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Indian painting

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Indian painting
Clockwise from upper left:Ajanta fresco(450),Radha Bani thani(ca. 18th century),Gita Govindaseries (1825),Shakuntala(1870).
Art forms of India
Indian art
Religions
Periods
Techniques
Locations
See also

Indian paintinghas a very long tradition and history inIndian art.[1]The earliest Indian paintings were the rock paintings ofprehistorictimes, such as thepetroglyphsfound in places like theBhimbetka rock shelters.Some of the Stone Agerock paintingsfound among the Bhimbetka rock shelters are approximately 10,000 years old. Because of the climatic conditions in theIndian subcontinent,very few early examples survive today.

India's ancientHinduandBuddhistliterature has many mentions of palaces and other buildings decorated with paintings (chitra),[2]but the paintings of theAjanta Cavesare the most significant of the few ones which survive. Smaller scale painting in manuscripts was probably also practised in this period, though the earliest survivals are from the medieval period.[1]A new style emerged in the Mughal era as a fusion of thePersian miniaturewith older Indian traditions, and from the 17th century its style was diffused across Indian princely courts of all religions, each developing a local style.Company paintingswere made for British clients under theBritish raj,which from the 19th century also introducedart schoolsalong Western lines. This led to modern Indian painting, which is increasingly returning to its Indian roots.

Performance of Patua Sangeet by aPatua,with apattachitrascroll to illustrate,Kolkata

Indian paintings can be broadly classified as murals, miniatures and paintings on cloth. Murals are large works executed on the walls of solid structures, as in theAjanta Cavesand the Kailashnath temple.Miniature paintingsare executed on a very small scale for books or albums on perishable material such as paper and cloth. Traces of murals, infresco-like techniques, survive in a number of sites withIndian rock-cut architecture,going back at least 2,000 years, but the 1st and 5th-century remains at theAjanta Cavesare much the most significant.[3]

Paintings on cloth were often produced in a more popular context, often asfolk art,used for example by travelling reciters of epic poetry, such as theBhopasofRajasthanandChitrakathielsewhere, and bought as souvenirs of pilgrimages. Very few survivals are older than about 200 years, but it is clear the traditions are much older. Some regional traditions are still producing works.[4]

Overview of the main genres

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It seems clear that miniature painting, often illustrating manuscripts, has a very long history,[5]butJainminiatures from about the 12th century, mostly from West India, and slightly earlier Buddhist ones from thePala Empirein the east are the oldest to survive.[6]Similar Hindu illustrations survive from about the 15th century in the west, and 16th century in East India,[7]by which time the Mughal miniature underAkbarwas also sometimes illustrating translations into Persian of the Hindu epics and other subjects.[8]

The great period of Mughal court painting begins with the return ofHumayunfrom exile in Persia in 1555 and bringing Persian artists with him. It ends during the reign ofAurangzebwho rather disapproved of painting for religious reasons, and disbanded the large imperial workshop, by perhaps 1670. The artists dispersed to smaller princely courts, both Muslim and Hindu, and the "post-Mughal" style developed in many local variants.[9]These included different Rajasthani schools of painting like the Bundi, Kishangarh, Jaipur, Marwar and Mewar. The Ragamala paintings also belong to this school, as does the laterCompany paintingproduced for British clients from the mid-18th century.

Modern Indian art has seen the rise of theBengal School of artin 1930s followed by many forms of experimentations in European and Indian styles. The important artists of Bengal School of Art includeAbanindranath Tagore,Nandlal Bose,Rabindranath Tagore,Asit Kumar Haldar.It emerged as a powerful movement that sought to revive traditional Indian artistic practices and forge a unique national identity.[10]

In the aftermath of India's independence, many new genres of art developed by important artists like Jamini Roy,M. F. Husain,Francis Newton Souza,andVasudeo S. Gaitonde.With the progress of the economy the forms and styles of art also underwent many changes. In the 1990s, Indian economy was liberalised and integrated to the world economy leading to the free flow of cultural information within and without. Artists includeSubodh Gupta,Atul Dodiya,Devajyoti Ray,Bose KrishnamachariandJitish Kallatwhose works went for auction in international markets. Bharti Dayal has chosen to handle the traditionalMithila paintingin most contemporary way and created her own style through the exercises of her own imagination, they appear fresh and unusual.

History of Indian painting

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Prehistoric rock art

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The pre-historic paintings were generally executed on rocks and these rock engravings were calledpetroglyphs.These paintings generally depict animals like bison, bear, tigers etc.[11]The oldest Indian paintings are rock art in caves which are around 30,000 years old, such as theBhimbetka cave paintings.[12]

Literature

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There are many important dedicated Indian treatises on painting, traditionally calledchitra.Some of these are chapters within a larger encyclopedia-like texts. They date between the 4th and 13th-century CE. These include:[13][14]

  • Chitrasutras,chapters 35–43 within the Hindu textVishnudharmottara Purana(the standard, and oft referred to text in the Indian tradition)[15][16][17]
  • Chitralaksanaof Nagnajit (a classic on classical painting, 5th-century CE or earlier making it the oldest known text on Indian painting; but the Sanskrit version has been lost, only version available is in Tibet and it states that it is a translation of a Sanskrit text)[18]
  • Samarangana Sutradhara(mostly architecture treatise, contains a large section on paintings)
  • Aparajitaprccha(mostly architecture treatise, contains a large section on paintings)
  • Manasollasa(an encyclopedia, contains chapters on paintings)
  • Abhilashitartha chinatamani
  • Sivatatva ratnakara
  • Chitra Kaladruma
  • Silpa ratna
  • Narada silpa
  • Sarasvati silpa
  • Prajapati silpa
  • Kasyapa silpa

These and other texts on painting discuss the Indian ideas, theory and practice of painting, its relationship to other arts, methods of preparing the canvas or wall, recipes to make color pigments and other topics.[14][19][15]

Murals

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A mural painting depicting a scene fromMahajanaka Jataka,Cave 1,Ajanta

Thehistory of Indian muralsstarts in ancient and early medieval times, from the 2nd century BC to 8th – 10th century AD. There are known more than 20 locations around India containing murals from this period, mainly natural caves and rock-cut chambers. These include the caves ofAjanta,Bagh,Sittanavasal,Armamalai Cave(Tamil Nadu), Kailasanatha temple inEllora Caves,Ramgarhand Sitabinji.

Murals from this period depict mainly religious themes of Buddhist, Jain and Hindu religions. There are though also locations where paintings were secular. This includes the oldest known painted cave and theatre in Chhattisgarh – theJogimara and Sitabenga Caves– dated to between the 3rd to 1st century BCE.[20][21]

Pre-11th-century miniature paintings

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Early survivals of portable Indian paintings are all miniatures from texts (the great majority) or painted objects such as boxes. Despite considerable evidence that larger paintings on cloth (known aspata) existed, and indeed surviving texts discussing how to make them, not a single medieval Indian painting on cloth is known to survive, unless some Buddhist ones have been taken as Tibetan,[22]or from Central Asia. Some of the images recovered there by SirAurel Steinare Indian paintings, most being Buddhist and some with Hindu deities such as Ganesha and Shiva.[1]According to Blurton, such early paintings did not survive largely because of the deleterious climate of India, as well as due to the "added problem of Muslim iconoclasm" in the centuries that followed.[1]

The pattern of large scale wall painting which had dominated the scene, witnessed the advent of miniature paintings during the 11th and 12th centuries. This new style figured first in the form of illustrations etched on palm-leaf manuscripts.[citation needed]

Eastern India

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In eastern India, the principal centres of artistic and intellectual activities of the Buddhist religion were Nalanda, Odantapuri, Vikramshila and Somarpura situated in the Pala kingdom (Bengal and Bihar). Miniature painting from this region survives from the 10th century. These miniatures, depicting Buddhist divinities and scenes from the life of Buddha were painted on the leaves (about 2.25 by 3 inches) of the palm-leaf manuscripts as well as their wooden covers. Most common Buddhist illustrated manuscripts include the textsAstasahasrika Prajnaparamita,[23]Pancharaksa,KarandavyuhaandKalachakra Tantra.The earliest extant miniatures are found in a manuscript of theAstasahasrika Prajnaparamitadated in the sixth regnal year ofMahipala(c. 993), presently the possession ofThe Asiatic Society,Kolkata. This style disappeared from India in the late 12th century.

The influence of eastern Indian paintings can be seen in various Buddhist temples inBagan,MyanmarparticularlyAbeyadana templewhich was named after Queen consort of Myanmar,Abeyadanawho herself had Indian roots andGubyaukgyi Temple.[24]The influences of eastern Indian paintings can also be clearly observed inTibetan Thangkapaintings.[25]

Western India

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Further information:Jain art

Surviving illustrated manuscripts from Western India, mainlyGujarat,begin around the 11th century, but are mostly from the 13th onwards. Initially surviving examples are allJain.By the 15th-century they were becoming increasingly lavish, with much use of gold.[26]

The manuscript text most frequently illustrated is theKalpa Sūtra,containing the biographies of theTirthankaras,notablyParshvanathaandMahavira.The illustrations are square-ish panels set in the text, with "wiry drawing" and "brilliant, even jewel-like colour". The figures are always seen in three-quarters view, with distinctive "long pointed noses and protruding eyes". There is a convention whereby the more distant side of the face protrudes, so that both eyes are seen.[27]

Shadanga of Indian painting

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Main article:Six limbs (Indian Painting)

Ancient texts defined six important aspects of painting. These 'Six Limbs' have been translated as follows:[28]

  1. RupabhedaThe knowledge of appearances.
  2. PramanamCorrect perception, measure and structure.
  3. BhavaAction of feelings on forms.
  4. Lavanya YojanamInfusion of grace, artistic representation.
  5. SadrisyamSimilitude.
  6. VarnikabhangaArtistic manner of using the brush and colours. (Tagore.)

The subsequent development of painting by the Buddhists indicates that these ' Six Limbs ' were put into practice by Indian artists, and are the basic principles on which their art was founded.

Early Modern period (1526―1857 CE)

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JahangirReceives PrinceKhurramatAjmeron His Return from theMewarCampaign,Balchand,c. 1635

Mughal painting

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Main article:Mughal painting

Mughal paintingis a style of Indian painting, generally confined to illustrations on the book and done in miniatures, and which emerged, developed and took shape during the period of theMughal Empirebetween the 16th and 19th centuries.[29]The Mughal style was heavily influenced byPersian miniatures,and in turn influenced several Indian styles, including theRajput,PahariandDeccanstyles of painting.

Mughal paintings were a unique blend of Indian, Persian and Islamic styles. Because the Mughal kings wanted visual records of their deeds as hunters and conquerors, their artists accompanied them on military expeditions or missions of state, or recorded their prowess as animal slayers, or depicted them in the great dynastic ceremonies of marriages.[30]

A folio from theHamzanama

Akbar's reign (1556–1605) ushered a new era in Indian miniature painting.[31]After he had consolidated his political power, he built a new capital at Fatehpur Sikri where he collected artists from India and Persia. He was the first monarch who established in India an atelier under the supervision of two Persian master artists, Mir Sayyed Ali andAbdus Samad.Earlier, both of them had served under the patronage of Humayun in Kabul and accompanied him to India when he regained his throne in 1555. More than a hundred painters were employed, most of whom were from Gujarat, Gwalior and Kashmir, who gave a birth to a new school of painting, popularly known as the Mughal School of miniature Paintings.

Tuti-Nama was an early Mughal work from the mid 16th Century, and the similarities particularly in the female figures to the indigenous western India school is clearly visible. While some consider this to be a transition phase where the stylistic features of indigenous & Persian schools combined, other considered this to be a work of artists who were trained in western India school and who worked in Akbar's atelier to produce art for the Mughal palette, maybe under supervision of Persian masters.

Another early production by that school of miniature painting was theAkbarHamzanamamanuscript, which according to the court historian Badayuni was started in 1567 and completed in 1582. TheHamzanama,an epic Persian account of Amir Hamza, an uncle of the Prophet, were illustrated byMir Sayyid Ali.The paintings of the AkbarHamzanamaare of large size, 20 x 27 ", and were painted on cloth. They are in the Persian safavi style. Brilliant red, blue and green colours predominate; the pink, eroded rocks and the vegetation, planes and blossoming plum and peach trees are reminiscent of Persia. The Hamza Nama is very different in style to the Tuti Nama. This difference was either due to a different set of artists who were trained in the Persian style or due to a conscious change in style through experimentation, either ways, mughal painting quickly evolved into more fluid and naturalistic style different from the stiffness in figures seen in earlier paintings. Nevertheless, links to the western India schools were still there on close inspection, particularly in the representation of the female figure.

After him,Jahangirencouraged artists to paint portraits and durbar scenes.[32][31]His most talented portrait painters wereUstad Mansur,Abul Hasan andBishandas.

Shah Jahan(1627–1658) continued the patronage of painting.[32]Some of the famous artists of the period were Mohammad Faqirullah Khan, Mir Hashim, Muhammad Nadir,Bichitr,Chitarman, Anupchhatar, Manohar and Honhar.[33][31]

Aurangzebhad no taste for fine arts, probably due to his Islamic conservatism.[32]Due to lack of patronage artists migrated to the Deccan and the Hindu courts ofRajputana,greatly influencing the styles in these centres.

Deccan painting

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Main article:Deccan painting
CompositeBuraq,National Museum, New Delhi,Hyderabad,1770–75.[34]
AMarathaDarbar c.1820

Deccan painting was produced in theDeccanregion ofCentral India,in the various Muslim capitals of theDeccan sultanatesthat emerged from the break-up of theBahmani Sultanateby 1520. These wereBijapur,Golkonda,Ahmadnagar,Bidar,andBerar.The main period was between the late 16th century and the mid-17th,[35][36]with something of a revival in the mid-18th century, by then centred onHyderabad.

Compared to the early Mughal painting evolving at the same time to the north,[37]Deccan painting exceeds in "the brilliance of their colour, the sophistication and artistry of their composition, and a general air of decadent luxury".[38]Other differences include painting faces, not very expertly modelled, in three-quarter view, rather than mostly in profile in the Mughal style, and "tall women with small heads" wearing saris. There are many royal portraits, although they lack the precise likenesses of their Mughal equivalents. Buildings are depicted as "totally flat screen-like panels".[39]

Ragamala paintings,sets illustrating (by evoking their moods) the variousragamusical forms, appear to have been an innovation of the Deccan. Beside the usual portraits and illustrations to literary works, there are sometimes illustrated chronicles, such as theTuzuk-i-Asafiya.A Deccan speciality (also sometimes found in other media,such as ivory)[40]is the "composite animal" a large animal made up of many smaller images of other animals.

Rajput painting

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Main article:Rajput painting
An 18th-centuryRajput paintingby the artistNihâl Chand

The early Mewar and Malwa schools, sometimes also collectively known as Western India school, developed around this period, and are stylistically similar and linked to the style of depiction in 14th–15th century texts from Gujarat. The similar large eyes, stiff figures, protruding hips and breasts are a linking feature. The Kulhadar group of paintings is considered one of the finest works executed belonging to the western India school. Executed in early 16th century, this group paintings were characterized by the men wearing a conical cap (Kulha) on which turbans were worn. The Kulhadar group of paintings consisted ofChaurapanchasika – "Fifty Verses of the Thief" by Bilhan, the Gita Govinda, the Bhagavata Purana and Ragamala.

Driven by the Islamic conquests, the mid-late 16th Century saw central Asian influence starting to creep into Indian artistic representation. The use of gold foil and ultramarine blue derived from imported lapiz lazuli were two such Persian influences which were adopted into Indian painting. Manuscripts of Laur Chanda at the National Museum are an example of such influence.

Several different styles of Rajput painting developed from the late 16th century onwards in the Hindu royal courts ofRajputana.[41][42]Each Rajput kingdom evolved a distinct style, but with certain common features. Rajput paintings depict a number of themes, events of epics like theRamayanaand theMahabharata,Krishna's life, beautiful landscapes, and humans. Many miniatures were individual album pieces, but there are also illustrated books, and there was at the same time some mural painting on the walls of palaces, forts, andhavelis.This especially so in theShekhawatiregion, whereMarwaribusinessmen, mainly active in the large cities, competed to have brightly painted exteriors of the houses they maintained in their home region.

Rajput painting consists of four principal groupings:

  1. TheMewarschool that contains theChavand,Nathdwara,Devgarh,UdaipurandSawarstyles of painting
  2. TheMarwarschool comprising theKishangarh,Bikaner style of paintingfromBikaner,Jodhpur,Nagaur,PaliandGhaneraostyles
  3. TheHadotischool with theKota,BundiandJhalawarstyles and
  4. The Dhundar school ofAmber,Jaipur,Shekhawati paintingandUniarastyles of painting.

Pahari paintingis the northernmost extension of the Rajput style, but usually treated separately.

Pahari painting

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Main article:Pahari painting

ThePahari stylealso referred to as the Punjab Hills style developed and flourished during 17th to 19th centuries stretching fromJammutoAlmoraandGarhwal,in the sub-HimalayanIndia,throughHimachal Pradesh.[43]The Pahari paintings can be grouped into two groups- Jammu or Dogra school; and Basholi and Kangra school.[44]Each created stark variations within the genre, ranging from bold intenseBasohli painting,originating fromBasohliinJammu and Kashmir,to the delicate and lyricalKangra paintings,which became synonymous to the style before other schools of paintings developed.[43][42]

Malwa and Jaunpur

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A new trend in manuscript illustration was set by a manuscript of theNimatnamapainted at Mandu, during the reign of Nasir Shah (1500–1510). This represent a synthesis of the indigenous and the patronized Persian style, though it was the latter which dominated the Mandu manuscripts.[citation needed]There was another style of painting known as Lodi Khuladar that flourished in the Sultanate's dominion of North India extending from Delhi to Jaunpur.[citation needed]

Mysore painting

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Main article:Mysore painting

Mysore painting is an important form of classicalSouth Indianpainting that originated in the town ofMysorein Karnataka. These paintings are known for their elegance, muted colours and attention to detail. The themes for most of these paintings areHinduGods and Goddesses and scenes fromHindu mythology.In modern times, these paintings have become a much sought-after souvenir during festive occasions in South India.

The process of making a Mysore painting involves many stages. The first stage involves the making of the preliminary sketch of the image on the base. The base consists of cartridge paper pasted on a wooden base. A paste made ofzinc oxideandarabic gumis made called "gesso paste". With the help of a thin brush all the jewellery and parts of throne or the arch which have some relief are painted over to give a slightly raised effect of carving. This is allowed to dry. On this thin gold foil is pasted. The rest of the drawing is then painted using watercolours. Only muted colours are used.

Tanjore painting

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Main article:Tanjore painting
Tanjore style painting depicting the tenSikh GuruswithBhai BalaandBhai Mardana.

Tanjore painting is an important form of classicalSouth Indianpainting native to the town ofTanjorein Tamil Nadu. The art form dates back to the early 9th century, a period dominated by theCholarulers, who encouraged art and literature. These paintings are known for their elegance, rich colours, and attention to detail. The themes for most of these paintings areHinduGods and Goddesses and scenes fromHindu mythology.In modern times, these paintings have become a much sought-after souvenir during festive occasions in South India.

The process of making a Tanjore painting involves many stages. The first stage involves the making of the preliminary sketch of the image on the base. The base consists of a cloth pasted over a wooden base. Then chalk powder orzinc oxideis mixed with water-solubleadhesiveand apply it on the base. To make the base smoother, a mildabrasiveis sometimes used. After the drawing is made, decoration of the jewelry and the apparels in the image is done with semi-precious stones. Laces or threads are also used to decorate the jewelry. On top of this, the gold foils are pasted. Finally,dyesare used to add colours to the figures in the paintings.

Pattachitra

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Main article:Pattachitra

Pattachitra refers to the Classical painting ofOdishaandWest Bengal,in the eastern region of India.'Patta' inSanskritmeans 'Vastra' or 'clothing' and 'chitra' means paintings.

Medinipur Patachitra
Patachitra of Naya village
Medinipur Patachitra
Patachitra of Naya village
Medinipur Patachitra
Goddess Durga and her family in Medinipur Patachitra
The Bengal Patachitra

The Bengal Patachitra refers to the painting ofWest Bengal.It is a traditional and mythological heritage ofWest Bengal.The Bengal Patachitra is divided into some different aspects likeDurga Pat,Chalchitra,Tribal Patachitra,Medinipur Patachitra,Kalighat Patachitraetc.[45]The subject matter of Bengal Patachitra is mostly mythological, religious stories, folk lore and social. The Kalighat Patachitra, the last tradition of Bengal Patachitra is developed byJamini Roy.The artist of the Bengal Patachitra is calledPatua.[46]

Gita Govindadepicted in Pattachitra

The tradition of Orisha Pattachitra is closely linked with the worship of LordJagannath.Apart from the fragmentary evidence of paintings on the caves ofKhandagiriandUdayagiriand Sitabhinji murals of the Sixth century A.D., the earliest indigenous paintings from Odisha are the Pattachitra done by the Chitrakars (the painters are called Chitrakars).[47]The theme of Oriya painting centres round theVaishnavasect. Since beginning of Pattachitra culture Lord Jagannath who was an incarnation of Lord Krishna was the major source of inspiration. The subject matter of Patta Chitra is mostly mythological, religious stories and folk lore. Themes are chiefly on Lord Jagannath andRadha-Krishna,different "Vesas" ofJagannath,BalabhadraandSubhadra,temple activities, the tenincarnationsofVishnubasing on the 'Gita Govinda' ofJayadev,Kama Kujara Naba Gunjara,Ramayana,Mahabharata.The individual paintings of gods and goddesses are also being painted.The painters use vegetable and mineral colours without going for factory made poster colours. They prepare their own colours. White colour is made from theconch-shells by powdering, boiling and filtering in a very hazardous process. It requires a lot of patience. But this process gives brilliance and permanence to thehue.'Hingula', a mineral colour, is used for red. 'Haritala', king of stone ingredients for yellow, 'Ramaraja' a sort of indigo for blue are being used. Purelamp-blackor black prepared from the burning of cocoanut shells are used.The brushes that are used by these 'Chitrakaras' are also indigenous and are made of hair of domestic animals. A bunch of hair tied to the end of a bamboo stick make the brush. It is really a matter of wonder as to how these painters bring out lines of such precision and finish with the help of these crude brushes. That old tradition of Oriya painting still survives to-day in the skilled hands of Chitrakaras (traditional painters) inPuri,Raghurajpur,Paralakhemundi,Chikiti andSonepur.

Assam Painting

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Main article:Painting of Assam
Illustrated Assamese manuscript

Painting of Assamled to its growth in response toNeo-Vaisnavismmovement starting in the 15th century and even received royal patronage under various erstwhile royal classes. Manuscript painting of Assam continued to flourish till the decay of theAhom kingdom.

Other regional styles

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Main article:Madhubani Painting

Madhubani paintingis a style of painting, practiced in the Mithila region of Bihar state.[48]Themes revolve around Hindu Gods and mythology, along with scenes from the royal court and social events like weddings. Generally no space is left empty; the gaps are filled by paintings of flowers, animals, birds, and even geometric designs.In this paintings, artists use leaves, herbs, and flowers to make the colour which is used to draw the paintings.

British Colonial period

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Company paintingby Dip Chand depicting an official of theEast India Company.

Company style

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Main article:Company style

AsCompany rule in Indiabegan in the 18th century, a great number of Europeans migrated to India. TheCompany styleis a term for a hybrid Indo-European style of paintings made in India by Indian and European artists, many of whom worked for European patrons in theBritish East India Companyor other foreign Companies in the 18th and 19th centuries.[49][31]The style blended traditional elements fromRajputandMughal paintingwith a more Western treatment of perspective, volume and recession.

Early Modern Indian painting

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Galaxy of MusiciansbyRaja Ravi Varma,oil on canvas.
Radha and KrishnabyM. V. Dhurandhar,oil on canvas.

At the start of the 18th century, oil and easel painting began in India, which saw many European artists, such asZoffany,Kettle,Hodges,ThomasandWilliam Daniell,Joshua Reynolds,Emily EdenandGeorge Chinnerycoming out to India in search of fame and fortune. The courts of theprincely statesof India were an important draw for European artists due to their patronage of the visual and performing arts. For Indian artists, this Western influence, largely a result of colonialism, was viewed as "a means for self-improvement", and these Western academic artists who visited India provided the model.[50]They did not, however, provide the training. According to R. Siva Kumar, "This task, which fell on the various art schools established in the 1850s, gave an institutional framework to the Westernization of Indian art".[50]

The earliest formal art schools in India, namely theGovernment College of Fine ArtsinMadras(1850),Government College of Art & CraftinCalcutta(1854) andSir J. J. School of Artin Bombay (1857), were established.[51]

Raja Ravi Varmawas a pioneer of modern Indian painting. He drew on Western traditions and techniques including oil paint and easel painting, with his subjects being purely Indian, such as Hindu deities and episodes from the epics andPuranas.Some other prominent Indian painters born in the 19th century areMahadev Vishwanath Dhurandhar(1867–1944),A X Trindade(1870–1935),[52]M F Pithawalla(1872–1937),[53]Sawlaram Lakshman Haldankar(1882–1968) andHemen Majumdar(1894–1948).

The Passing of Shah JahanbyAbanindranath Tagore.

In the 19th century, according to R. Siva Kumar, "selective Westernization for self-improvement gave way to a nationalist cultural counter-stance around the turn of the century – universally, the first step toward a political resistance toward colonial rule".[54]In practice, this materialized as an assimilation of "diverse Asian elements", expanding tradition more than reviving it.[54]Leading artist of the time,Abanindranath Tagore(1871–1951), utilized both the Western-influenced realism and Asian elements which brought him "close to early modernism".[54]

A reaction to the Western influence led to a revival in historic and more nationalistic Indian art, called as theBengal school of art,which drew from the rich cultural heritage of India.

Bengal school

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Main article:Bengal school of art

TheBengal School of Artwas an influential style of art that flourished in India during theBritish Rajin the early 20th century. It was associated with Indian nationalism, but was also promoted and supported by many British arts administrators.

The Bengal school arose as anavant gardeand nationalist movement reacting against theacademic artstyles previously promoted in India, both by Indian artists such asRavi Varmaand in British art schools. Following the widespread influence of Indian spiritual ideas in the West, the British art teacherErnest Binfield Havelattempted to reform the teaching methods at theCalcutta School of Artby encouraging students to imitateMughalminiatures. This caused immense controversy, leading to a strike by students and complaints from the local press, including from nationalists who considered it to be a retrogressive move. Havel was supported by the artistAbanindranath Tagore,a nephew of the poet and artistRabindranath Tagore.[31][55]Abanindranath painted a number of works influenced by Ajanta painting style, a style that he and Havel believed to be expressive of India's distinct spiritual qualities, as opposed to the "materialism" of the West. His best-known painting,Bharat Mata(Mother India), depicted a young woman, portrayed with four arms in the manner of Hindu deities, holding objects symbolic of India's national aspirations.

Tagore later attempted to develop links with Far-Eastern artists as part of an aspiration to construct apan-Asianistmodel of art. Those associated with this Indo-Far Eastern model includedNandalal Bose,Mukul Dey,Kalipada Ghoshal,Benode Behari Mukherjee,Vinayak Shivaram Masoji,B.C. Sanyal,Beohar Rammanohar Sinha,and subsequently their studentsA. Ramachandran,Tan Yuan Chameli, Ramananda Bandopadhyay and a few others.

The Bengal school's influence on Indian art scene gradually started alleviating with the spread ofmodernistideas post-independence.K. G. Subramanyan's role in this movement is significant.

Contextual Modernism

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Main article:Santiniketan: The Making of a Contextual Modernism

The termContextual Modernismthat Siva Kumar used in the catalogue of the exhibition has emerged as apostcolonialcritical tool in the understanding of the art the Santiniketan artists had practised.

Several terms includingPaul Gilroy'scounter culture of modernityandTani Barlow'sColonial modernityhave been used to describe the kind of alternative modernity that emerged in non-European contexts. Professor Gall argues that 'Contextual Modernism' is a more suited term because "the colonial incolonial modernitydoes not accommodate the refusal of many in colonised situations to internalise inferiority. Santiniketan’s artist teachers' refusal of subordination incorporated a counter vision of modernity, which sought to correct the racial and cultural essentialism that drove and characterised imperial Western modernity and modernism. Those European modernities, projected through a triumphant British colonial power, provoked nationalist responses, equally problematic when they incorporated similar essentialisms ".[56]

According toR. Siva Kumar"The Santiniketan artists were one of the first who consciously challenged this idea of modernism by opting out of both internationalist modernism and historicist indigenousness and tried to create a context sensitive modernism."[57]He had been studying the work of the Santiniketan masters and thinking about their approach to art since the early 80s. The practice of subsumingNandalal Bose,Rabindranath Tagore,Ram Kinker BaijandBenode Behari Mukherjeeunder theBengal School of Artwas, according to Siva Kumar, misleading.This happened because early writers were guided by genealogies of apprenticeship rather than their styles, worldviews, and perspectives on art practice.[57]

The literary criticRanjit Hoskotewhile reviewing the works of contemporary artistAtul Dodiyawrites, "The exposure to Santinketan, through a literary detour, opened Dodiya’s eyes to the historical circumstances of what the art historianR Siva Kumarhas called a "contextual modernism" developed in eastern India in the 1930s and '40s during the turbulent decades of the global Depression, the Gandhian liberation struggle, the Tagorean cultural renaissance and World War II. "[58]

Contextual Modernismin the recent past has found its usage in other related fields of studies, specially inArchitecture.[59]

Post Independence (1947― present)

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Main article:Modern Indian painting

During the colonial era, Western influences started to make an impact on Indian art. Some artists developed a style that used Western ideas of composition, perspective and realism to illustrate Indian themes. Others, likeJamini Roy,consciously drew inspiration from folk art.[60]Bharti Dayal has chosen to handle the traditional Mithila Painting in most contemporary way and uses both realism as well abstractionism in her work with a lot of fantasy mixed in to both.Her work has an impeccable sense of balance, harmony and grace.

By the time of Independence in 1947, several schools of art in India provided access to modern techniques and ideas. Galleries were established to showcase these artists. Modern Indian art typically shows the influence of Western styles, but is often inspired by Indian themes and images. Major artists are beginning to gain international recognition, initially among the Indian diaspora, but also among non-Indian audiences.

TheProgressive Artists' Group,established shortly after India became independent in 1947, was intended to establish new ways of expressing India in the post-colonial era. The founders were six eminent artists –K. H. Ara,S. K. Bakre,H. A. Gade,M.F. Husain,S.H. RazaandF. N. Souza,though the group was dissolved in 1956, it was profoundly influential in changing the idiom of Indian art.[61]Almost all India's major artists in the 1950s were associated with the group. Some of those who are well-known today areBal Chabda,Manishi Dey,V. S. Gaitonde,Krishen Khanna,Ram Kumar,Tyeb Mehta,Beohar Rammanohar SinhaandAkbar Padamsee.Other famous painters likeJahar Dasgupta,Prokash Karmakar,John Wilkins,and Bijon Choudhuri enriched the art culture of India. They have become the icon of modern Indian art. Art historians like Prof. RaiAnand Krishnahave also referred to those works of modern artistes that reflect Indian ethos.

Also, the increase in the discourse about Indian art, in English as well as vernacular Indian languages, appropriated the way art was perceived in the art schools. Critical approach became rigorous, critics likeGeeta Kapur,[62][63]R. Siva Kumar,[64][55][65][66]contributed to re-thinking contemporary art practice in India.Their voices representedIndian artnot only in India but across the world. The critics also had an important role as curators of important exhibitions, re-defining modernism and Indian-art.

Indian Art got a boost with theeconomic liberalizationof the country since the early 1990s. Artists from various fields now started bringing in varied styles of work. Post-liberalization Indian art thus works not only within the confines of academic traditions but also outside it. In this phase, artists have introduced even newer concepts which have hitherto not been seen in Indian art.Devajyoti Rayhas introduced a new genre of art calledPseudorealism.Pseudorealist Art is an original art style that has been developed entirely on the Indian soil. Pseudorealism takes into account the Indian concept of abstraction and uses it to transform regular scenes of Indian life into a fantastic images.

Vernacular Indian Painting

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Vernacular art is an art alive (contemporary art), based on the past (the myths, the traditions and the religion) and made by defined groups. Vernacular art is based on the collective memory of this group.

Examples of Vernacular Indian Painting:

Tribal Painting:

Rural Painting:

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Some notable Indian paintings

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Bharat MatabyAbanindranath Tagore(1871–1951), apersonification of India.

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^abcdBlurton, 193
  2. ^Wall painting
  3. ^Harle, 355–361; Wall painting
  4. ^Blurton, 201–203, 209–210, 221–222
  5. ^Craven, 219; Harle, 361
  6. ^Miniature painting; Harle, 361–364
  7. ^Blurton, 200–201, 209–210
  8. ^Blurton, 193; Harle, 373
  9. ^Harle, 372–382
  10. ^"Bengal School".sites.google.com.Retrieved22 September2024.
  11. ^Singhania, Nitin (2018).INDIAN ART AND CULTURE.Mc Graw Hill Education(India). p. 2.3.ISBN978-93-87067-54-7.
  12. ^Ghosh, Amalananda (December 1990).An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology.Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 284.ISBN90-04-09264-1.OCLC878101569.Retrieved25 August2019.Research since then has firmly established that many of these paintings belong to the Mesolithic age and may well be 10000 years old.
  13. ^C. Sivaramamurti 1996,pp. 5–9.
  14. ^abIsabella Nardi 2007.
  15. ^abC. Sivaramamurti 1978.
  16. ^Stella Kramrisch 1928.
  17. ^Parul Dave Mukherji 2001,pp. xxi–xliv.
  18. ^Isabella Nardi 2007,pp. 291–296.
  19. ^C. Sivaramamurti 1996,pp. 5–22.
  20. ^Anand Lal, ed. (2004).The Oxford Companion to Indian Theatre.Oxford University Press. pp. 15, 415, 449–450.ISBN9780195644463.
  21. ^David Mason (2016). Siyuan Liu (ed.).Routledge Handbook of Asian Theatre.Routledge. p. 225.ISBN978-1-317-27886-3.
  22. ^Steven Kossak, Jane Casey Singer, Robert Bruce-Gardner,Sacred Visions: Early Paintings from Central Tibet,p. 12, 1998, Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York, N.Y.), Museum Rietberg,ISBN0870998625,9780870998621,google books (full view)
  23. ^Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. (1999).Introduction to Indian Art,: Munshiram Manoharlal,ISBN81-215-0389-2p.68-70
  24. ^"The significance of North East India in the development of the sculpture of Bagan"(PDF).University of London.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 12 August 2018.Retrieved12 August2018.
  25. ^Kossak, Steven; Singer, Jane Casey; Bruce-Gardner, Robert; N.Y.), Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York (1998).Sacred Visions: Early Paintings from Central Tibet.Metropolitan Museum of Art.ISBN9780870998621.
  26. ^Rowland, 341–343
  27. ^Rowland, 343
  28. ^Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. (2003).History of Indian and Indonesian Art.Kessinger Publishing. p. 88.ISBN978-0-7661-5801-6.Retrieved11 December2011.
  29. ^"Indian Miniature Paintings: The Mughal and Persian Schools – Google Arts & Culture".Google Cultural Institute.Retrieved17 November2018.
  30. ^"The Art of the Mughals before 1600".Metropolitan Museum of Art.Archivedfrom the original on 3 February 2018.Retrieved3 February2019.
  31. ^abcde"South Asian arts – Visual arts of India and Sri Lanka (Ceylon)".Encyclopædia Britannica.Retrieved4 February2019.
  32. ^abcSardar, Marika."The Art of the Mughals after 1600".Metropolitan Museum of Art.Archivedfrom the original on 19 December 2017.Retrieved3 February2019.
  33. ^"Treasures of National Museum, India".Google Arts & Culture.Retrieved3 February2019.
  34. ^"Nauras: The Many Arts of the Deccan".Google Arts & Culture.Retrieved4 February2019.
  35. ^Harle, 400; Craven, 216–217; Sardar
  36. ^Zebrowski, Mark (1983).Deccani Painting.Sotheby Publications.ISBN9780520048782.
  37. ^Craven, 216
  38. ^Harle, 400
  39. ^Harle, 400–403 (quoted); Craven 216–217
  40. ^Born, Wolfgang, "Ivory Powder Flasks from the Mughal Period",Ars Islamica,Vol. 9, (1942), pp. 93–111, Freer Gallery of Art, The Smithsonian Institution and Department of the History of Art, University of Michigan,JSTOR
  41. ^"Indian Miniature Paintings: The Rajasthan School".Google Arts & Culture.Retrieved3 February2019.
  42. ^abBehrendt, Kurt."Poetic Allusions in the Rajput and Pahari Painting of India".metmuseum.org.Retrieved3 February2019.
  43. ^ab"Indian Miniature Paintings: The Pahari School".Google Arts & Culture.Retrieved3 February2019.
  44. ^Singhania, Nitish (2018).INDIAN ART AND CULTURE.Mc Graw Hill Education (India). p. 2.21.ISBN978-93-87067-54-7.
  45. ^বন্দ্যোপাধ্যায়, দেবাশিস."পটচিত্রের চাহিদা বাড়ছে নবদ্বীপের রাসে".Anandabazar Patrika(in Bengali).Retrieved11 May2018.
  46. ^Giusti, M. and Chakraborty, U. (ed.).Immagini Storie Parole. Dialoghi di formazione coi dipinti cantati delle donne Chitrakar del West Bengal.Mantova: Universitas Studiorum, 2014,ISBN978-88-97683-39-1
  47. ^"Pattachitra.com".
  48. ^"Indian State Traditional Paintings – NID CEED Help".NID CEED Help.13 August 2017.Retrieved13 August2017.
  49. ^"Company Painting in Nineteenth-Century India".Metropolitan Museum of Art.Archivedfrom the original on 20 December 2017.Retrieved3 February2019.
  50. ^abR. Siva Kumar (1999) Modern Indian Art: A Brief Overview, Art Journal, 58:3, 14
  51. ^Sardar, Marika."Nineteenth-Century Court Arts in India".Metropolitan Museum of Art.Retrieved3 February2019.
  52. ^Dr. Nalini Bhagwat (16 March 1935)."Old Master A. X. Trindade – Article by Dr. Nalini Bhagwat, A Rembrandt of the east, painter, landscapes, Portrait, pastels and water colours painting, simple minded soul".Indiaart.com.Retrieved13 December2013.
  53. ^"Artist Gellary – M F PITHAWALA".Goaartgallery.com. 19 March 2007.Retrieved13 December2013.
  54. ^abcR. Siva Kumar (1999) Modern Indian Art: A Brief Overview, Art Journal, 58:3, 15
  55. ^ab"Rabindranath Tagore: The Last Harvest".Asia Society.Archivedfrom the original on 7 August 2018.Retrieved3 February2019.
  56. ^http://www.huichawaii.org/assets/gall,-david---overcoming-polarized-modernities.pdf[bare URL PDF]
  57. ^ab"humanities underground » All The Shared Experiences of the Lived World II".
  58. ^"Creator of a Floating World – Ranjit Hoskote – Tehelka – Investigations, Latest News, Politics, Analysis, Blogs, Culture, Photos, Videos, Podcasts".Archived fromthe originalon 29 November 2014.Retrieved5 May2018.
  59. ^Alazar, Ejigu (1 January 2011).""Contextual modernism" – is it possible? Steps to improved housing strategy ".{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal=(help)
  60. ^Ali, Atteqa."Early Modernists and Indian Traditions".Metropolitan Museum of Art.Retrieved3 February2019.
  61. ^Ali, Atteqa."Modern Art in India".Metropolitan Museum of Art.Archivedfrom the original on 25 June 2017.Retrieved3 February2019.
  62. ^"Geeta kapur | Khoj International Artists' Association".Archived fromthe originalon 24 September 2013.Retrieved13 December2013.
  63. ^"Afterall • Online • Geeta Kapur: On the Curatorial in India (Part 1)".
  64. ^"National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi".
  65. ^"The Curatorship Programme ( 2010 -2013)".Archived fromthe originalon 11 November 2010.Retrieved18 December2012.
  66. ^http://ngmaindia.gov.in/pdf/The-Last-Harvest-e-INVITE.pdf[bare URL PDF]

References

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Further reading

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