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Incarnation

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"Incarnations" redirects here. For other uses, seeIncarnations (disambiguation).
Further information:Epic cycles of incarnations

Incarnationliterally meansembodied in fleshortaking on flesh.It is theconceptionand the embodiment of a deity or spirit in some earthly form[1]or ananthropomorphicform of a god.[2]It is used to mean agod,deity,or Divine Being in human or animal form on Earth. The proper noun, Incarnation, refers to theunion of divinity with humanityinJesus Christ.[1]

Abrahamic religions[edit]

Main article:God in Abrahamic religions

Christianity[edit]

Christ Pantocrator,God incarnate in theChristian faith,shown in a mosaic fromDaphni,Greece,ca. 1080–1100.
Main article:Incarnation (Christianity)

The incarnation ofChrist(or Incarnation) is the central Christian doctrine that God became flesh, assumed of human nature, and became a man in the form ofJesus,theSon of Godand the second person of theTrinity.This foundational Christian position holds that the divine nature of the Son of God was perfectly united with human nature in one divine Person,Jesus,making him both truly God and truly human. The theological term for this ishypostatic union:the second person of the Trinity,God the Son,became flesh when he was miraculously conceived in the womb of theVirgin Mary.[3]Biblical passages traditionally referenced in connection with the doctrine of the Incarnation includeJohn 3:1–21,Colossians 2:9,andPhilippians 2:7–8.

Islam[edit]

See also:Allah,God in Islam,Kalam,Tawhid,andTanzih

Islamcompletely rejects the doctrine of the incarnation (Mu'jassimā[4]/(Tajseem)Tajsīm) of God in any form, as the concept is defined asshirk.In Islam, God is one and "neither begets nor is begotten".[5]

Judaism[edit]

Main article:God in Judaism
See also:Chabad-Lubavitch related controversies

According to many modern scholars, theBiblicalandTalmudicview of God was anthropomorphic. God could sometimes appear in bodily form.[6]TheBabylonian Talmudcontains stories of earthly appearances of God,Elijah,Satan,anddemons.[7]

Since the time ofMaimonides,mainstreamJudaismhas mostly rejected any possibility of an incarnation of God in any form.[8]

However, some modern-dayHasidimbelieve in a somewhat similar concept.Menachem Mendel Schneerson,a prominentHasidicleader, said that theRebbeis God's essence itself put into the body of atzadik.[9]

Druze faith[edit]

See also:Druze § Beliefs

Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmadis considered the founder of theDruze faithand the primary author of the Druze manuscripts,[10]he proclaimed that God had become human and taken the form of man,al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.[11][12][13][14][15][16]al-Hakim bi-Amr Allahis an important figure in theDruzefaith whose eponymous founderad-Daraziproclaimed him as the incarnation of God in 1018.[11][12][17][18]

Historian David R. W. Bryer defines the Druzes asghulatof Isma'ilism, since they exaggerated the cult of the caliphal-Hakim bi-Amr Allahand considered him divine; he also defines the Druzes as a religion that deviated from Islam.[19]He also added that as a result of this deviation, the Druze faith "seems as different from Islam as Islam is from Christianity or Christianity is from Judaism".[20]

Some scholars believeChristian elementsare deeply embedded in Druze beliefs, introduced throughIsma’ili traditions.This is evident in the Druze creed, which deifies al-Hākim bi Amrillāh.[21]The initiation text, "Mīthāq Walī al-Zamān" (Pact of Time Custodian), which begins with, “I rely on our Moula Al-Hakim the lonely God, the individual, the eternal,... Obedience of almighty Moulana Al-Hākim, exalted be him and that obedience is worship and that he does not have any partners ever, present or coming”,[22]closely resembles Christian beliefs aboutJesus' divinity.[21]The Druze also view figures likeJesus,al-Hākim bi Amrillāh, andHamza ibn Alias theMessiahorMahdi.They believe al-Hākim will return at the end of times to judge the world and establish his kingdom, while Hamza ibn Ali is considered areincarnationof Jesus, the Universal Mind'Aql,closely associated with al-Hākim.[21]

Baháʼí Faith[edit]

Further information:God in the Baháʼí Faith

In theBaháʼí Faith,God is not seen to be incarnated into this world and is not seen to be part of creation as he cannot be divided and does not descend to the condition of his creatures.[23]TheManifestations of Godare also not seen as incarnations of God but are instead understood to be like perfect mirrors reflecting the attributes of God onto thematerial world.[24][25]

Buddhism[edit]

See also:Rebirth (Buddhism)

Buddhism is anontheistic religion:it denies the concept of acreator deityor any incarnation of a creator deity. However, Buddhism does teach therebirthdoctrine and asserts that living beings are reborn, endlessly,reincarnatingasdevas(gods), demi-gods, human beings, animals, hungry ghosts or hellish beings,[26]in a cycle ofsamsarathat stops only for those who reachnirvana(nibbana).[27][28][29]

InTibetan Buddhism,an enlightened spiritual teacher (lama) is believed to reincarnate, and is called atulku.According to Tulku Thond, there are three main types of tulkus. They are the emanations of buddhas, the manifestations of highly accomplished adepts, and rebirths of highly virtuous teachers or spiritual friends. There are also authentic secondary types, which include unrecognized tulkus, blessed tulkus, and tulkus fallen from the path.[30]

Hinduism[edit]

Main article:Avatar
Ten incarnations ofVishnu(Matsya,Kurma,Varaha,Vamana,Krishna,Kalki,Buddha,Parshurama,Rama&Narasimha). Painting fromJaipur,now at theVictoria and Albert Museum

InHinduism,incarnation refers to its rebirth doctrine, and in its theistic traditions toavatar.[31]Avatar literally means "descent, alight, to make one's appearance",[32]and refers to the embodiment of the essence of a superhuman being or a deity in another form.[33]The word also implies "to overcome, to remove, to bring down, to cross something".[32]In Hindu traditions, the "crossing or coming down" is symbolism, states Daniel Bassuk, of the divine descent from "eternity into the temporal realm, from unconditioned to the conditioned, from infinitude to finitude".[34]An avatar, states Justin Edwards Abbott, is asaguna(with form, attributes) embodiment of thenirguna BrahmanorAtman(soul).[35]

Neither theVedasnor thePrincipal Upanishadsever mentions the wordavataras a noun.[34]The verb roots and form, such asavatarana,do appear in ancient post-Vedic Hindu texts, but as "action of descending", but not as an incarnated person (avatara).[36]The related verbavataranais, statesPaul Hacker,used with double meaning, one as action of the divine descending, another as "laying down the burden of man" suffering from the forces of evil.[36]

The term is most commonly found in the context of the Hindu godVishnu.[32][37]The earliest mention of Vishnu manifested in a human form to empower the good and fight against evil, uses other terms such as the wordsambhavāmiin verse 4.6 and the wordtanuin verse 9.11 of theBhagavad Gita,[38]as well as other words such asakritiandrupaelsewhere.[39]It is inmedieval eratexts, those composed after the sixth century CE, that the noun version of avatar appears, where it means embodiment of a deity.[40]The incarnation idea proliferates thereafter, in thePuranicstories for many deities, and with ideas such asansha-avataror partial embodiments.[38][37]

While avatars of other deities such asGaneshaandShivaare also mentioned in medieval Hindu texts, this is minor and occasional.[41]The incarnation doctrine is one of the important differences between Vaishnavism and Shaivism traditions of Hinduism.[42][43]

Avatar versus incarnation[edit]

The translation of avatar as "incarnation" has been questioned by Christian theologians, who state that an incarnation is in flesh and imperfect, while avatar is mythical and perfect.[44][45]The theological concept of Christ as anincarnationinto the womb of the Virgin Mary and by work of the Holy Spirit, as found inChristology,presents the Christian concept of incarnation. This, stateMercy Amba Oduyoyeand H. M. Vroom, is different from the Hindu concept of avatar because avatars in Hinduism are unreal and the Christian concept is similar toDocetism.[46]Sheth disagrees and states that this claim is an incorrect understanding of the Hindu concept of avatar.[47][note 1]Avatars are true embodiments of spiritual perfection, one driven by noble goals, in Hindu traditions such asVaishnavism.[47]

Serer religion[edit]

TheSerer religionofWest Africarejects any notions of incarnation or manifestation of the supreme deityRoog(also called Koox in theCanginlanguage). However, thereincarnation(ciiɗ)[49]of theancient Serer saints and ancestral spirits,calledPangool,is a well-held principle in Serer religion. These Pangool (singular:Fangool) act as intermediaries between the living world and the divine. When the Serers speak of incarnation, it is thesePangoolthey refer to, who are themselves holy by virtue of their intercession with the divine.[49][50][51]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^Buddha, a real person, is included as an avatar of Vishnu in many Hindu texts.[48]

References[edit]

  1. ^ab"Definition of Incarnation".www.merriam-webster.com.Retrieved2022-05-28.
  2. ^"Cambridge Dictionary: Incarnation".Cambridge Dictionary.Cambridge University Press.
  3. ^"Incarnation".Encyclopædia Britannica.
  4. ^Muhammad Abu Zahra,İslâm’da Siyâsî ve İ’tikadî Mezhepler Tarihi,HistoryofMadhhabsinIslam,pp: 257 - 259,Fığlalı, Ethem Ruhiand Osman Eskicioğlu translation to Turkish, Yağmur, İstanbul, 1970.
  5. ^Quran, (112:1-4).
  6. ^Brand, Ezra."Some Notes on the Anthropomorphization of God in the Talmud".
  7. ^Brand, Ezra.""He appeared to him as a [X]": Talmudic Stories of Incarnations of God, Eliyahu, Satan, and Demons ".www.ezrabrand.com/.Retrieved10 January2024.
  8. ^L. Jacobs 1973A Jewish Theologyp. 24. N.Y.: Berman House
  9. ^Likkutei Sichos,Vol. 2, pp. 510-511.
  10. ^Hendrix, Scott; Okeja, Uchenna, eds. (2018).The World's Greatest Religious Leaders: How Religious Figures Helped Shape World History [2 volumes].ABC-CLIO. p. 11.ISBN978-1440841385.
  11. ^abWilli Frischauer (1970).The Aga Khans.Bodley Head. p.?.(Which page?)
  12. ^abIsmail K. Poonawala. "Review - The Fatimids and Their Traditions of Learning".Journal of the American Oriental Society.119(3): 542.doi:10.2307/605981.JSTOR605981.
  13. ^Minorities in the Middle East: A History of Struggle and Self-expression - Page 95 by Mordechai Nisan
  14. ^The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status - Page 41 by Nissim Dana
  15. ^Encyclopaedic Survey of Islamic Culture - Page 94 by Mohamed Taher
  16. ^Bryer, David R. W. (1975)."The Origins of the Druze Religion".Der Islam.52(1): 52–65.doi:10.1515/islm.1975.52.1.47.ISSN1613-0928.S2CID201807131.
  17. ^Zaman, Muhammad Qasim; Stewart, Devin J.; Mirza, Mahan; Kadi, Wadad; Crone, Patricia; Gerhard, Bowering; Hefner, Robert W.; Fahmy, Khaled; Kuran, Timur (2013).The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought.Princeton University Press. pp. 139–140.ISBN9780691134840.
  18. ^R. W. Bryer, David (1979).The Origins of the Druze Religion: An Edition of Ḥamza's Writings and an Analysis of His Doctrine.University of Oxford Press. p. 239.ISBN9780030525964.
  19. ^Bryer, David R. W. (1975)."The Origins of the Druze Religion".Der Islam.52(1): 52–65.doi:10.1515/islm.1975.52.1.47.ISSN1613-0928.S2CID201807131.
  20. ^Bryer, David R. W. (1975)."The Origins of the Druze Religion (Fortsetzung)".Der Islam.52(2): 239–262.doi:10.1515/islm.1975.52.2.239.ISSN1613-0928.S2CID162363556.
  21. ^abcMahmut, R. İbrahim (2023)."The Christian Influences in Ismaili Thought".The Journal of Iranian Studies.7(1): 83–99.doi:10.33201/iranian.1199758.
  22. ^Hanna Batatu (17 September 2012).Syria's Peasantry, the Descendants of Its Lesser Rural Notables, and Their Politics.Princeton University Press. pp. 15–16.ISBN978-1-4008-4584-2.
  23. ^`Abdu'l-Bahá(1981) [1904-06].Some Answered Questions.Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Baháʼí Publishing Trust. pp. 202–203.ISBN0-87743-190-6.
  24. ^Cole, Juan (1982)."The Concept of Manifestation in the Baháʼí Writings".Études Baháʼí Studies.monograph 9.Ottawa:Canadian Association for Studies on the Baháʼí Faith: 1–38.Retrieved2020-10-11– via Bahá'í Library Online.
  25. ^Hatcher, W.S.; Martin, J.D. (1998).The Baháʼí Faith: The Emerging Global Religion.San Francisco: Harper & Row. p. 118.ISBN0-87743-264-3.
  26. ^Trainor, Kevin (2004),Buddhism: The Illustrated Guide,Oxford University Press, pp. 61–64,ISBN978-0-19-517398-7
  27. ^Peter Harvey (2012).An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices.Cambridge University Press. pp. 32–33, 38–39, 46–49.ISBN978-0-521-85942-4.
  28. ^Robert E. Buswell Jr.; Donald S. Lopez Jr. (2013).The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism.Princeton University Press. pp. 708–709.ISBN978-1-4008-4805-8.
  29. ^Edward Craig (1998).Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy.Routledge. p. 402.ISBN978-0-415-18715-2.
  30. ^Tulku Thondup (2011) Incarnation: The History and Mysticism of the Tulku Tradition of Tibet. Boston: Shambhala.
  31. ^Thangaraj, M. Thomas (2008). "Religious Pluralism, Dialogue and Asian Christian Responses". InKim, Sebastian C. H.(ed.).Christian Theology in Asia.Cambridge University Press. pp. 169–176.ISBN978-1-139-47206-7.
  32. ^abcMonier Monier-Williams (1923).A Sanskrit-English Dictionary.Oxford University Press. p. 90.
  33. ^Sheth 2002,p. 98.
  34. ^abDaniel E Bassuk (1987).Incarnation in Hinduism and Christianity: The Myth of the God-Man.Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 2–4.ISBN978-1-349-08642-9.
  35. ^Justin Edwards Abbott (1980).Life of Tukaram: Translation from Mahipati's Bhaktalilamrita.Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 335–336.ISBN978-81-208-0170-7.
  36. ^abPaul Hacker 1978,pp. 415–417.
  37. ^abJames Lochtefeld (2002), "Avatar" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A-M, Rosen Publishing,ISBN0-8239-2287-1,pages 72-73
  38. ^abSheth 2002,pp. 98–99.
  39. ^Paul Hacker 1978,pp. 405–409.
  40. ^Paul Hacker 1978,pp. 424, also 405-409, 414–417.
  41. ^James Lochtefeld (2002), "Shiva" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing,ISBN0-8239-2287-1,page 635
  42. ^Lai Ah Eng (2008).Religious Diversity in Singapore.Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore. p. 221.ISBN978-981-230-754-5.
  43. ^Constance Jones; James D. Ryan (2006).Encyclopedia of Hinduism.Infobase. p. 474.ISBN978-0-8160-7564-5.
  44. ^Sheth 2002,pp. 107–109.
  45. ^Matchett, Freda (2001).Krishna, Lord or Avatara?: the relationship between Krishna and Vishnu.9780700712816. p. 4.ISBN978-0-7007-1281-6.
  46. ^Mercy Amba Oduyoye, H. M. Vroom,One gospel – many cultures: case studies and reflections on cross-cultural theology,Rodopi, 2003,ISBN978-90-420-0897-7,p. 111.
  47. ^abSheth 2002,p. 108.
  48. ^Sheth 2002,p. 99.
  49. ^abFaye, Louis Diène,Mort et Naissance Le Monde Sereer,Les Nouvelles Edition Africaines (1983), pp 9-10,ISBN2-7236-0868-9
  50. ^(in French)Thaiw, Issa Laye,« La religiosité des Seereer, avant et pendant leur islamisation », inÉthiopiques, no. 54, volume 7, 2e semestre 1991[1]Archived2019-09-25 at theWayback Machine
  51. ^Gravrand, Henry,La civilisation sereer, Cosaan: les origines,vol.1, Nouvelles Editions africaines (1983), p 33,ISBN2-7236-0877-8

Bibliography[edit]

External links[edit]

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