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Iberians

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This article is about an ancient people known today as the Iberians from the Iberian Peninsula. For modern-day Iberians, seeSpanish peopleandPortuguese people.For the ancient Georgians, seeKingdom of Iberia.
The famous bust of the "Lady of Elche",probably a priestess.
"Warrior of Moixent" Iberian (Edetan)ex-votostatuette, 2nd to 4th centuries BC, found inEdeta.

TheIberians(Latin:Hibērī,fromGreek:Ἴβηρες,Iberes) were an ancient people settled in the eastern and southern coasts of theIberian Peninsula,at least from the 6th century BCE. They are described inGreekandRomansources (among others, byHecataeus of Miletus,Avienius,HerodotusandStrabo). Roman sources also use the termHispanito refer to the Iberians.

The termIberian,as used by the ancient authors, had two distinct meanings. One, more general, referred toall the populations of the Iberian peninsulawithout regard to ethnic differences (Pre-Indo-European,Celtsand non-CelticIndo-Europeans). The other, more restricted ethnic sense and the one dealt with in this article, refers to the people living in the eastern and southern coasts of theIberian Peninsula,which by the 6th century BCE had absorbed cultural influences from thePhoeniciansand theGreeks.[1]Thispre-Indo-Europeancultural group spoke theIberian languagefrom the 7th to at least the 1st century BCE. The rest of the peninsula, in the northern, central, and northwestern areas, was inhabited byVascones,CeltsorCeltiberiansgroups and the possiblyPre-CelticorProto-CelticIndo-EuropeanLusitanians,Vettones,andTurdetani.

Starting in the 5th century BCE, Iberian soldiers were frequentlydeployed in battlesin Italy, Greece and especially Sicily due to their military qualities.

History

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The Iberian culture developed from the 6th century BCE, and perhaps as early as the fifth to the third millennium BCE in the eastern and southern coasts of the Iberian peninsula.[2][3][4]The Iberians lived in villages andoppida(fortified settlements) and their communities were based on atribalorganization. The Iberians in theSpanish Levantwere more urbanized than their neighbors in the central and northwestern regions of theIberian peninsula.The peoples in the central and northwest regions were mostly speakers ofCelticdialects, semi-pastoral and lived in scattered villages, though they also had a few fortified towns likeNumantia.[5]They had a knowledge ofwriting,metalworking,includingbronze,andagriculturaltechniques.

Settlements

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Ancient silver vessel from the Tivissa Treasure,c. 500 BCE.Archaeology Museum of Catalonia
Iberian relief,Mausoleum of Pozo Moro,6th century BCE, showingHittiteinfluence

In the centuries preceding Carthaginian and Roman conquest, Iberian settlements grew insocial complexity,exhibiting evidence ofsocial stratificationandurbanization.This process was probably aided by trading contacts with thePhoenicians,Greeks,andCarthaginians.By the late 5th and early 4th centuries BCE a series of important social changes led to the consolidation of an aristocracy and the emergence of aclientele system."This new political system led, among other things, to cities and towns that centered around these leaders, also known asterritorial nucleation.In this context, theoppidumor fortified Iberian town became the centre of reference in the landscape and the political space. "[6]

The settlement ofCastellet de BanyolesinTivissawas one of the most important ancient Iberian settlements in the north eastern part of the Iberian peninsula that was discovered in 1912. Also, the 'Treasure of Tivissa', a unique collection of silver Iberian votive offerings was found here in 1927.[7]

Lucentumwas another ancient Iberian settlement, as well asCastelldefels Castle.

Mausoleum of Pozo Moronear the town ofChinchilla de Monte-AragóninCastile-La Manchaseems to mark the location of another big settlement.

Saguntois the location of an ancient Iberian and later Roman city of Saguntum, where a big fortress was built in the 5th century BCE.

Greek colonistsmade the first historical reference to the Iberians in the 6th century BCE. They defined Iberians as non-Celtic peoples south of theEbroriver (Iber). The Greeks also dubbed as "Iberians" another people in theCaucasusregion, currently known asCaucasian Iberians.It is thought that there is no connection between the two peoples.

The Iberians traded extensively with other Mediterranean cultures. Iberianpotteryand metalwork has been found inFrance,Italy,andNorth Africa.The Iberians had extensive contact withGreek colonistsin the colonies ofEmporion,Rhode,andHemeroskopeion.The Iberians may have adopted some of theGreeks' artistic techniques.Statuessuch as theLady of Bazaand theLady of Elxare thought to have been made by Iberians relatively well acquainted with Greekart.Thucydidesstated that one of the three original tribes ofSicily,theSicani,were of Iberian origin, though "Iberian" at the time could have included what we think of asGaul.[8]

The Iberians also had contacts with thePhoenicians,who had established various colonies in southernAndalucia.Their firstcolonyon the Iberian Peninsula was founded in 1100 BCE and was originally calledGadir,later renamed by the Romans asGades(modernCádiz). Other Phoenician colonies in southern Iberia included Malaka (Málaga),SexiandAbdera.

According toArrian,the Iberians sent emissaries toAlexander the Greatin 324 BCE, along with other embassies ofCarthaginians,ItalicsandGauls,to request his friendship.[9]

Second Punic War and Roman conquest

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Main article:Second Punic War
Iberia during the Second Punic War, showing the short-lived Carthaginian (yellow) and Roman (red) territories and allies

After theFirst Punic war,the massive war debt suffered by Carthage led them to attempt to expand their control over the Iberian peninsula.Hamilcar Barcabegan this conquest from his base atCádizby conquering the TartessianGuadalquivirriver region, which was rich in silver. After Hamilcar's death, his son-in-lawHasdrubal the Faircontinued his incursions into Iberia, founding the colony of Qart Hadasht (modernCartagena) and extending his influence all the way to the southern bank of the riverEbro.After Hasdrubal's assassination in 221 BCE, Hannibal assumed command of the Carthaginian forces and spent two years completing the conquest of the Iberians south of the Ebro.[10]In his first campaign, Hannibal defeated theOlcades,theVaccaeiand theCarpetaniexpanding his control over the riverTagusregion.[11]Hannibal then laid siege to Roman ally ofSaguntumand this led to the beginning of theSecond Punic War.The Iberian theater was a key battleground during this war and many Iberian and Celtiberian warriors fought for both Rome and Carthage, though most tribes sided with Carthage.

Rome sentGnaeusandPublius Cornelius Scipioto conquer Iberia from Carthage. Gnaeus subsequently defeated the IberianIlergetestribe north of the Ebro who were allied with Carthage, conquered the IberianoppidumofTarracoand defeated the Carthaginian fleet. After the arrival of Publius Scipio, Tarraco was fortified and, by 211 BCE, the Scipio brothers had overrun the Carthaginian and allied forces south of the Ebro. However, during this campaign, Publius Scipio was killed in battle and Gnaeus died in the retreat. The tide turned with the arrival ofPublius Cornelius Scipio Africanusin 210 BCE. Scipio attacked and conqueredCarthago Novaand defeated the army ofHasdrubal Barcaat theBattle of Baecula(209–208). The war dragged on with Carthage sending more reinforcements until theBattle of Ilipa(modernAlcalá del RíoinSevilla province), which was a decisive victory for Publius Scipio Africanus. The Carthaginians retreated toGades,and Publius Scipio gained control over the entire south of the peninsula. After this victory, the Ilergetes and other Iberian tribes revolted and it was only after this revolt that the Romans conquered the rest of the Carthaginian territories in southern Spain.

After the Carthaginian defeat, the Iberian territories were divided into two major provinces,Hispania UlteriorandHispania Citerior.In 197 BCE, the Iberian tribes revolted once again in the H. Citerior province. After securing these regions, Rome invaded and conqueredLusitaniaandCeltiberia.The Romans fought along and drawn out campaignfor the conquest of Lusitania. Wars and campaigns in the northern regions of the Iberian peninsula would continue until 16 BCE, when the final rebellions of theCantabrian Warswere defeated.

Iberian culture

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Horseman from Iberian pottery,Alicante

Iberian society was divided into different classes, including kings or chieftains (Latin: "regulus" ), nobles, priests, artisans and slaves. Iberian aristocracy, often called a "senate" by the ancient sources, met in a council of nobles. Kings or chieftains would maintain their forces through a system of obligation or vassalage that the Romans termed "fides".[12]

The Iberians adopted wine and olives from the Greeks.Horse breedingwas particularly important to the Iberians and their nobility. Mining was also very important for their economy, especially the silver mines near Gader and Cartago Nova, the iron mines in theEbrovalley, as well as the exploitation oftinandcopperdeposits. They produced fine metalwork and high quality iron weapons such as thefalcata.

Art and religion

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Main articles:Iberian sculptureandIberian schematic art
Three differentdicewithIberian inscriptions,found inCalahorra,NumantiaandFoz-Calanda

The Iberians produced sculpture in stone and bronze, most of which was much influenced by the Greeks and Phoenicians, and other cultures such as Assyrian, Hittite and Egyptian influences. The styles of Iberian sculpture are divided geographically into Levantine, Central, Southern, and Western groups, of which the Levantine group displays the most Greek influence. Iberian pottery and painting was also distinct and widespread throughout the region. A distinct feature of the culture, the pottery was primarily decorated with geometric forms in red but in some areas (fromMurciato the south ofCatalonia) it also included figurative images.[6]

Lord of the Horses,Villaricos(Almeria), Museu d'Arqueologia de Catalunya,Barcelona

The Iberianpolytheisticreligion was influenced by the Greek and Phoenician practices, as it is evident in their sculptures. The man-bullBicha of Balazote(possibly a fertility deity) and various depictions of sphinxes and lions bear a resemblance toeastern Mediterraneanmythological creatures. TheLady of ElcheandLady of Guardamarshow clear Hellenistic influence. Phoenician and Greek deities likeTanit,Baal,Melkart,Artemis,DemeterandAsclepiuswere known in the region and worshiped. Currently few native Iberian gods are known, though the oracular healing deity "Betatun" is known from a Latin inscription at Fuertes del Rey.[13]There was clearly an important female deity associated with the earth and regeneration as depicted by theLady of Bazaand linked with birds, flowers and wheat.[13]The horse was also an important religious figure and an important sanctuary dedicated to Horses has been found in Mula (Murcia). There are many depictions of a "horse taming god" or "lord of the horses" (despotes hippon). The female goddessAtaeginais also widely attested in the inscriptions.

Iberians performed their rites in the open and also maintained sanctuaries in holy places like groves, springs and caves.[14]Archaeological evidence suggests the existence of a priestly class andSilius Italicusmentions priests in the region ofTartessosat a temple ofMelqart.Evidence from pottery reveals some information about Iberian myth and ritual. Common themes are a celebratory ritual dance described by Strabo [c.f. 3.3.7.] and seen in a relief from Fuerte del Rey known as the "Bastetania dance" and the confrontation between the deceased and a wolf figure.[15]Ritual sacrifice of animals was also common.

In Iberianeschatology,"death was seen as the starting point for a journey symbolised by a crossing of the sea, the land or even the sky. Supernatural and mythical beings, such as the Sphinx or the wolf, and sometimes Divinity itself, accompanied and guided the deceased on this journey".[6]The Iberians incinerated their dead and placed their ashes in ceremonial urns, the remains were then placed in stone tombs.

Warfare

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Main article:Warfare in the ancient Iberian Peninsula
Iberianfalcatas

Iberian soldiers were widely employed by Carthage and Rome as mercenaries and auxiliary troops. A large portion of Carthaginian forces during thePunic warswas made up of Iberians andCeltiberians.Iberian warfare wasendemicand based on intertribal raiding and pillaging. In set piece battle, Iberians were known to regularly charge and retreat, throwing javelins and shouting at their opponents without actually committing to full contact combat. This sort of fighting was termedconcursareby the Romans.[12]The Iberians were particularly fond ofambushesandguerrilla tactics.

Ancient sources mention two major types of Iberian infantry,scutatiandcaetrati.Scutatiwere heavily armored and carried large Italic stylescutum shields.Thecaetraticarried the caetra, a small Iberianbuckler.[12]Iberian armaments included the famedGladius Hispaniensis,a curved sword called thefalcata,straight swords, spears, javelins and an all iron spear called theSoliferrum.Iberian horsemen were a key element of Iberian forces as well as Carthaginian armies. Spain was rich with excellent wild horses and Iberian cavalry was some of the best in the ancient Mediterranean.

Iberian tribes

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Remains of the walls ofUllastret,Catalonia
La Bastida de les Alcusses,Valencia

Iberians dwelt along eastern and southern coastal regions of theIberian Peninsula,that corresponds to the northwestern shores of theMediterranean Sea(see the map), roughly in today'sCatalonia,Eastern, Northeastern and NorthernAragon,Valencian Community,Murcia Region,EasternAndalucia,and theBalearic Islands(inSpain), and also in today'sRoussillonand parts ofLanguedoc(inFrance). The peninsula has this name because ancientGreeks,Romansand other mediterranean peoples first contacted with peoples (tribes or tribal confederacies) that were Iberians in the ethnic and linguistic sense, although the majority of theIberian Peninsula's peoples, that dwelt in the Northern, Central and Western regions (the majority of the peninsula's area), were not Iberians themselves in the ethnic and linguistic sense (they could only be considered Iberians in the geographical sense, i.e. they dwelt in the Iberian Peninsula).

The Iberian tribes or tribal confederacies were:

Iberian language

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Main article:Iberian language
Paleohispanic languages according to inscriptions (except Aquitanian – according toanthroponymsand theonyms used inLatininscriptions)
Iberian scripts in the context ofpaleohispanic scripts

The Iberian language, like the rest of thepaleohispanic languages,becameextinctby the 1st to 2nd centuries AD, after being gradually replaced byLatin.The Iberian language remains an unclassified non-Indo European language. A 1978 study claimed many similarities between Iberian and theMessapic language.[16]Iberian languages also share some elements with theBasque language.[17]Links have also been found with theEtruscan languageandMinoanLinear A.[18]

There are different theories about the origin of the Iberian language. According to theCatalantheory, the Iberian language originated in northernCatalonia,from where it expanded north and south.[19]

Iberian scripts

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Main article:Iberian scripts

The Iberians use three different scripts to represent theIberian language.

Northeastern Iberian scriptandsoutheastern Iberian scriptshare a common distinctive typological characteristic, also present in otherpaleohispanic scripts:they use signs with syllabic value for theocclusivesand signs with monophonemic value for the rest of theconsonantsandvowels.Aswriting systems,they are neitheralphabetsnorsyllabaries,but mixed scripts that normally are identified assemi-syllabaries.There is no agreement between researchers concerning the origin of the Iberian writing systems: for some they are only linked to thePhoenician alphabetwhile for others theGreek alphabethad an influence too.

See also

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References

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  1. ^An English-language survey is Richard J. Harrison,Spain at the Dawn of History: Iberians, Phoenicians and Greeks(Thames & Hudson), 1988.
  2. ^"Iberians – MSN Encarta".Archived fromthe originalon 2009-10-30.
  3. ^Iberians – Encyclopedia.com
  4. ^"Spain: Historical Setting – Library of Congress Country Study – Iberia".Archived fromthe originalon 2020-04-06.Retrieved2008-02-29.
  5. ^J. S. Richardson, Hispaniae; Spain and the Development of Roman Imperialism, 218-82 BC, page 16.
  6. ^abcRueda, Carmen; Sánchez, Alberto; Amate, Pilar (2018-11-30)."The history of the Iberians".blog.europeana.eu.Europeana– CC BY-SA.Retrieved2018-11-30.
  7. ^Castellet de Banyoles (Tivissa)Archived2016-03-08 at theWayback MachineMuseu d'Arqueologia de Catalunya
  8. ^"Sicilian Peoples: The Sicanians".Best of Sicily. 7 October 2007.
  9. ^Arrian,The Anabasis of Alexander,VII.XV. "As he was marching back toBabylon,he was met by embassies from theLibyans,who congratulated him and crowned him as conqueror of the kingdom of Asia. From Italy also cameBruttians,Lucanians,andTyrrheniansas envoys, for the same purpose. TheCarthaginiansare said to have sent an embassy to him at this time; and it is also asserted that envoys came to request his friendship from theEthiopians,theScythiansof Europe, theGauls,and Iberians — nations whose names were heard and their accoutrements seen then for the first time byGreeksandMacedonians.They are also said to have entrusted to Alexander the duty of settling their disputes with each other. Then indeed it was especially evident both to himself and to those about him that he was lord of all the land and sea. "
  10. ^Dodge, Theodore Ayrault,Hannibal: A History of the Art of War Among the Carthaginians and Romans Down to the Battle of Pydna, 168 B.C,p.143[permanent dead link]
  11. ^Hoyos, D.Hannibal's Dynasty: Power and Politics in the Western Mediterranean, 247-183 BC,p.89-91, 2003
  12. ^abcRafael Treviño Martinez, Rome's Enemies (4): Spanish Armies 218-19 BC (Men at Arms Series, 180)
  13. ^abLisbeth Bredholt Christensen, et al. The Handbook of Religions in Ancient Europe
  14. ^La religiosidad entre los iberos,http://www.artehistoria.com/v2/contextos/5758.htmArchived2017-09-02 at theWayback Machine
  15. ^Lisbeth Bredholt Christensen, et al. The Handbook of Religions in Ancient Europe, page
  16. ^Anderson, James M. (1978)."On the decipherment of ancient Iberian".Neophilologus.62:80–85.doi:10.1007/BF01514311.S2CID162251382.
  17. ^José Ignacio Hualde, Joseba A. Lakarra, Towards a History of the Basque Language, page 55.
  18. ^Antonio Arnaiz-Villena et al., Prehistoric Iberia: Genetics, Anthropology, and Linguistics, 171.
  19. ^Velaza, Javier (2006)Lengua vs. cultura material: el (viejo) problema de la lengua indígena de Cataluña, Actes de la III Reunió Internacional d'Arqueologia de Calafell (Calafell, 25 to 27 November 2004), Arqueo Mediterrània 9, pp. 273-280

Further reading

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  • Beltrán, Miguel (1996):Los iberos en Aragón,Zaragoza.
  • Ruiz, Arturo; Molinos, Manuel (1993):Los iberos,Barcelona.
  • Sanmartí, Joan; Santacana, Joan (2005):Els ibers del nord,Barcelona.
  • Sanmartí, Joan (2005):«La conformación del mundo ibérico septentrional»,Palaeohispanica5, pp. 333–358.
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