Empire of Japan

"The Japanese Empire" redirects here. For the book by Sarah C. Paine, seeThe Japanese Empire(book).

Empire of Japan Đại nhật bổn đế quốc Dai Nippon Teikokuor Dai Nihon Teikoku
1868–1947
Flag Imperial Seal
Motto: (1868–1912) Ngũ cá điều の ngự thệ văn Gokajō no Goseimon "The Oath in Five Articles"
Anthem: (1869–1945) Quân が đại Kimigayo "His Imperial Majesty's Reign" noicon
The Empire of Japan at its peak in 1942: Japan Colonies (Korea,Taiwan,Karafuto) /Mandates Puppet states/Protectorates/Occupied territories
Status	Sovereign state(1868−1945) Military occupation(1945–1947)
Capital	Kyoto(1868–1869) Tokyo City(1869–1943) Tokyo(1943–1947)
Largest city	Tokyo City (1868–1943) Tokyo (1943–1947)
Official languages	Japanese
Recognised regional languages	Hokkien Mandarin Hakka Korean
Religion	De jure:Secular state De facto:State Shinto(state ideology)
Government	Unitaryabsolute monarchy (1868–1889) underDaijō-kan (1868–1885) Unitaryparliamentarysemi-constitutional monarchy (1889–1947) Undermilitary occupation (1945–1947)
Emperor
• 1868–1912	Meiji
• 1912–1926	Taishō
• 1926–1947	Shōwa
Prime Minister
• 1885–1888 (first)	Itō Hirobumi
• 1946–1947 (last)	Shigeru Yoshida
Legislature	None (rule by decree) (1868–1871) House of Peers(1871–1889) Imperial Diet(since 1889)
•Upper house	House of Peers(1889–1947)
•Lower house	House of Representatives(from 1890)
Historical era	Meiji•Taishō•Shōwa
•Meiji Restoration	3 January 1868
•Meiji Constitution	11 February 1889
•First Sino-Japanese War	25 July 1894
•Russo-Japanese War	8 February 1904
•World War I	23 August 1914
•Mukden Incident	18 September 1931
•Second Sino-Japanese War	7 July 1937
•Founding of the IRAA	12 October 1940
•World War II	7 December 1941
•Surrender of Japan	2 September 1945
•Reconstituted	3 May 1947
Area
1938	1,984,000 km2(766,000 sq mi)
1942	7,400,000 km2(2,900,000 sq mi)
Population
• 1920	77,700,000a
• 1940	105,200,000b
Currency	Japanese yen Korean yen Taiwanese yen
Preceded by Succeeded by Tokugawa shogunate Republic of Ezo Occupied Japan Japan
56.0 million lived in thenaichi. 73.1 million lived in thenaichi.

Japanese Empire
Japanese name
Hiragana	だいにっぽんていこく だいにほんていこく
Katakana	ダイニッポンテイコク ダイニホンテイコク
Kyūjitai	Đại nhật bổn đế quốc
Shinjitai	Đại nhật bổn đế quốc
Transcriptions Romanization Dai Nippon Teikoku Dai Nihon Teikoku
Official Term name
Official Term	Japanese Empire
Literal Translation name
Literal Translation	Imperial State of Greater Japan or the Great Japanese Empire

TheEmpire of Japan,also referred to as theJapanese Empire,Imperial Japan,or simplyJapan,was the Japanesenation-statethat existed from theMeiji Restorationin 1868 until the enactment of the reformedConstitution of Japanin 1947.From29 August 1910until2 September 1945,it administered thenaichi(theJapanese archipelagoand post-1943Karafuto) and thegaichi(Korea,Taiwan,Kwantung Leased Territory,and pre-1943 Karafuto). TheSouth Seas Mandatewas a single Japanese dependent territory in the name of theLeague of Nationsunder Japanese administration. In the closing stages ofWorld War II,with Japan defeated alongside the rest of theAxis,the formalizedJapanese Instrument of Surrenderwas issued in compliance with thePotsdam Declarationof the victoriousAllies,and Japanesede factoterritory subsequently shrunk to cover only the Japanese archipelago as it is today.

Under the slogans offukoku kyōheiandshokusan kōgyō,which followed theBoshin Warand the restoration of power to theEmperorfrom theShogun,Japan underwenta period of large-scale industrialization and militarization,often regarded as the fastest modernization of any country to date. All of these aspects contributed to Japan's emergence as a great power following theFirst Sino-Japanese War,theBoxer Rebellion,theRusso-Japanese War,andWorld War I.Economic and political turmoil in the 1920s, including theGreat Depression,led to the rise ofmilitarism,nationalism,statismand authoritarianism, and this ideological shift eventually culminated in Japan joining the Axis alliance withNazi GermanyandFascist Italy,and also conquering a large part of theAsia-Pacific.During this period, the Japanese army committed many atrocities, including theNanjing Massacre.However, there has been a debate over defining the political system of Japan as adictatorship.

TheImperial Japanese Armed Forcesinitially achieved large-scale military successes during theSecond Sino-Japanese Warand thePacific War.However, from 1942 onwards, and particularly after decisive Allied advances atMidway AtollandGuadalcanal,Japan was forced to adopt a defensive stance against theUnited States.The American-ledisland-hopping campaignled to the eventual loss of many of Japan's Oceanian island possessions in the following three years. Eventually, the American military capturedIwo JimaandOkinawa Island,leaving the Japanese mainland unprotected and without a significant naval defense force. By August 1945, plans had been made for anAllied invasion of mainland Japan,but were shelved after Japan surrendered in the face of a major breakthrough by the United States and theSoviet Union,with the formerdetonating two atomic bombs over Hiroshima and Nagasakiand the latterinvading Japan's northern territories.The Pacific War officially came to an end on 2 September 1945, leading to the beginning of theAllied occupation of Japan,during which American military leaderDouglas MacArthuradministered the country. In 1947, through Allied efforts, a new Japanese constitution was enacted, officially ending the Japanese Empire and forming present-dayJapan.During this time, the Imperial Japanese Armed Forces were dissolved and replaced by the currentJapan Self-Defense Forces.Reconstruction under the Allied occupation continued until 1952, consolidating the modernJapanese constitutional monarchy.

In total, the Empire of Japan had three emperors:Meiji,Taishō,andShōwa.The Imperial era came to an end partway throughShōwa's reign,and he remained emperor until 1989.

Terminology

The historical state is frequently referred to as the "Empire of Japan", the "Japanese Empire", or "Imperial Japan" in English. In Japanese it is referred to asDai Nippon Teikoku(Đại nhật bổn đế quốc),which translates to "Empire of Great Japan" (Dai"Great",Nippon"Japanese",Teikoku"Empire" ).Teikokuis itself composed of the nounsTei"referring to an emperor" and-koku"nation, state", literally "Imperial State" or "Imperial Realm" (compare theGermanKaiserreich). The name "Empire of Japan" appeared for the first time in the 1854Convention of Kanagawabetween theUnited StatesandJapan.

This meaning is significant in terms of geography, encompassing Japan, and its surrounding areas. The nomenclatureEmpire of Japanhad existed since the anti-Tokugawa domains,SatsumaandChōshū,which founded their new government during theMeiji Restoration,with the intention of forming a modern state to resistWesterndomination. Later the Empire emerged as agreat powerin the world.

Due to its name inkanjicharacters and its flag, it was also given theexonyms"Empire of the Sun" and "Empire of the Rising Sun."

History

Background

Main article:Bakumatsu

After two centuries, the seclusion policy, orsakoku,under theshōgunsof theEdo periodcame to an end when the country was forced open to trade by theConvention of Kanagawawhich came whenMatthew C. Perryarrived in Japan in 1854. Thus, the period known asBakumatsubegan.

The following years saw increased foreign trade and interaction; commercial treaties between theTokugawa shogunateand Western countries were signed. In large part due to the humiliating terms of theseunequal treaties,the shogunate soon faced internal hostility, which materialized into a radical,xenophobicmovement, thesonnō jōi(literally "Revere the Emperor, expel the barbarians" ).

In March 1863, the Emperor issued the "order to expel barbarians."Although the shogunate had no intention of enforcing the order, it nevertheless inspired attacks against the shogunate itself and against foreigners in Japan. TheNamamugi Incidentduring 1862 led to the murder of an Englishman,Charles Lennox Richardson,by a party ofsamuraifromSatsuma.The British demanded reparations but were denied. While attempting to exact payment, theRoyal Navywas fired on from coastal batteries near the town ofKagoshima.They responded bybombarding the port of Kagoshimain 1863. The Tokugawa government agreed to pay an indemnity for Richardson's death.Shelling of foreign shipping inShimonosekiand attacks against foreign property led to thebombardment of Shimonosekiby a multinational force in 1864.The Chōshū clan also launched the failed coup known as theKinmon incident.TheSatsuma-Chōshū alliancewas established in 1866 to combine their efforts to overthrow the Tokugawabakufu.In early 1867,Emperor Kōmeidied of smallpox and was replaced by his son,Crown Prince Mutsuhito (Meiji).

On November 9, 1867,Tokugawa Yoshinoburesigned from his post and authorities to the emperor, agreeing to "be the instrument for carrying out" imperial orders,leading to the end of the Tokugawa shogunate.However, while Yoshinobu's resignation had created a nominal void at the highest level of government, his apparatus of state continued to exist. Moreover, the shogunal government, the Tokugawa family in particular, remained a prominent force in the evolving political order and retained many executive powers,a prospect hard-liners from Satsuma and Chōshū found intolerable.

On January 3, 1868, Satsuma-Chōshū forces seized theimperial palaceinKyoto,and the following day had the fifteen-year-old Emperor Meiji declare his own restoration to full power. Although the majority of the imperial consultative assembly was happy with the formal declaration of direct rule by the court and tended to support a continued collaboration with the Tokugawa,Saigō Takamori,leader of the Satsuma clan, threatened the assembly into abolishing the titleshōgunand ordered the confiscation of Yoshinobu's lands.

On January 17, 1868, Yoshinobu declared "that he would not be bound by the proclamation of the Restoration and called on the court to rescind it".On January 24, Yoshinobu decided to prepare an attack on Kyoto, occupied by Satsuma and Chōshū forces. This decision was prompted by his learning of a series ofarsonattacks in Edo, starting with the burning of the outworks ofEdo Castle,the main Tokugawa residence.

Boshin War

Main article:Boshin War

TheNaval Battle of Hakodate,May 1869; in the foreground,KasugaandKōtetsuof the Imperial Japanese Navy

The Boshin War(Mậu thần chiến tranh,Boshin Sensō)was fought between January 1868 and May 1869. The alliance of samurai from southern and western domains and court officials had now secured the cooperation of the young Emperor Meiji, who ordered the dissolution of the two-hundred-year-old Tokugawa shogunate. Tokugawa Yoshinobu launched a military campaign to seize the emperor's court in Kyoto. However, the tide rapidly turned in favor of the smaller but relatively modernized imperial faction and resulted in defections of manydaimyōsto the Imperial side. TheBattle of Toba–Fushimiwas a decisive victory in which a combined army from Chōshū, Tosa, and Satsuma domains defeated the Tokugawa army.A series of battles were then fought in pursuit of supporters of the Shogunate; Edo surrendered to the Imperial forces and afterward, Yoshinobu personally surrendered. Yoshinobu was stripped of all his power by Emperor Meiji and most of Japan accepted the emperor's rule.

Pro-Tokugawa remnants retreated to northern Honshū (Ōuetsu Reppan Dōmei) and later to Ezo (present-dayHokkaidō), where they established the breakawayRepublic of Ezo.An expeditionary force was dispatched by the new government and the Ezo Republic forces were overwhelmed. Thesiege of Hakodatecame to an end in May 1869 and the remaining forces surrendered.

Meiji era (1868–1912)

Emperor Meiji,the 122nd emperor of Japan

Main articles:Meiji period,Meiji Restoration,andGovernment of Meiji Japan

TheCharter Oathwas made public at the enthronement of Emperor Meiji of Japan on April 7, 1868. The Oath outlined the main aims and the course of action to be followed during Emperor Meiji's reign, setting the legal stage for Japan's modernization.TheMeiji leadersalso aimed to boost morale and win financial support for thenew government.

Prominent members of the Iwakura mission. Left to right:Kido Takayoshi,Yamaguchi Masuka,Iwakura Tomomi,Itō Hirobumi,Ōkubo Toshimichi

Japan dispatched theIwakura Missionin 1871. The mission traveled the world in order to renegotiate the unequal treaties with the United States and European countries that Japan had been forced into during the Tokugawa shogunate, and to gather information on western social and economic systems, in order to effect the modernization of Japan. Renegotiation of the unequal treaties was universally unsuccessful, but close observation of the American and European systems inspired members on their return to bring about modernization initiatives in Japan. Japan made aterritorial delimitation treatywithRussiain 1875, gaining all theKuril islandsin exchange forSakhalin island.

The Japanese government sent observers to Western countries to observe and learn their practices, and also paid "foreign advisors"in a variety of fields to come to Japan to educate the populace. For instance, the judicial system andconstitutionwere modeled afterPrussia,described bySaburō Ienagaas "an attempt to control popular thought with a blend ofConfucianismandGerman conservatism."The government also outlawed customs linked to Japan's feudal past, such as publicly displaying and wearingkatanaand thetop knot,both of which were characteristic of the samurai class, which was abolished together with the caste system. This would later bring the Meiji government intoconflict with the samurai.

Several writers, under the constant threat of assassination from their political foes, were influential in winning Japanese support forwesternization.One such writer wasFukuzawa Yukichi,whose works included "Conditions in the West," "Leaving Asia",and" An Outline of a Theory of Civilization, "which detailed Western society and his own philosophies. In the Meiji Restoration period, military and economic power was emphasized. Military strength became the means for national development and stability. Imperial Japan became the only non-Westernworld powerand a major force inEast Asiain about 25 years as a result of industrialization and economic development.

As writerAlbrecht Fürst von Urachcomments in his booklet "The Secret of Japan's Strength," published in 1942, during theAxis powersperiod:

The rise of Japan to a world power during the past 80 years is the greatest miracle in world history. The mighty empires of antiquity, the major political institutions of the Middle Ages and the early modern era, the Spanish Empire, the British Empire, all needed centuries to achieve their full strength. Japan's rise has been meteoric. After only 80 years, it is one of the few great powers that determine the fate of the world.

Transposition in social order and cultural destruction

Main articles:Japanese new religions § Before World War II,Christianity in Japan § Opening of Japan,andHistory of the Catholic Church in Japan § Rediscovery and return

See also:BurakuminandTuranism

In the 1860s, Japan began to experience great social turmoil and rapid modernization. The feudal caste system in Japan formally ended in 1869 with theMeiji restoration.In 1871, the newly formedMeijigovernment issued a decree calledSenmin Haishirei(Tiện dân 廃 chỉ lệnhEdict Abolishing Ignoble Classes) givingburakuminequal legal status. It is currently better known as theKaihōrei(Giải phóng lệnhEmancipation Edict). However, the elimination of their economic monopolies over certain occupations actually led to a decline in their general living standards, while social discrimination simply continued. For example, the ban on the consumption of meat from livestock was lifted in 1871, and many formerburakuminmoved on to work inabattoirsand asbutchers.However, slow-changing social attitudes, especially in the countryside, meant that abattoirs and workers were met with hostility from local residents. Continued ostracism as well as the decline in living standards led to formerburakumincommunities turning into slum areas.

In theBlood tax riots,the Japanese Meiji government brutally put down revolts by Japanese samurai angry over the legal revocation of the traditionaluntouchablestatus of burakumin.

The social tension continued to grow during theMeiji period,affecting religious practices and institutions. Conversion from traditional faith was no longer legally forbidden, officials lifted the 250-year ban on Christianity, and missionaries of established Christian churches reentered Japan. The traditionalsyncreticismbetween Shinto andBuddhismended. Losing the protection of the Japanese government which Buddhism had enjoyed for centuries, Buddhist monks faced radical difficulties in sustaining their institutions, but their activities also became less restrained by governmental policies and restrictions. As social conflicts emerged in this last decade of the Edo period, some new religious movements appeared, which were directly influenced byshamanismandShinto.

Emperor Ogimachi issued edicts to ban Catholicism in 1565 and 1568, but to little effect. Beginning in 1587 with imperial regent Toyotomi Hideyoshi's ban on Jesuit missionaries, Christianity was repressed as a threat to national unity. Under Hideyoshi and the succeeding Tokugawa shogunate, Catholic Christianity was repressed and adherents were persecuted. After the Tokugawa shogunate banned Christianity in 1620, it ceased to exist publicly. Many Catholics went underground, becoming hidden Christians(Ẩn れキリシタン,kakure kirishitan),while others lost their lives. After Japan was opened to foreign powers in 1853, many Christian clergymen were sent from Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox churches, though proselytism was still banned. Only after the Meiji Restoration, was Christianity re-established in Japan. Freedom of religion was introduced in 1871, giving all Christian communities the right to legal existence and preaching.

Eastern Orthodoxywas brought to Japan in the 19th century by St. Nicholas (baptized as Ivan Dmitrievich Kasatkin),who was sent in 1861 by theRussian Orthodox ChurchtoHakodate,Hokkaidō as priest to a chapel of the Russian Consulate.St. Nicholas of Japan made his own translation of theNew Testamentand some other religious books (Lenten Triodion,Pentecostarion,Feast Services,Book of Psalms,Irmologion) intoJapanese.Nicholas has since been canonized as a saint by thePatriarchate of Moscowin 1970, and is now recognized as St. Nicholas,Equal-to-the-Apostlesto Japan. His commemoration day is February 16.Andronic Nikolsky,appointed the first Bishop of Kyoto and later martyred as the archbishop ofPermduring theRussian Revolution,was also canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church as a Saint and Martyr in the year 2000.

Ōura Church,Nagasaki

Divie Bethune McCarteewas the first ordainedPresbyterianministermissionaryto visit Japan, in 1861–1862. His gospeltracttranslated into Japanese was among the first Protestant literature in Japan. In 1865, McCartee moved back toNingbo,China, but others have followed in his footsteps. There was a burst of growth of Christianity in the late 19th century when Japan re-opened its doors to the West. Protestant church growth slowed dramatically in the early 20th century under the influence of the military government during theShōwa period.

Under the Meiji Restoration, the practices of the samurai classes, deemed feudal and unsuitable for modern times following the end ofsakokuin 1853, resulted in a number of edicts intended to 'modernise' the appearance of upper class Japanese men. With the Dampatsurei Edict of 1871 issued by Emperor Meiji during the early Meiji Era, men of the samurai classes were forced to cut their hair short, effectively abandoning the chonmage (chonmage) hairstyle.

During the early 20th century, the government was suspicious towards a number of unauthorized religious movements and periodically made attempts to suppress them. Government suppression was especially severe from the 1930s until the early 1940s, when the growth ofJapanese nationalismandState Shintowere closely linked. Under the Meiji regimelèse majestéprohibited insults against the Emperor and his Imperial House, and also against some major Shinto shrines which were believed to be tied strongly to the Emperor. The government strengthened its control over religious institutions that were considered to undermine State Shinto or nationalism.

The majority ofJapanese castlesweresmashed and destroyedin the late 19th century in the Meiji restoration by the Japanese people and government in order to modernize and westernize Japan and break from their past feudal era of the Daimyo and Shoguns. It was only due to the1964 Summer Olympicsin Japan that cheap concrete replicas of those castles were built for tourists.The vast majority of castles in Japan today are new replicas made out of concrete.In 1959 a concrete keep was built for Nagoya castle.

During the Meiji restoration'sShinbutsu bunri,tens of thousands of Japanese Buddhist religious idols and temples were smashed and destroyed.Many statues still lie in ruins. Replica temples were rebuilt with concrete. Japan then closed and shut done tens of thousands of traditional old Shinto shrines in theShrine Consolidation Policyand the Meiji government built the new modern15 shrinesof theKenmu restorationas a political move to link the Meiji restoration to the Kenmu restoration for their new State Shinto cult.

Japanese had to look at old paintings in order to find out what theHoryuji templeused to look like when they rebuilt it. The rebuilding was originally planned for the Shōwa era.

The Japanese used mostly concrete in 1934 to rebuild theTogetsukyo Bridge,unlike the original destroyed wooden version of the bridge from 836.

Political reform

Main article:Meiji Constitution

Interior of theJapanese Parliament,showing the Prime Minister speaking addressing the House of Peers, 1915

The idea of a written constitution had been a subject of heated debate within and outside of the government since the beginnings of theMeiji government.The conservative Meiji oligarchy viewed anything resemblingdemocracyorrepublicanismwith suspicion and trepidation, and favored a gradualist approach. TheFreedom and People's Rights Movementdemanded the immediate establishment of an electednational assembly,and the promulgation of a constitution.

The constitution recognized the need for change and modernization after the removal of theshogunate:

We, the Successor to the prosperous Throne of Our Predecessors, do humbly and solemnly swear to the Imperial Founder of Our House and to Our other Imperial Ancestors that, in pursuance of a great policy co-extensive with the Heavens and with the Earth, We shall maintain and secure from decline the ancient form of government.... In consideration of the progressive tendency of the course of human affairs and in parallel with the advance of civilization, We deem it expedient, in order to give clearness and distinctness to the instructions bequeathed by the Imperial Founder of Our House and by Our other Imperial Ancestors, to establish fundamental laws....

Imperial Japan was founded,de jure,after the 1889 signing of Constitution of the Empire of Japan. The constitution formalized much of the Empire's political structure and gave many responsibilities and powers to the Emperor.

• Article 1. The Empire of Japan shall be reigned over and governed by a line of Emperors unbroken for ages eternal.
• Article 2. The Imperial Throne shall be succeeded to by Imperial male descendants, according to the provisions of the Imperial House Law.
• Article 3. The Emperor is sacred and inviolable.
• Article 4. The Emperor is the head of the Empire, combining in Himself the rights of sovereignty, and exercises them, according to the provisions of the present Constitution.
• Article 5. The Emperor exercises the legislative power with the consent of the Imperial Diet.
• Article 6. The Emperor gives sanction to laws, and orders them to be promulgated and executed.
• Article 7. The Emperor convokes the Imperial Diet, opens, closes and prorogues it, and dissolves the House of Representatives.
• Article 11. The Emperor has the supreme command of the Army and Navy.
• Article 12. The Emperor determines the organization and peace standing of the Army and Navy.
• Article 13. The Emperor declares war, makes peace, and concludes treaties.
• Article 14. The Emperor declares a state of siege.
• Article 15. The Emperor confers titles of nobility, rank, orders and other marks of honor.
• Article 16. The Emperor orders amnesty, pardon, commutation of punishments and rehabilitation.
• Article 17. A Regency shall be instituted in conformity with the provisions of the Imperial House Law.

In 1890, theImperial Dietwas established in response to the Meiji Constitution. The Diet consisted of theHouse of Representatives of Japanand theHouse of Peers.Both houses opened seats for colonial people as well as Japanese. The Imperial Diet continued until 1947.

Economic development

Baron Masuda Tarokaja, a member of the House of Peers (Kazoku). His father, BaronMasuda Takashi,was responsible for transformingMitsuiinto azaibatsu.

Main articles:Economy of the Empire of JapanandEconomic history of Japan § 20th century

Economic development was characterized by rapidindustrialization,the development of acapitalist economy,and the transformation of manyfeudalworkers towage labour.The use of strike action also increased, and 1897, with the establishment of a union for metalworkers, the foundations of the modernJapanese trade-union movementwere formed.

Samurai were allowed to work in any occupation they wanted. Admission to universities was determined based on examination results. The government also recruited more than 3,000 Westerners to teach modern science, mathematics, technology, and foreign languages in Japan (O-yatoi gaikokujin).Despite this,social mobilitywas still low due to samurai and their descendants being overrepresented in the new elite class.

After sending observers to the United States, the Empire of Japan initially copied the decentralized American system with no central bank.In 1871, theNew Currency Actof Meiji 4 (1871) abolished the local currencies and established theyenas the new decimal currency. It had parity with the Mexican silver dollar.

First Sino-Japanese War

Main articles:First Sino-Japanese WarandTaiwan under Japanese rule

TheFirst Sino-Japanese War,fought in 1894 and 1895, revolved around the issue of control and influence over Korea under the rule of theJoseon dynasty.Korea had traditionally been atributary stateof China'sQing Empire,which exerted large influence over the conservative Korean officials who gathered around the royal family of the Joseon kingdom. On February 27, 1876, after several confrontations between Korean isolationists and the Japanese, Japan imposed theJapan–Korea Treaty of 1876,forcing Korea open to Japanese trade. The act blocked any other power from dominating Korea, resolving to end the centuries-old Chinesesuzerainty.

On June 4, 1894, Korea requested aid from the Qing Empire in suppressing theDonghak Rebellion.The Qing government sent 2,800 troops to Korea. The Japanese countered by sending an 8,000-troop expeditionary force (the Oshima Composite Brigade) to Korea. The first 400 troops arrived on June 9 en route toSeoul,and 3,000 landed atIncheonon June 12.The Qing government turned down Japan's suggestion for Japan and China to cooperate to reform the Korean government. When Korea demanded that Japan withdraw its troops from Korea, the Japanese refused. In early June 1894, the 8,000 Japanese troops captured the Korean king Gojong, occupied theRoyal Palacein Seoul and, by June 25, installed a puppet government in Seoul. The new pro-Japanese Korean government granted Japan the right to expel Qing forces while Japan dispatched more troops to Korea.

China objected and war ensued. Japanese ground troops routed the Chinese forces on theLiaodong Peninsula,and nearly destroyed the Chinese navy in theBattle of the Yalu River.TheTreaty of Shimonosekiwas signed between Japan and China, which ceded the Liaodong Peninsula and the island ofTaiwanto Japan. After the peace treaty, Russia, Germany, andFranceforced Japan to withdraw from Liaodong Peninsula in theTriple Intervention.Soon afterward, Russia occupied the Liaodong Peninsula, built thePort Arthurfortress, and based theRussian Pacific Fleetin the port. Germany occupiedJiaozhou Bay,built Tsingtao fortress and based the GermanEast Asia Squadronin this port.

Boxer Rebellion

MarquessKomura Jutaro.Komura became Minister for Foreign Affairs under the first Katsura administration, and signed theBoxer Protocolon behalf of Japan.

Main articles:Boxer RebellionandBoxer Protocol

In 1900, Japan joined an international military coalition set up in response to the Boxer Rebellion in the Qing Empire of China. Japan provided the largest contingent of troops: 20,840, as well as 18 warships. Of the total, 20,300 were Imperial Japanese Army troops of the5th Infantry Divisionunder Lt. General Yamaguchi Motoomi; the remainder were 540 navalrikusentai(marines) from theImperial Japanese Navy.

At the beginning of the Boxer Rebellion the Japanese only had 215 troops in northern China stationed at Tientsin; nearly all of them were navalrikusentaifrom theKasagiand theAtago,under the command of CaptainShimamura Hayao.The Japanese were able to contribute 52 men to theSeymour Expedition.On 12 June 1900, the advance of the Seymour Expedition was halted some 50 kilometres (30 mi) from the capital, by mixed Boxer and Chinese regular army forces. The vastly outnumbered allies withdrew to the vicinity ofTianjin,having suffered more than 300 casualties.Thearmy general staffin Tokyo had become aware of the worsening conditions in China and had drafted ambitious contingency plans,but in the wake of the Triple Intervention five years before, the government refused to deploy large numbers of troops unless requested by the western powers.However three days later, a provisional force of 1,300 troops commanded by Major GeneralFukushima Yasumasawas to be deployed to northern China. Fukushima was chosen because he spoke fluent English which enabled him to communicate with the British commander. The force landed near Tianjin on July 5.

On 17 June 1900, navalRikusentaifrom theKasagiandAtagohad joined British, Russian, and German sailors to seize theDagu fortsnear Tianjin.In light of the precarious situation, the British were compelled to ask Japan for additional reinforcements, as the Japanese had the only readily available forces in the region.Britain at the time was heavily engaged in theBoer War,so a large part of the British army was tied down in South Africa. Further, deploying large numbers of troops from itsgarrisons in Indiawould take too much time and weaken internal security there.Overriding personal doubts, Foreign MinisterAoki Shūzōcalculated that the advantages of participating in an allied coalition were too attractive to ignore. Prime Minister Yamagata agreed, but others in the cabinet demanded that there be guarantees from the British in return for the risks and costs of the major deployment of Japanese troops.On July 6, 1900, the 5th Infantry Division was alerted for possible deployment to China, but no timetable was set for this. Two days later, with more ground troops urgently needed to lift the siege of the foreign legations at Peking, the British ambassador offered the Japanese government one million British pounds in exchange for Japanese participation.

Shortly afterward, advance units of the 5th Division departed for China, bringing Japanese strength to 3,800 personnel out of the 17,000 of allied forces.The commander of the 5th Division, Lt. General Yamaguchi Motoomi, had taken operational control from Fukushima. Japanese troops were involved in thestorming of Tianjinon July 14,after which the allies consolidated and awaited the remainder of the 5th Division and other coalition reinforcements. By the time the siege of legations was lifted on August 14, 1900, the Japanese force of 13,000 was the largest single contingent and made up about 40% of the approximately 33,000 strong allied expeditionary force.Japanese troops involved in the fighting had acquitted themselves well, although a British military observer felt their aggressiveness, densely-packed formations, and over-willingness to attack cost them excessive and disproportionate casualties.For example, during the Tianjin fighting, the Japanese suffered more than half of the allied casualties (400 out of 730) but comprised less than one quarter (3,800) of the force of 17,000.Similarly at Beijing, the Japanese accounted for almost two-thirds of the losses (280 of 453) even though they constituted slightly less than half of the assault force.

After the uprising, Japan and the Western countries signed theBoxer Protocolwith China, which permitted them to station troops on Chinese soil to protect their citizens. After the treaty, Russia continued to occupy all ofManchuria.

Russo-Japanese War

French illustration of a Japanese assault on entrenched Russian troops during theRusso-Japanese War

Main article:Russo-Japanese War

TheRusso-Japanese Warwas a conflict for control of Korea and parts of Manchuria between the Russian Empire and Empire of Japan that took place from 1904 to 1905. The victory greatly raised Japan's stature in the world of global politics.The war is marked by the Japanese opposition of Russian interests in Korea, Manchuria, and China, notably, the Liaodong Peninsula, controlled by the city ofRyojun.

Originally, in the Treaty of Shimonoseki, Ryojun had been given to Japan. This part of the treaty was overruled by Western powers, which gave the port to the Russian Empire, furthering Russian interests in the region. These interests came into conflict with Japanese interests. The war began with a surprise attack on the Russian Eastern fleet stationed at Port Arthur, which was followed by theBattle of Port Arthur.Those elements that attempted escape were defeated by the Japanese navy under Admiral Togo Heihachiro at theBattle of the Yellow Sea.Following a late start, the Russian Baltic fleet was denied passage through the British-controlledSuez Canal.The fleet arrived on the scene a year later, only to be annihilated in theBattle of Tsushima.While the ground war did not fare as poorly for the Russians, the Japanese forces were significantly more aggressive than their Russian counterparts and gained a political advantage that culminated with theTreaty of Portsmouth,negotiated in the United States by theAmerican presidentTheodore Roosevelt.As a result, Russia lost the part ofSakhalinIsland south of50 degrees Northlatitude (which becameKarafuto Prefecture), as well as many mineral rights in Manchuria. In addition, Russia's defeat cleared the way for Japan toannex Korea outrightin 1910.

Annexation of Korea

Main article:Korea under Japanese rule

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, various Western countries actively competed for influence, trade, and territory in East Asia, and Japan sought to join these modern colonial powers. The newly modernised Meiji government of Japan turned to Korea (under the Joseon dynasty), then in thesphere of influenceof China's Qing dynasty. The Japanese government initially sought to separate Korea from Qing and make Korea a Japanesepuppet statein order to further their security and national interests.

In January 1876, following the Meiji Restoration, Japan employedgunboat diplomacyto pressure the Joseon Dynasty into signing the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876, which grantedextraterritorial rightsto Japanese citizens and opened three Korean ports to Japanese trade. The rights granted to Japan under thisunequal treaty,were similar to those granted western powers in Japan following the visit of Commodore Perry.Japanese involvement in Korea increased during the 1890s, a period of political upheaval.

Korea (under theKorean Empire) wasde factooccupied and declared a Japaneseprotectoratefollowing theJapan–Korea Treaty of 1905.After proclaimed the founding of the Korean Empire, Korea was officiallyannexedin Japan through the annexation treaty in 1910.

In Korea, the period is usually described as the "Time of Japanese Forced Occupation" (Hangul:일제 강점기;Ilje gangjeomgi,Hanja:Nhật đế cường chiêm kỳ ). Other terms include "Japanese Imperial Period" (Hangul:일제시대,Ilje sidae,Hanja:Nhật đế thời đại ) or "Japanese administration" (Hangul:왜정,Wae jeong,Hanja:Uy chính). In Japan, a more common description is "The Korea of Japanese rule"(Nhật bổn thống trị thời đại の triều tiên,Nippon Tōchi-jidai no Chōsen).TheKorean Peninsulawas officially part of the Empire of Japan for 35 years, from August 29, 1910, until the formal Japanese rule ended,de jure,on September 2, 1945, upon thesurrender of JapaninWorld War II.The 1905 and 1910 treaties were eventually declared "null and void" by both Japan and South Korea in 1965.

Taishō era (1912–1926)

Emperor Taishō,the 123rd emperor of Japan

Main article:Taishō period

World War I

Main articles:Japan during World War I,Japanese entry into World War I,andAsian and Pacific theatre of World War I

See also:South Seas Mandate

Japan enteredWorld War Ion the side of theAlliesin 1914, seizing the opportunity of Germany's distraction with the European War to expand its sphere of influence in China and the Pacific. Japan declared war on Germany on August 23, 1914. Japanese and allied British Empire forces soon moved to occupy Tsingtao fortress, the German East Asia Squadron base, German-leased territories in China'sShandong Provinceas well as theMarianas,Caroline,andMarshall Islandsin the Pacific, which were part ofGerman New Guinea.The swift invasion in the German territory of theKiautschou Bay concessionand theSiege of Tsingtaoproved successful. The German colonial troops surrendered on November 7, 1914, and Japan gained the German holdings. In 1920, theLeague of Nationsestablished the South Seas Mandate under Japanese administration to replace German New Guinea.

With its Western allies, notably the United Kingdom, heavily involved in the war in Europe, Japandispatched a Naval fleetto theMediterranean Seato aid Allied shipping. Japan sought further to consolidate its position in China by presenting theTwenty-One Demandsto China in January 1915. In the face of slow negotiations with the Chinese government, widespreadanti-Japanese sentiment in China,and international condemnation, Japan withdrew the final group of demands, and treaties were signed in May 1915. TheAnglo-Japanese Alliancewas renewed and expanded in scope twice, in 1905 and 1911, before its demise in 1921. It was officially terminated in 1923.

Siberian Intervention

Commanding Officers and Chiefs of Staff of the Allied Military Mission toSiberia,Vladivostokduring theAllied intervention

Main articles:Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War,Siberian Intervention,andJapanese intervention in Siberia

After the fall of the Tsarist regime and the later provisional regime in 1917, the newBolshevikgovernmentsigned a separate peacetreatywith Germany. After this, various factions that succeeded the Russian Empire fought amongst themselves ina multi-sided civil war.

In July 1918, President Wilson asked the Japanese government to supply 7,000 troops as part of an international coalition of 25,000 troops planned to support theAmerican Expeditionary Force Siberia.Prime MinisterTerauchi Masatakeagreed to send 12,000 troops but under the Japanese command rather than as part of an international coalition. The Japanese had several hidden motives for the venture, which included an intense hostility and fear of communism; a determination to recoup historical losses to Russia; and the desire to settle the"northern problem"in Japan's security, either through the creation of a buffer state or through outright territorial acquisition.

By November 1918, more than 70,000Japanese troopsunder Chief of Staff Yui Mitsue had occupied all ports and major towns in theRussian Maritime Provincesand easternSiberia.Japan received 765Polishorphans from Siberia.

In June 1920, around 450 Japanese civilians and 350 Japanese soldiers, along with Russian White Army supporters, were massacred by partisan forces associated with theRed ArmyatNikolayevsk on the Amur River;the United States and its allied coalition partners consequently withdrew from Vladivostok after the capture and execution of White Army leader AdmiralAleksandr Kolchakby the Red Army. However, the Japanese decided to stay, primarily due to fears of the spread of Communism so close to Japan and Japanese-controlled Korea and Manchuria. The Japanese army provided military support to the Japanese-backedProvisional Priamurye Governmentbased in Vladivostok against the Moscow-backedFar Eastern Republic.

The continued Japanese presence concerned the United States, which suspected that Japan had territorial designs on Siberia and the Russian Far East. Subjected to intense diplomatic pressure by the United States and United Kingdom, and facing increasing domestic opposition due to the economic and human cost, the administration of Prime MinisterKatō Tomosaburōwithdrew the Japanese forces in October 1922. Japanese casualties from the expedition were 5,000 dead from combat or illness, with the expedition costing over 900 million yen.

"Taishō Democracy"

CountItagaki Taisukeis credited as being the first Japanese party leader and an important force for liberalism in Meiji Japan.

The two-party political system that had been developing in Japan since the turn of the century came of age after World War I, giving rise to the nickname for the period, "Taishō Democracy".The public grew disillusioned with the growing national debt and the new election laws, which retained the old minimum tax qualifications for voters. Calls were raised for universal suffrage and the dismantling of the old political party network. Students, university professors, and journalists, bolstered by labor unions and inspired by a variety of democratic, socialist, communist, anarchist, and other thoughts, mounted large but orderly public demonstrations in favor of universal male suffrage in 1919 and 1920.

On 1 September 1923, at a magnitude of 7.9, anearthquake struck Kantō Plain.The death toll was estimated to have exceeded to 140,000 lives lost. On the same day, the Imperial Japanese Army and its nationalists committed amassacreof Korean residents.

The election ofKatō Komeias Prime Minister of Japan continued democratic reforms that had been advocated by influential individuals on the left. This culminated in the passage of universal male suffrage in March 1925. This bill gave all male subjects over the age of 25 the right to vote, provided they had lived in their electoral districts for at least one year and were not homeless. The electorate thereby increased from 3.3 million to 12.5 million.

In the political milieu of the day, there was a proliferation of new parties, including socialist and communist parties. Fear of a broader electorate, left-wing power, and the growing social change led to the passage of thePeace Preservation Lawin 1925, which forbade any change in the political structure or the abolition of private property.

In 1932, Park Chun-kum was elected to the House of Representatives in theJapanese general electionas the first person elected from a colonial background.In 1935, democracy was introduced in Taiwan and in response to Taiwanese public opinion, local assemblies were established.In 1942, 38 colonial people were elected to local assemblies of the Japanese homeland.

Unstable coalitions and divisiveness in the Diet led theKenseikai(Hiến chính hộiConstitutional Government Association) and the Seiyū Hontō (Chính hữu bổn đảngTrue Seiyūkai) to merge as theRikken Minseitō(Lập hiến dân chính đảngConstitutional Democratic Party) in 1927. TheRikken Minseitōplatform was committed to the parliamentary system, democratic politics, and world peace. Thereafter, until 1932, theSeiyūkaiand the Rikken Minseitō alternated in power.

Despite the political realignments and hope for more orderly government, domestic economic crises plagued whichever party held power. Fiscal austerity programs and appeals for public support of such conservative government policies as the Peace Preservation Law—including reminders of the moral obligation to make sacrifices for the emperor and the state—were attempted as solutions.

Early Shōwa (1926–1930)

Emperor Shōwaduring an army inspection on January 8, 1938

Main article:Shōwa period

Rise of militarism and its social organisations

See also:Japanese militarism

Important institutional links existed between the party in government (Kōdōha) and military and political organizations, such as theImperial Young Federationand the "Political Department" of theKempeitai.Amongst the himitsu kessha (secret societies), theKokuryu-kaiand Kokka Shakai Shugi Gakumei (National Socialist League) also had close ties to the government. TheTonarigumi(residents committee) groups, the Nation Service Society (national government trade union), andImperial Farmers Associationwere all allied as well. Other organizations and groups related with the government in wartime were theDouble Leaf Society,Kokuhonsha,Taisei Yokusankai,Imperial Youth Corps,Keishichō(to 1945), Shintoist Rites Research Council,Treaty Faction,Fleet Faction,andVolunteer Fighting Corps.

Nationalism and decline of democracy

Main articles:Japanese nationalism,Statism in Shōwa Japan,Imperial Way Faction,May 15 Incident,andFebruary 26 Incident

Further information:Imperial Rule Assistance Association

Sadao Arakiwas an important figurehead and founder of the Army party and the most important militarist thinker in his time. His first ideological works date from his leadership of the Kōdōha (Imperial Benevolent Rule or Action Group), opposed by theTōseiha(Control Group) led by GeneralKazushige Ugaki.He linked the ancient (bushidocode) and contemporary local and European fascist ideals (seeStatism in Shōwa Japan), to form the ideological basis of the movement (Shōwa nationalism).

Rebel troops assembling at police headquarters during theFebruary 26 Incident

From September 1931, the Japanese were becoming more locked into the course that would lead them into the Second World War, with Araki leading the way. Increasing authoritarianism, ultranationalism,militarism,andexpansionismwere to become the rule, with fewer voices able to speak against it. In a September 23 news conference, Araki first mentioned the philosophy of "Kōdōha" (TheImperial Way Faction). The concept of Kodo linked the Emperor, the people, land, and morality as indivisible. This led to the creation of a "new" Shinto and increasedEmperor worship.

On February 26, 1936, a coup d'état was attempted (theFebruary 26 Incident). Launched by the ultranationalist Kōdōha faction with the military, it ultimately failed due to the intervention of the Emperor. Kōdōha members were purged from the top military positions and the Tōseiha faction gained dominance. However, both factions believed in expansionism, a strong military, and a coming war. Furthermore, Kōdōha members, while removed from the military, still had political influence within the government.

The state was being transformed to serve the Army and the Emperor. Symbolic katana swords came back into fashion as the martial embodiment of these beliefs, and theNambu pistolbecame its contemporary equivalent, with the implicit message that the Army doctrine of close combat would prevail. The final objective, as envisioned by Army thinkers such as Sadao Araki and right-wing line followers, was a return to the old Shogunate system, but in the form of a contemporary Military Shogunate. In such a government the Emperor would once more be a figurehead (as in the Edo period). Real power would fall to a leader very similar to a führer or duce, though with the power less nakedly held. On the other hand, the traditionalist Navy militarists defended the Emperor and a constitutional monarchy with a significant religious aspect.

A third point of view was supported byPrince Chichibu,a brother ofEmperor Shōwa,who repeatedly counseled him to implement adirect imperial rule,even if that meant suspending the constitution.

With the launching of theImperial Rule Assistance Associationin 1940 by Prime MinisterFumimaro Konoe,Japan would turn to a form of government that resembled totalitarianism. This unique style of government, similar tofascism,was known as "Shōwa Statism".There has been a debate among historians over defining the political system of Japan as a dictatorship and its resemblance to European Fascism: the aurguments in favour of this view were "the subordination of both country and society to militarism, control by a rigid style of leadership exercising authoritarian discipline, and the most brutal treatment of occupied areas", but it was noted that the Japanese far-right organizations lacked a mass movement similar to the mass Fascist movement in Europe, and some pluralism continued to exist even during the World War II:Stanley G. Paynedescribes Japan as "somewhat pluralistic authoritarian system which exhibited some of the characteristics of fascism, but it did not develop fascism's most distinctive and revolutionary aspects" and had more in common with theGerman Empireduring the World War I than with the Third Reich. It was also noted that this political system lacked the figure of a single person with an absolute authority and apersonality cult,since Hirohito couldn't be referred to as a dictator because of being a monarch, and since his authority existed along with party politics, while Hideki Tojo never had an absolute authority and was forced to resign, while the IRAA, according toRoger Griffin,was "little more than a bureaucratic fiction"; as historians noted, the ideological base for Japanese "was traditional, even if the methods of communication and control were modern and European", and that the traditional society of Japan was "to a large degree differential", while its institutions remained too elitist and conservative to follow such practices as a "democratic mass mobilization" characteristic of totalitarianism.

In the early twentieth century, a distinctive style of architecture was developed for the empire. Now referred to asImperial Crown Style( đế quan dạng thức,teikan yōshiki), before the end of World War II, it was originally referred to asEmperor's Crown Amalgamate Style,and sometimesEmperor's Crown Style( đế quan thức, Teikanshiki). The style is identified by Japanese-style roofing on top ofNeoclassicalstyled buildings; and can have a centrally elevated structure with a pyramidal dome. The prototype for this style was developed by architectShimoda Kikutaroin his proposal for the Imperial Diet Building (present National Diet Building) in 1920 – although his proposal was ultimately rejected. Outside of the Japanese mainland, in places likeTaiwanandKorea,Imperial Crown Style architecture often included regional architectural elements.

Overall, during the 1920s, Japan changed its direction toward a democratic system of government. However,parliamentary governmentwas not rooted deeply enough to withstand the economic and political pressures of the 1930s, during which military leaders became increasingly influential. These shifts in power were made possible by the ambiguity and imprecision of the Meiji Constitution, particularly as regarded the position of the Emperor in relation to the constitution.

Economic factors

A bank run during theShōwa financial crisis,March 1927

During the 1920s, the whole global economy was dubbed as "a decade of global uncertainty". At the same time, thezaibatsutrading groups (principallyMitsubishi,Mitsui,Sumitomo,andYasuda) looked towards great future expansion. Their main concern was a shortage of raw materials. Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe combined social concerns with the needs of capital, and planned for expansion. Their economic growth was stimulated by certain domestic policies and it can be seen in the steady and progressive increase of materials such as in the iron, steel and chemical industry.

The main goals of Japan's expansionism were acquisition and protection of spheres of influence, maintenance of territorial integrity, acquisition of raw materials, and access to Asian markets. Western nations, notably the United Kingdom, France, and the United States, had for long exhibited great interest in the commercial opportunities in China and other parts of Asia. These opportunities had attracted Western investment because of the availability of raw materials for both domestic production and re-export to Asia. Japan desired these opportunities in planning the development of theGreater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.

TheGreat Depression,just as in many other countries, hindered Japan's economic growth. The Japanese Empire's main problem lay in that rapid industrial expansion had turned the country into a major manufacturing and industrial power that required raw materials; however, these had to be obtained from overseas, as there was a critical lack of natural resources on the home islands.

In the 1920s and 1930s, Japan needed to import raw materials such as iron, rubber, and oil to maintain strong economic growth. Most of these resources came from the United States. The Japanese felt that acquiring resource-rich territories would establish economic self-sufficiency and independence, and they also hoped to jump-start the nation's economy in the midst of the depression. As a result, Japan set its sights on East Asia, specifically Manchuria with its many resources; Japan needed these resources to continue its economic development and maintain national integrity.

Later Shōwa (1931–1941)

Main articles:Hakkō ichiu,National Spiritual Mobilization Movement,andWorld War II

Prewar expansionism

Main articles:Japanese nationalismandGreater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere

Manchuria

Main articles:Mukden Incident,Japanese invasion of Manchuria,andPacification of Manchukuo

Japanese troops enteringShenyang,Northeast Chinaduring theMukden Incident,1931

In 1931, Japan invaded and conquered Northeast China (Manchuria) with little resistance. Japan claimed that this invasion was a liberation of the localManchusfrom the Chinese, although the majority of the population wereHan Chineseas a result of thelarge scale settlement of Chinese in Manchuriain the 19th century. Japan then established apuppet statecalledManchukuo(Chinese:Mãn châu quốc), and installed the lastManchu Emperor of China,Puyi,as the officialhead of state.Rehe,a Chinese territory bordering Manchukuo, was later also taken in 1933. This puppet regime had to carry on a protracted pacification campaign against theAnti-Japanese Volunteer Armiesin Manchuria. In 1936, Japan created a similar Mongolian puppet state in Inner Mongolia namedMengjiang(Chinese:Mông cương), which was also predominantly Chinese as a result of recent Han immigration to the area. At that time, East Asians were banned from immigration toNorth AmericaandAustralia,but the newly established Manchukuo was open to immigration of Asians. Japan had an emigration plan to encourage colonization; the Japanese population in Manchuria subsequently grew to 850,000.With rich natural resources and labor force in Manchuria, army-owned corporations turned Manchuria into a solid material support machine of the Japanese Army.

Second Sino-Japanese War

Main article:Second Sino-Japanese War

The Japanese occupation of Beiping (Beijing) in China, on August 13, 1937. Japanese troops are shown passing from Beiping into the Tartar City throughZhengyangmen,the main gate leading onward to the palaces in theForbidden City.

Japan invaded China proper in 1937, beginning a war against bothChiang Kai-shek's Nationalists and also the Communists ofMao Zedong'sunited front.On December 13 of that same year, the Nationalist capital ofNanjingsurrendered to Japanese troops.In the event known as the "Nanjing Massacre",Japanese troops killed many tens-of-thousands of people associated with the defending garrison. It is estimated that as many as 200,000 to 300,000 including civilians, may have been killed, although the actual numbers are uncertain and possibly inflated—coupled with the fact that the government of thePeople's Republic of Chinahas never undertaken a full accounting of the massacre. In total, an estimated 20 million Chinese, mostly civilians, were killed during World War II.A puppet statewas also set up in China quickly afterwards, headed byWang Jingwei.The Second Sino-Japanese War continued into World War II with the Communists and Nationalists in a temporary and uneasy nominal alliance against the Japanese.

Clashes with the Soviet Union

Main articles:Battle of Lake Khasan,Battles of Khalkhin Gol,andSoviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact

In 1938, the Japanese 19th Division entered territory claimed by the Soviet Union, leading to theBattle of Lake Khasan.This incursion was founded in the Japanese belief that the Soviet Union misinterpreted the demarcation of the boundary, as stipulated in theTreaty of Peking,between Imperial Russia and Manchu China (and subsequent supplementary agreements on demarcation), and furthermore, that the demarcation markers were tampered with.

On May 11, 1939, in the Nomonhan Incident(Battle of Khalkhin Gol),a Mongolian cavalry unit of some 70 to 90 men entered the disputed area in search of grazing for their horses, and encountered Manchukuoan cavalry, who drove them out. Two days later the Mongolian force returned and the Manchukoans were unable to evict them.

TheIJA 23rd Divisionand other units of theKwantung Armythen became involved.Joseph StalinorderedStavka,the Red Army's high command, to develop a plan for a counterstrike against the Japanese. In late August,Georgy Zhukovemployed encircling tactics that made skillful use of superior artillery, armor, and air forces; this offensive nearly annihilated the 23rd Division and decimated theIJA 7th Division.On September 15 an armistice was arranged. Nearly two years later, on April 13, 1941, the parties signed aNeutrality Pact,in which the Soviet Union pledged to respect the territorial integrity and inviolability of Manchukuo, while Japan agreed similarly for theMongolian People's Republic.

Tripartite Pact

Main articles:Tripartite PactandAxis powers

Signing ceremony for theTripartite Pact,September 27, 1940 inBerlin,Nazi Germany

In 1938, Japan prohibited the expulsion of theJewsin Japan, Manchuria, andChinain accordance with the spirit ofracial equalityon which Japan had insisted for many years.

The Second Sino-Japanese War had seen tensions rise between Imperial Japan and the United States; events such as thePanay incidentand the Nanjing Massacre turned American public opinion against Japan. With the occupation ofFrench Indochinain the years of 1940–41, and with the continuing war in China, the United States and its allies placed embargoes on Japan ofstrategic materialssuch as scrap metal and oil, which were vitally needed for the war effort. The Japanese were faced with the option of either withdrawing from China and losing face or seizing and securing new sources of raw materials in the resource-rich, European-controlled colonies ofSoutheast Asia—specificallyBritish Malayaand theDutch East Indies(modern-dayIndonesia).

On September 27, 1940, Japan signed theTripartite PactwithGermanyandItaly.Their objectives were to "establish and maintain a new order of things" in their respective world regions and spheres of influence, with Germany and Italy in Europe, and Japan in Asia. The signatories of thisalliancebecame known as theAxis Powers.The pact also called for mutual protection—if any one of the member powers was attacked by a country not already at war, excluding theSoviet Unionand for technological and economic cooperation between the signatories.

For the sake of their own people and nation, Prime Minister Konoe formed the Taisei Yokusankai (Imperial Rule Assistance Association) on October 12, 1940, as a ruling party in Japan.

In 1940 Japancelebrated the 2600th anniversary of Jimmu's ascensionand built a monument toHakkō ichiudespite the fact that all historians knew Jimmu was a made up figure. In 1941 the Japanese government charged the one historian who dared to challenge Jimmu's existence publicly, Tsuda Sokichi.During the Second Sino-Japanese War and theSecond World War,the firmIwanami Shotenwas repeatedly censored because of its positions against the war and the Emperor. Shigeo Iwanami was even sentenced to two months in prison for the publication of the banned works of Tsuda Sōkichi (a sentence which he did not serve, however). Shortly before his death in 1946, he founded the newspaperSekai,which had a great influence in post-war Japanese intellectual circles.The early 20th century historianTsuda Sōkichi,who put forward the then-controversial theory that theKojiki's accounts were not based on history (as Edo periodkokugakuand State Shinto ideology believed them to be) but rather propagandistic myths concocted to explain and legitimize the rule of the imperial dynasty, also sawSusanooas a negative figure, arguing that he was created to serve as the rebellious opposite of the imperial ancestress Amaterasu.Ahistorianin 20th century, Sokichi Tsuda's view of history, which has become mainstream after the World War II, is based on his idea. Many scholars today also believe that the mythology ofTakamagaharainKojikiwas created by theruling classto make people believe that the class was precious because they originated in the heavenly realm.

World War II (1941–1945)

Main articles:Japan during World War IIandPacific War

Map of Japanese conquests from 1937 to 1942

On November 5, 1941, Yamamoto in his "Top Secret Operation Order no. 1" issued to the Combined Fleet, the Empire of Japan must drive out Britain and America from Greater East Asia and to hasten the settlement of the China, whereas should the eventuality that Britain and America would really be driven out from the Philippines and Dutch East Indies, an independent, self-supporting economic entity will be firmly established – mirroring the principle of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere in another personification.

Facing an oil embargo by the United States as well as dwindling domestic reserves, the Japanese government decided to execute a plan developed byIsoroku Yamamototo attack the United States Pacific Fleet in Hawaii. While the United States wasneutraland continued negotiating with Japan for possible peace in Asia, the Imperial Japanese Navy at the same time made its surpriseattack on Pearl HarborinHonoluluon December 7, 1941. As a result, the U.S. battleship fleet was decimated and almost 2,500 people died in the attack that day. The primary objective of the attack was to incapacitate the United States long enough for Japan to establish its long-planned South East Asian empire and defensible buffer zones. The American public saw the attack as barbaric and treacherous and rallied against the Japanese. Four days later,Adolf Hitlerof Germany, andBenito Mussoliniof Italy declared war on the United States, merging the separate conflicts. The United States entered theEuropean TheatreandPacific Theaterin full force, thereby bringing the United States to World War II on the side of theAllies.

Even as they launched the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, the Japanese were well aware that the United States had the capability to mount a counter-offensive against them. However, they believed that they could maintain their defensive perimeter and push back any attempt by the British and Americans that could incur enough losses to make the Allied forces consider making peace on the basis of Japan's retainment of the territories she had gained.

Japanese conquests

Victorious Japanese troops marching through the city center ofSingaporefollowing thecity's capturein February 1942

Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Japanese launched offensives against Allied forces in East and Southeast Asia, with simultaneous attacks inBritish Hong Kong,British Malaya and thePhilippines.Hong Kong surrenderedto the Japanese on December 25. InMalayathe Japanese overwhelmed an Allied army composed of British, Indian,AustralianandMalayforces. The Japanese were quickly able to advance down theMalayan Peninsula,forcing the Allied forces to retreat towardsSingapore.The Allies lacked aircover and tanks; the Japanese had complete air superiority. Thesinking of HMSPrince of Walesand HMSRepulseon December 10, 1941, led to the east coast of Malaya being exposed to Japanese landings and the elimination of British naval power in the area. By the end of January 1942, the last Allied forces crossed the strait of Johore and into Singapore.

On January 11, 1942, a Japanese submarine shelled the United States naval Station at Pago Pago in Samoa, suggesting that the Japanese were advancing to the direction of Australia and nearby Oceanic regions.

Inthe Philippines,the Japanese pushed the combined American-Filipino force towardsthe Bataan Peninsulaand later theisland of Corregidor.By January 1942,General Douglas MacArthurand PresidentManuel L. Quezonwereforced to fleein the face of Japanese advance. This marked one of the worst defeats suffered by the Americans, leaving over 70,000 American and Filipino prisoners of war in the custody of the Japanese. On February 15, 1942,Singapore,due to the overwhelming superiority of Japanese forces and encirclement tactics,fell to the Japanese,causing the largestsurrenderof British-led military personnel in history. An estimated 80,000 Australian, British and Indian troops were taken asprisoners of war,joining 50,000 taken in the Japanese invasion of Malaya (modern dayMalaysia). The Japanese then seized the key oil production zones ofBorneo,Central Java,Malang,Cebu,Sumatra,andDutch New Guineaof the lateDutch East Indies,defeating theDutch forces.However, Allied sabotage had made it difficult for the Japanese to restore oil production to its pre-war peak.The Japanese then consolidated their lines of supply through capturing key islands of thePacific,includingGuadalcanal.

Tide turns

A model representing the attack by dive bombers fromUSSYorktownandUSSEnterpriseon the Japanese aircraft carriersSōryū,AkagiandKagain the morning of June 4, 1942, during theBattle of Midway

Japanese military strategists were keenly aware of the unfavorable discrepancy between the industrial potential of Japan and the United States. Because of this they reasoned that Japanese success hinged on their ability to extend the strategic advantage gained atPearl Harborwith additional rapid strategic victories. The Japanese Command reasoned that only decisive destruction of the United States' Pacific Fleet and conquest of its remote outposts would ensure that the Japanese Empire would not be overwhelmed by America's industrial might.

In April 1942, Japan was bombed for the first time in theDoolittle Raid.During the same month, after the Japanese victory in the Battle of Bataan, theBataan Death Marchwas conducted, where 5,650 to 18,000 Filipinos died under the rule of the imperial army.In May 1942, failure to decisively defeat the Allies at theBattle of the Coral Sea,in spite of Japanese numerical superiority, equated to a strategic defeat for the Japanese. This setback was followed in June 1942 by the catastrophic loss of four fleet carriers at theBattle of Midway,the first decisive defeat for the Imperial Japanese Navy. It proved to be the turning point of the war as the Navy lost its offensive strategic capability and never managed to reconstruct the "'critical mass' of both large numbers of carriers and well-trained air groups".

Australian land forces defeated Japanese Marines in New Guinea at theBattle of Milne Bayin September 1942, which was the first land defeat suffered by the Japanese in the Pacific. Further victories by the Allies atGuadalcanalin September 1942 andNew Guineain 1943 put the Empire of Japan on the defensive for the remainder of the war, with Guadalcanal in particular sapping their already-limited oil supplies.During 1943 and 1944, Allied forces, backed by the industrial might and vast raw material resources of the United States, advanced steadily towards Japan. TheSixth United States Army,led byGeneral MacArthur,landed onLeyteon October 20, 1944. ThePalawan massacrewas committed by the imperial army against Filipinos in December 1944.In the subsequent months, during thePhilippines campaign (1944–45),the Allies, including the combined United States forces together with the native guerrilla units, recaptured the Philippines.

Surrender

Main articles:Surrender of Japan,Potsdam Declaration,andVictory over Japan Day

The rebuilt battlecruiserHarunasank at her moorings in the naval base ofKureon July 24 during aseries of bombings.

By 1944, the Allies had seized or bypassed and neutralized many of Japan's strategic bases through amphibious landings and bombardment. This, coupled with the losses inflicted byAllied submarineson Japanese shipping routes, began to strangle Japan's economy and undermine its ability to supply its army. By early 1945, the US Marines had wrested control of theOgasawara Islandsin several hard-fought battles such as theBattle of Iwo Jima,marking the beginning of the fall of the islands of Japan. After securing airfields inSaipanandGuamin the summer of 1944, theUnited States Army Air Forcesconducted an intensestrategic bombing campaignby havingB-29 Superfortressbombers in nighttime low altitude incendiary raids, burning Japanese cities in an effort to pulverize Japan's war industry andshatter its morale.TheOperation Meetinghouseraid on Tokyo on the night of March 9–10, 1945, led to the deaths of approximately 120,000 civilians. Approximately 350,000–500,000 civilians died in 67 Japanese cities as a result of theincendiary bombingcampaign on Japan. Concurrent with these attacks, Japan's vital coastal shipping operations were severely hampered with extensive aerial mining by the US'sOperation Starvation.Regardless, these efforts did not succeed in persuading the Japanese military to surrender. In mid-August 1945, the United States droppednuclear weaponson the Japanese cities ofHiroshimaandNagasaki.These bombings were the first and only combat use of nuclear weaponry. These two bombs killed approximately 120,000 people in a matter of seconds, and as many as a result ofnuclear radiationin the following weeks, months and years. The bombs killed as many as 140,000 people in Hiroshima and 80,000 in Nagasaki by the end of 1945.

At theYalta agreement,the US, the UK, and the USSR had agreed that the USSR would enter the war on Japan within three months of the defeat of Germany in Europe. ThisSoviet–Japanese Warled to the fall of Japan's Manchurian occupation, Soviet occupation ofSouth Sakhalinisland, and a real, imminent threat of Soviet invasion of the home islands of Japan. This was a significant factor for some internal parties in the Japanese decision to surrender to the USand gain some protection, rather than face simultaneous Soviet invasion as well as defeat by the US and its allies. Likewise, thesuperior numbers of the armies of the Soviet Union in Europewas a factor in the US decision to demonstrate the use of atomic weapons to the USSR,just as the Allied victory in Europe was evolving into thedivision of Germanyand Berlin, the division of Europe with theIron Curtainand the subsequentCold War.

Having ignored (mokusatsu) thePotsdam Declaration,the Empire of Japan surrendered andended World War IIafter theatomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki,the declaration of war by the Soviet Union and subsequentinvasion of Manchuriaand other territories. In a national radio address on August 15,Emperor Hirohitoannounced the surrender to the Japanese people byGyokuon-hōsō.

End of the Empire of Japan

Occupation of Japan

Main article:Occupation of Japan

A drawing depicting a speech in theImperial Japanese Dieton November 1, 1945, following theend of the Second World War.In the foreground are several Allied soldiers watching the proceedings from the back of the balcony.

A period known asoccupied Japanfollowed after the war, largely spearheaded by US Army General Douglas MacArthur to revise the Japanese constitution and de-militarize the nation. The Allied occupation, including concurrent economic and political assistance, continued until 1952. Allied forces ordered Japan to abolish the Meiji Constitution and enforce the 1947Constitution of Japan.This new constitution was imposed by the United States under the supervision of MacArthur. MacArthur includedArticle 9which changed Japan into apacifistcountry.

Upon adoption of the 1947 constitution, the Empire of Japan dissolved and became simply themodern state of Japan,and all the territories such as Taiwan, Korea, Karafuto, and Kuril were lost. With the formal surrender, Japan was much reduced to the territories as it istoday;mostly the islands ofHonshu,Hokkaido,Kyushu,andShikoku.TheKuril Islandshistorically belonged to Japanand were first inhabited by theAinu peoplebefore coming under the control of theMatsumae clanduring theEdo Period.Since 1945, Kuril has belonged to theSoviet Unionand nowRussia.

Japan adopted a parliamentary-based political system, and the role of the Emperor became symbolic. TheUS occupation forceswere fully responsible for protecting Japan from external threats. Japan only had a minor police force for domestic security. Japan was under the sole control of the United States. This was the only time inJapanese historythat it was occupied by a foreign power.

General MacArthur later commended the new Japanese government that he helped establish and the new Japanese period when he was about to send the American forces to theKorean War:

The Japanese people, since the war, have undergone the greatest reformation recorded in modern history. With a commendable will, eagerness to learn, and marked capacity to understand, they have, from the ashes left in war's wake, erected in Japan an edifice dedicated to the supremacy of individual liberty and personal dignity; and in the ensuing process there has been created a truly representative government committed to the advance of political morality, freedom of economic enterprise, and social justice. Politically, economically, and socially Japan is now abreast of many free nations of the earth and will not again fail the universal trust.... I sent all four of our occupation divisions to the Korean battlefront without the slightest qualms as to the effect of the resulting power vacuum upon Japan. The results fully justified my faith. I know of no nation more serene, orderly, and industrious, nor in which higher hopes can be entertained for future constructive service in the advance of the human race.

For historianJohn W. Dower:

In retrospect, apart from the military officer corps, the purge of alleged militarists and ultranationalists that was conducted under the Occupation had relatively small impact on the long-term composition of men of influence in the public and private sectors. The purge initially brought new blood into the political parties, but this was offset by the return of huge numbers of formerly purged conservative politicians to national as well as local politics in the early 1950s. In the bureaucracy, the purge was negligible from the outset.... In the economic sector, the purge similarly was only mildly disruptive, affecting less than sixteen hundred individuals spread among some four hundred companies. Everywhere one looks, the corridors of power in postwar Japan are crowded with men whose talents had already been recognized during the war years, and who found the same talents highly prized in the 'new' Japan.

Influential personnel

Main article:List of Japanese government and military commanders of World War II

Political

In the administration of Japan dominated by the military political movement during World War II, the civil central government was under the management of military men and their right-wing civilian allies, along with members of the nobility andImperial Family.The Emperor was in the center of this power structure as supremeCommander-in-Chiefof the Imperial Armed Forces and head of state.

Early period:

• HIH PrinceKitashirakawa Yoshihisa
• HIH PrinceKitashirakawa Naruhisa
• HIH PrinceKomatsu Akihito
• HIH Marquess Michitsune Koga
• PrinceYamagata Aritomo
• PrinceItō Hirobumi
• PrinceKatsura Tarō

World War II:

• PrinceFumimaro Konoe
• Kōki Hirota
• Hideki Tojo

• 
  PrinceItō Hirobumi
• 
  His Imperial Highness PrinceKitashirakawa Naruhisa,the 3rd head of a collateral branch of the Japanese Imperial Family
• 
  His Imperial Highness Marquess Michitsune Koga, a member of theImperial Family,descending fromEmperor Murakami.He was the former Governor ofTokyo Prefecture.
• 
  His Imperial Highness Count Nagayoshi Ogasawara, a member of the Imperial Family

Diplomats

Early period

• MarquessKomura Jutarō:Boxer Protocol& theTreaty of Portsmouth
• CountMutsu Munemitsu:Treaty of Shimonoseki
• CountHayashi Tadasu:Anglo-Japanese Alliance
• CountKaneko Kentarō:envoy to theUnited States
• ViscountAoki Shūzō:Foreign Minister of Japan,Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation
• ViscountTorii Tadafumi:Vice Consul to theKingdom of Hawaii
• ViscountIshii Kikujiro:Lansing–Ishii Agreement

World War II

• BaronHiroshi Ōshima:Japanese ambassador toNazi Germany

Military

Main article:Armed Forces of the Empire of Japan

From left to right: Marshal AdmiralHeihachirō Tōgō(1848–1934), Field MarshalOku Yasukata(1847–1930), Marshal AdmiralYoshika Inoue(1845–1929) and Field MarshalKageaki Kawamura(1850–1926), at the unveiling ceremony of the bronze statue of Field MarshalIwao Ōyama

The Empire of Japan's military was divided into two main branches: the Imperial Japanese Army and the Imperial Japanese Navy. To coordinate operations, theImperial General Headquarters,headed by the Emperor, was established in 1893. Prominent generals and leaders:

Imperial Japanese Army

Early period

• Field MarshalPrinceYamagata Aritomo:Chief of Staff of the Army, Prime Minister of Japan, Founder of the IJA
• Field Marshal PrinceŌyama Iwao:Chief of Staff of the Army
• Field Marshal PrinceKomatsu Akihito:Chief of Staff of the Army
• Field Marshal MarquisNozu Michitsura:
• General CountNogi Maresuke:Governor of Taiwan
• General CountAkiyama Yoshifuru:Chief of Staff of the Army
• General CountKuroki Tamemoto
• General CountNagaoka Gaishi
• Lieutenant General BaronŌshima Ken'ichi:Chief of Staff of the Army,Minister of WarduringWorld War I
• General ViscountKodama Gentarō:Chief of Staff of the Army, Governor of Taiwan

World War II

• Field Marshal PrinceKotohito Kan'in:Chief of Staff of the Army
• Field MarshalHajime Sugiyama:Chief of Staff of the Army
• GeneralSenjūrō Hayashi:Chief of Staff of the Army, Prime Minister of Japan
• GeneralHideki Tōjō:Prime Minister of Japan
• GeneralYoshijirō Umezu:Chief of Staff of the Army

Imperial Japanese Navy

Early period

• Marshal AdmiralPrince Higashifushimi Yorihito(1867–1922)
• Marshal AdmiralMarquessTōgō Heihachirō(1847–1934),Battle of Tsushima
• Marshal AdmiralCountItō Sukeyuki(1843–1914)
• Admiral CountKawamura Sumiyoshi(1836–1904)
• Marshal AdmiralViscountInoue Yoshika(1845–1929)
• Marshal AdmiralBaronIjuin Gorō(1852–1921)
• Marshal Admiral BaronKatō Tomosaburō(1861–1923)
• Admiral Baron Akamatsu Noriyoshi (1841–1920)
• Vice AdmiralAkiyama Saneyuki(1868–1918), Battle of Tsushima

World War II

• Marshal AdmiralMineichi Koga(1885–1944)
• Marshal AdmiralIsoroku Yamamoto(1884–1943),attack on Pearl Harbor,Battle of Midway
• Marshal AdmiralOsami Nagano(1880–1947)
• AdmiralChūichi Nagumo(1887–1944), attack on Pearl Harbor, Battle of Midway
• Rear AdmiralViscountMorio Matsudaira(1878–1944)

Demographics

Main article:Demography of the Empire of Japan

Population density map ofpresent-day Japanand southernKuril(1920)

Population density map of present-day Japan and southern Kuril (1940)

Economy

Main article:Economy of the Empire of Japan

Education

Main article:Education in the Empire of Japan

Notable scholars/scientists

19th century

• 
  Hirase Sakugorō(1856–1925) was a botanist, who won theImperial Prizein 1912.
• 
  Ōtsuki Fumihiko(1847–1928), editor of two well-known Japanese-languagedictionaries,Genkai(Ngôn hải,"sea of words", 1891) and its successorDaigenkai(Đại ngôn hải,"great sea of words", 1932–1937)
• 
  BaronKeisuke Ito(1803–1901) was a biologist and a professor at theImperial University in Tokyo(University of Tokyo).
• 
  Kiyoo Wadati(1902–1995) was a seismologist, who won theImperial Prizein 1932.
• 
  Teiji Takagi(1875–1960) was a mathematician who made seminal contributions toclass field theory,and a member of the selection committee for the firstFields Medal.

Anthropologists, ethnologists, archaeologists, and historians

• Ōtsuki Fumihiko(1847–1928)
• Yusuke Hashiba(1851–1921)
• Koganei Yoshikiyo(1859–1944)
• Naitō Torajirō(1866–1934)
• Inō Kanori(1867–1925)
• Torii Ryūzō(1870–1953)
• Fujioka Katsuji (1872–1935)
• Masaharu Anesaki(1873–1949)
• Kunio Yanagita(1875–1962)
• Ushinosuke Mori(1877–1926)
• Ryūsaku Tsunoda(1877–1964)
• Kōsaku Hamada(1881–1938)
• Kyōsuke Kindaichi(1882–1971)
• Tetsuji Morohashi(1883–1982)
• Tsuruko Haraguchi(1886–1915)
• Shinobu Orikuchi(1887–1953)
• Zenchū Nakahara(1890–1964)

Medical scientists, biologists, evolutionary theorists, and geneticists

• Keisuke Ito(1803–1901)
• Kusumoto Ine(1827–1903)
• Nagayo Sensai(1838–1902)
• Tanaka Yoshio(1838–1916)
• Nagai Nagayoshi(1844–1929)
• Miyake Hiizu (1848–1938)
• Takaki Kanehiro(1849–1920)
• Kitasato Shibasaburō(1853–1931)
• Hirase Sakugorō(1856–1925)
• Jinzō Matsumura(1856–1928)
• Juntaro takahashi (1856–1920)
• Aoyama Tanemichi(1859–1917)
• Yoichirō Hirase(1859–1925)
• Ishikawa Chiyomatsu(1861–1935)
• Tomitaro Makino(1862–1957)
• Yamagiwa Katsusaburō(1863–1930)
• Yu Fujikawa (1865–1940)
• Fujiro Katsurada(1867–1946)
• Kamakichi Kishinouye(1867–1929)
• Yasuyoshi Shirasawa(1868–1947)
• Takuji Iwasaki(1869–1937)
• Kiyoshi Shiga(1871–1957)
• Heijiro Nakayama(1871–1956)
• Sunao Tawara(1873–1952)
• Bunzō Hayata(1874–1934)
• Ryukichi Inada(1874–1950)
• Kensuke Mitsuda(1876–1964)
• Hideyo Noguchi(1876–1928)
• Fukushi Masaichi(1878–1956)
• Takaoki Sasaki(1878–1966)
• Gennosuke Fuse(1880–1946)
• Kono Yasui(1880–1971)
• Hakaru Hashimoto(1881–1934)
• Ichiro Miyake(1881–1964)
• Kunihiko Hashida(1882–1945)
• Takenoshin Nakai(1882–1952)
• Kyusaku Ogino(1882–1975)
• Gen-ichi Koidzumi(1883–1953)
• Makoto Nishimura(1883–1956)
• Shintarō Hirase(1884–1939)
• Tamezo Mori(1884–1962)
• Kanesuke Hara(1885–1962)
• Chōzaburō Tanaka(1885–1976)
• Michiyo Tsujimura(1888–1969)
• Yaichirō Okada(1892–1976)
• Ikuro Takahashi(1892–1981)
• Hitoshi Kihara(1893–1986)
• Satyu Yamaguti(1894–1976)
• Kinichiro Sakaguchi(1897–1994)
• Minoru Shirota(1899–1982)
• Genkei Masamune(1899–1993)

Inventors, industrialists, engineers

• Tanaka Hisashige(1799–1881)
• Ōshima Takatō(1826–1901)
• Yamao Yōzō(1837–1917)
• Murata Tsuneyoshi (1838–1921)
• Masuda Takashi(1848–1938)
• Sasō Sachū(1852–1905)
• Arisaka Nariakira(1852–1915)
• Furuichi Kōi(1854–1934)
• Hirai Seijirō(1856–1926)
• Dan Takuma(1858–1932)
• Mikimoto Kōkichi(1858–1954)
• Shimose Masachika (1860–1911)
• Kotaro Shimomura(1861–1937)
• Chūhachi Ninomiya(1866–1936)
• Sakichi Toyoda(1867–1930)
• Kijirō Nambu(1869–1949)
• Namihei Odaira(1874–1951)
• Jujiro Matsuda(1875–1952)
• Masuda Tarokaja (1875–1953)
• Ryōichi Yazu(1878–1908)
• Yoshisuke Aikawa(1880–1967)
• Noritsugu Hayakawa(1881–1942)
• Miekichi Suzuki(1882–1936)
• Chikuhei Nakajima(1884–1949)
• Hidetsugu Yagi(1886–1976)
• Michio Suzuki(1887–1982)
• Yasujiro Niwa(1893–1975)
• Tokuji Hayakawa(1893–1980)
• Kōnosuke Matsushita(1894–1989)
• Kinjiro Okabe(1896–1984)
• Toshiwo Doko(1896–1988)
• Kenjiro Takayanagi(1899–1990)

Philosophers, educators, mathematicians, and polymaths

• Inoue Enryō(1799–1881)
• Nishimura Shigeki(1828–1902)
• Nishi Amane(1829–1897)
• Kikuchi Dairoku(1855–1917)
• Hōjō Tokiyuki(1858–1929)
• Rikitaro Fujisawa(1861–1933)
• Mitsutaro Shirai(1863–1932)
• Nitobe Inazō(1862–1933)
• Paul Tsuchihashi(1866–1965)
• Kintarô Okamura(1867–1935)
• Totsudō Katō (1870–1949)
• Tsuruichi Hayashi(1873–1935)
• Yoshio Mikami(1875–1950)
• Teiji Takagi(1875–1960)
• Matsusaburo Fujiwara(1881–1946)
• Yoshishige Abe(1883–1966)
• Sōichi Kakeya(1886–1947)

Chemists, physicists, and geologists

• Jōkichi Takamine(1854–1922)
• Yamakawa Kenjirō(1854–1931)
• Sekiya Seikei(1855–1896)
• Tanakadate Aikitsu(1856–1952)
• Kikunae Ikeda(1864–1936)
• Masataka Ogawa(1865–1930)
• Hantaro Nagaoka(1865–1950)
• Fusakichi Omori(1868–1923)
• Shin Hirayama(1868–1945)
• Hisashi Kimura(1870–1943)
• Akitsune Imamura(1870–1948)
• Kotaro Honda(1870–1954)
• Harutaro Murakami(1872–1947)
• Shinzo Shinjo(1873–1938)
• Umetaro Suzuki(1874–1943)
• Kiyotsugu Hirayama(1874–1943)
• Suekichi Kinoshita (1877–1935)
• Torahiko Terada(1878–1935)
• Masatoshi Ōkōchi(1878–1952)
• Keiichi Aichi(1880–1923)
• Jun Ishiwara(1881–1947)
• Yasuhiko Asahina(1881–1975)
• Satoyasu Iimori(1885–1982)
• Akira Ogata(1887–1978)
• Yoshio Nishina(1890–1951)
• Tokushichi Mishima(1893–1975)
• Masuzo Shikata(1895–1964)
• Hakaru Masumoto(1895–1987)
• Okuro Oikawa(1896–1970)
• Ozawa Yoshiaki(1899–1929)

20th century

• Mako
• Yoji Ito
• Satosi Watanabe
• Seiji Naruse
• Takeo Doi
• Tatsuo Hasegawa
• Kiro Honjo
• Jiro Horikoshi
• Hideo Itokawa
• Soichiro Honda
• Yanosuke Hirai
• Katsuji Miyazaki
• Shinroku Momose
• Ryoichi Nakagawa
• Jiro Tanaka
• Noriaki Fukuyama
• Eizaburo Nishibori
• Shin'ichirō Tomonaga
• Kiyoo Wadati
• Shokichi Iyanaga
• Hideki Yukawa
• Takeo Hatanaka
• Kazuo Kubokawa
• Tomizo Yoshida
• Kiyosi Itô
• Shoichi Sakata
• Yutaka Taniyama
• Kôdi Husimi
• Seishi Kikuchi
• Taketani Mitsuo
• Takahiko Yamanouchi
• Shigeyoshi Matsumae
• Shigeo Shingo
• Nobuchika Sugimura
• Jisaburo Ohwi
• Yo Takenaka
• Sanshi Imai
• Kikutaro Baba
• Katsuzo Kuronuma
• Yasunori Miyoshi
• Katsuma Dan
• Hiroshi Nakamura
• Ukichiro Nakaya
• Yusuke Hagihara
• Isao Imai
• Shintaro Uda
• Kinjiro Okabe
• Ozawa Yoshiaki
• Issaku Koga
• Yuzuru Hiraga
• Jiro Horikoshi
• Yoshiro Okabe
• Motonori Matuyama
• Masauji Hachisuka
• Tokubei Kuroda
• Hikosaka Tadayoshi
• Bunsaku Arakatsu
• Shinji Maejima
• Takahito, Prince Mikasa
• Toshihiko Izutsu
• Kawachi Yoshihiro
• Katsutada Sezawa
• Katsura Kotaro

Timeline (1926-1947)

• 1926:Emperor Taishōdies (December 25).
• 1927:Tanaka Giichibecomes prime minister (April 20).
• 1928:Emperor Shōwais formally installed as emperor (November 10).
• 1929:Osachi Hamaguchibecomes prime minister (July 2).
• 1930: Hamaguchi is wounded in an assassination attempt (November 14).
• 1931: Hamaguchi dies andWakatsuki Reijirōbecomes prime minister (April 14).Japan occupies Manchuriaafter theMukden Incident(September 18).Inukai Tsuyoshibecomes prime minister (December 13) and increases funding for the military in China.
• 1932: After an attack on Japanese monks in Shanghai (January 18), Japanese forcesshell the city(January 29).Manchukuois established withHenry Pu Yias emperor (February 29). Inukai is assassinated duringa coup attemptandSaitō Makotobecomes prime minister (May 15). Japan is censured by theLeague of Nations(December 7).
• 1933: Japan leaves the League of Nations (March 27).
• 1934:Keisuke Okadabecomes prime minister (July 8). Japan withdraws from theWashington Naval Treaty(December 29).
• 1936: Coup attempt (February 26 Incident).Kōki Hirotabecomes prime minister (March 9). Japan signsits first pactwith Germany (November 25) andreoccupiesTsingtao(December 3).Mengjiangestablished inInner Mongolia.
• 1937:Senjūrō Hayashibecomes prime minister (February 2). PrinceFumimaro Konoebecomes prime minister (June 4).Battle of Lugou Bridge(July 7). Japancaptures Beijing(July 31). Japanese troopsoccupyNanjing(December 13), beginning theNanjing Massacre.
• 1938:Battle of Taierzhuang(March 24).Cantonfallsto Japanese forces (October 21).
• 1939:Hiranuma Kiichirōbecomes prime minister (January 5). Japan annexs theSpratly Islands(March 30) (and theParacel Islandsin 1941). Abe Nobuyuki becomes prime minister (August 30).
• 1940:Mitsumasa Yonaibecomes prime minister (January 16). Konoe becomes prime minister for a second term (July 22).Hundred Regiments Offensive(August–September). Japanoccupies French Indochinain the wake of thefall of Paris,and signs theTripartite Pact(September 27).
• 1941: GeneralHideki Tojobecomes prime minister (October 18).Japanese naval forces attack Pearl Harbor,Hawaii (December 7), prompting the United States to declare war on Japan (December 8). Japanconquers Hong Kong(December 25).
• 1942:Battle of Ambon(January 30 – February 3).Battle of Palembang(February 13–15).Singapore surrendersto Japan (February 15).Japan bombs Australia (February 19).Indian Ocean raid(March 31 – April 10).Doolittle Raidon Tokyo (April 18).Battle of the Coral Sea(May 4–8). U.S. andFilipinoforces in theBattle of the Philippines (1942)surrender (May 8). Allied victory at theBattle of Midway(June 6). Allied victory in theBattle of Milne Bay(September 5).Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands(October 25–27).
• 1943: Allied victory in theBattle of Guadalcanal(February 9). Allied victory at theBattle of Tarawa(November 23).
• 1944: Tojo resigns andKuniaki Koisobecomes prime minister (July 22).Battle of Leyte Gulf(October 23–26).
• 1945: Allied bombers begin firebombing of major Japanese cities. Allied victory at theBattle of Iwo Jima(March 26). AdmiralKantarō Suzukibecomes prime minister (April 7). Allied victory at theBattle of Okinawa(June 21). The US dropsatomic bombsonHiroshima(August 6) andNagasaki(August 9), the Soviet Union and Mongolia invadeManchukuo,ChineseMengjiang(Inner Mongolia), and Japan (northernKorea,South Sakhalinand theKuril Islands) (August 9 – September 2). Japan surrenders (September 2): Allied occupation begins.
• 1947: TheConstitution of Japancomes into force.

Emperors

Posthumous name1	Given name2	Childhood name3	Period of reign	Era name4
Meiji (Minh trị thiên hoàng)	Mutsuhito (Mục nhân)	Sachi-no-miya (Hữu cung)	1868–1912 (1890–1912)5	Meiji
Taisho (Đại chính thiên hoàng)	Yoshihito (Gia nhân)	Haru-no-miya (Minh cung)	1912–26	Taishō
Showa (Chiêu hòa thiên hoàng)	Hirohito (Dụ nhân)	Michi-no-miya (Địch cung)	1926–896	Shōwa
1Each posthumous name was given after the respective era names asMingandQingDynasties of China.
2The Japanese imperial family name has no surname or dynastic name.
3Emperor Meiji was known only by the appellationSachi-no-miyafrom his birth until November 11, 1860, when he was proclaimed heir apparent toEmperor Kōmeiand received the personal nameMutsuhito.
4No multiple era names were given for each reign after Emperor Meiji.
5Constitutionally
6Constitutionally. The reign of the Shōwa Emperor in fact continued until 1989 since he did not abdicate after World War II. However, he lost his status as a living god and influence on politics after the 1947 constitution was adopted.

Emblems

• 
  Flag of the Empire of Japan from 1870 to 1999
• 
  War flag of the Imperial Japanese Army
• 
  Naval ensign of the Empire of Japan
• 
  Flag of the Japanese Emperor

See also

• Agriculture in the Empire of Japan
• Demography of the Empire of Japan
• Economy of the Empire of Japan
• Education in the Empire of Japan
• Emperor system
• Foreign commerce and shipping of the Empire of Japan
• Germany–Japan industrial co-operation before World War II
• Industrial production in Shōwa Japan
• Japanese nuclear weapon program
• List of territories occupied by Imperial Japan
• Political parties of the Empire of Japan

References

Bibliography

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• Nish, Ian Hill (2002).Japanese Foreign Policy in the Interwar Period.Westport, Connecticut: Praeger.ISBN978-0-275-94791-0.
• Porter, Robert P. (1918).Japan: The Rise of a Modern Power.Oxford.ISBN0-665-98994-6.
• Satow, Ernest Mason(1921).A Diplomat in Japan.London.ISBN4-925080-28-8.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
• Takemae, Eiji (2003).The Allied Occupation of Japan.Continuum Press.ISBN0-82641-521-0.
• Tsutsui, William M. (2009).A Companion to Japanese History.John Wiley & Sons.ISBN978-1-405-19339-9.

External links

• Media related toEmpire of Japanat Wikimedia Commons