior to the beginning of the fast on that day if it is necessitated, otherwise the fast for that day is invalid. They hold that committing grave sins is a form of breaking the fast. When making up for missed days of fasting after Ramadan has ended, the Ibadis believe that the atonement fast must be consecutive, whereas both Sunnis and Shi'as believe that Muslims may atone for missed days by fasting for the required amount at any time, whether consecutive or nonconsecutive.

Like the Shi'a and someMalikiSunnis, the Ibadis keep their arms at their sides rather than clasping the hands duringprayer.During thenoonandafternoon prayers,Ibadis recite solelyal-Fātiḥah,the firstchapterof the Quran, whereas other Muslims may recite other Quranic verses in addition. They also do not sayʾāmīnafter the recitation ofal-Fātiḥah.Ibadis shorten prayers when staying in foreign territory—even if they do so on a permanent basis—unless they choose to adopt the country as their new homeland; Sunnis generally hold that believers should return to the full prayer after a given number of days outside of home.

Ibadi hadith

The primary Ibadi collection of hadiths, or traditions and sayings attributed to Muhammad, is the twelfth-centuryTartīb al-Musnad,comprising 1,005 hadiths.TheTartībis divided into four books. The first two books aremuttaṣilnarrations byJabir ibn Zayd,a student of Muhammad's widowAisha.The third book includes hadith transmitted by the eighth-century Kharijite scholar al-Rabi' bin Habib Al-Farahidi as preserved in theJami Sahihcollection, generally also from Jabir ibn Zayd. The fourth book consists of an appendix of saying and stories from later Ibadi scholars and imams.

Most of the Ibadi hadiths have a very shortisnādor chain of transmission. They are claimed to be narrated from Jabir ibn Zayd to his student Abu Ubayda Muslim ibn Abi Karima and from the latter to al-Rabi', who died in 786 after preserving his transmissions in theJami Sahih.This was then reformulated into theTartīb al-Musnadsome four centuries later.John C. Wilkinson,an expert on Ibadism, states that this chain of transmission "does not stand up to any close examination". It may be a fabrication to buttress the strength of the Ibadi school by making the Ibadis have the oldest collection of hadiths.Most Ibadi hadiths are found in the standard Sunni collections, bar a small group with Kharijite biases,and contemporary Ibadis often approve of the standard Sunni collections.

Unlike in Sunni and Shi'a Islam alike, the study of hadiths has not traditionally been very important in Ibadi Islam, especially in Oman where Sunni influence was weaker.

Mysticism and Sufism

Unlike traditional Sunni Islam but like the modern Salafist movement, Ibadis do not haveSufi ordersand reject the veneration ofsaints.Historically, the views of Sufis were not well regarded in Ibadi literature,with Ibadi scholars like Al-Mundhiri writing anti-Sufi works.

However, mystical devotional practices reminiscent of Sunni Sufism were traditionally practiced by some other Ibadi scholars, to whom miracles were sometimes ascribed as with Sunni Sufis. Modern Ibadis disagree on the appropriateness of these practices within the Ibadi creed, with some considering them an undesirable non-Ibadi influence on the faith while others continue to practice and teach them.

Views on early Islamic history

Ibadis agree withSunnis,regardingAbu BakrandUmar ibn al-Khattabas rightly-guided caliphs.They regard the first half ofUthman ibn Affan's rule as righteous and the second half as corrupt and affected by both nepotism and heresy.They approve of the first part ofAli's caliphate and (like Shī'a) disapprove ofAisha'srebellionandMuawiyah I's revolt. However, they regard Ali's acceptance of arbitration at theBattle of Ṣiffīnas rendering him unfit for leadership, and condemn him for killing theKhawarijofan-Nahrin theBattle of Nahrawan.Modern Ibadi theologians defend the early Kharijite opposition to Uthman, Ali and Muawiyah.

In their belief, the next legitimate caliph and first Ibadi imam wasAbdullah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi,the leader of the Kharijites who turned against Ali for his acceptance of arbitration with Muawiyah and was killed by Ali atNahrawan.Ibadis believe that the "genealogy of Islam"(nasab al-islām) was transmitted by other individuals at Nahrawan, such asḤurḳūṣ ibn Zuhayr al-Saʿdī,and developed into Ibadi Islam, the true form of the faith.

Wahbi school

Not to be confused with Wahhabi, an adherent ofWahhabism.

TheWahbiis considered to be the most mainstream of theschools of thoughtwithin Ibadism.The main reason the Wahbi strain has come to dominate within Ibadism is that most textual references that have been preserved can be attributed to Wahbi affiliated scholars.

Texts

The dating of early writings such as kutub al-rudud and siras (letters) written by Ibadis has led some analysts such as Salim al-Harithi to claim Ibadism as the oldest sect within Islam. However others suggest Ibadism only took on characteristics of a sect and a full-fledged madhab during the demise of the Rustamid Imamate.

Terminology

The term Wahbi is chiefly derived as an eponymous intimation to the teachings ofAbd Allah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi.Although the term Wahbi was initially considered superfluous as Ibadism was largely homogenous, its usage increased upon the advent of the Nukkari secession in order to differentiate the Wahbis from the off-shoot Ibadis. The most common epithet Wahbi Ibadi clerics enjoined their adherents to apply to themselves is the termahl al-istiqamameaningthose on the straight path.They rejected the usage ofahl al -sunnahas early usage assigned the termsunnahas the practise of Muawiyah cursing Ali ibn Abi Talib from the pulpits, although during the Umayyad era, this meaning changed.

Demographics

Ibadi people living in theM'zabvalley in Algeria

Oman is the country with the most Ibadis;Ibadis and Sunnis make up equal numbers of Muslims (45% each), while Shia about 5%, in the population in Oman.There are roughly 2.72 million Ibadis worldwide, of which 250,000 live outside Oman.

Historically, the early medievalRustamid dynastyin Algeria was Ibadi,and refugees from its capital,Tiaret,founded the North African Ibadi communities, which still exist in M'zab.TheMozabites,aBerberethnic group in the M'zab valley, are Ibadis.Ibadism also exists elsewhere in Africa, particularly inZanzibarinTanzania,theNafusa MountainsinLibya.They are also a minority in predominantly Sunni regions as the city ofOuarglaand theisland of Djerba.

The mainstream branch of Ibadism is Wahbi, although others include notable modern ones such asNukkarandAzzabas.

Notable Ibadis

Individuals

• Sulaiman al-Barouni,waliofTripolitania.
• Ahmed bin Hamad al-Khalili,currentGrand Muftiof Oman.
• Qaboos bin Said al Said,former Sultanof Oman and its dependencies.
• Haitham bin Tariq al Said,reigning Sultan of Oman.
• Nūr al-Dīn al-Sālimī,scholar
• Jamshid bin Abdullah of Zanzibar,last reigning Sultan of Zanzibar
• Nouri Abusahmain,president of the formerGeneral National Congressand formerLibyan head of state.
• Moufdi Zakaria,writer and nationalist, author ofKassamanthe Algerian national anthem
• Ghalib Alhinai,last elected Imam (ruler) of the Imamate of Oman.
• 'Abd Allah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi,early Khārijite leader.
• Abd-Allah ibn Ibadh,a Tabi'i, (jurist).
• Jābir ibn Zayd,theologian from the second generation of Islam, who led the Ibadis after Abd-Allah ibn Ibadh died.
• Abu Yazidled a 10th century north African rebellion against theFatimid Caliphate.
• Hunaina al-Mughairyambassador of Oman to the United States.

Dynasties

• Rustamid dynasty:776–909
• Nabhani dynasty:1154–1624
• Yaruba dynasty:1624–1742
• List of Sultans of Zanzibar:1856-1964
• Al Said:1744–present

See also

• Outline of Islam
• Glossary of Islam
• Index of Islam-related articles
• Ghardaïa
• Islam in Oman
• Sultanate of Zanzibar

References

General and cited references

• Gaiser, Adam B. (2010).Muslims, Scholars, and Soldiers: The Origin and Elaboration of the Ibadi Imamate Traditions.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-973893-9.
• Gaiser, Adam (2021)."Ibāḍiyya".In Fleet, Kate;Krämer, Gudrun;Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John;Rowson, Everett(eds.).Encyclopaedia of Islam(3rd ed.). Brill Online.doi:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_30614.ISSN1873-9830.
• Hoffman, Valerie Jon (2012).The Essentials of Ibadi Islam.Syracuse:Syracuse University Press.ISBN9780815650843.
• Wellhausen, Julius(1901).Die religiös-politischen Oppositionsparteien im alten Islam(in German). Berlin: Weidmannsche buchhandlung.OCLC453206240.

Further reading

• Pessah Shinar,Modern Islam in the Maghrib,Jerusalem: The Max Schloessinger Memorial Foundation, 2004. A collection of papers (some previously unpublished) dealing with Islam in the Maghreb, practices, and beliefs.

External links

• Ibadi Islam: an introduction
• A Concise History of al-Ibadiyyah
• Ibn-Ibad and the Ibadi School of Islamic Law