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For the TV episode, seeInternment (The Walking Dead).Not to be confused withinterment(burial) orextermination camp.

Boerwomen and children in aBritish concentration campin South Africa (1899–1902)
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Internmentis the imprisonment of people, commonly in large groups, withoutcharges[1]orintent to file charges.[2]The term is especially used for the confinement "of enemy citizens inwartimeor ofterrorismsuspects ".[3]Thus, while it can simply meanimprisonment,it tends to refer to preventive confinement rather than confinementafterhaving been convicted of some crime. Use of these terms is subject to debate and political sensitivities.[4]The wordinternmentis also occasionally used to describe aneutral country's practice of detainingbelligerentarmed forcesand equipment on its territory during times of war, under theHague Convention of 1907.[5]

Interned persons may be held inprisonsor in facilities known asinternment camps(also known asconcentration camps). The termconcentration camporiginates from the Spanish–CubanTen Years' Warwhen Spanish forces detained Cuban civilians in camps in order to more easily combat guerrilla forces. Over the following decades the British during theSecond Boer Warand the Americans during thePhilippine–American Waralso used concentration camps.

The term "concentration camp" and "internment camp" are used to refer to a variety of systems that greatly differ in their severity, mortality rate, and architecture; their defining characteristic is that inmates are held outside therule of law.[6]Extermination campsor death camps, whose primary purpose is killing, are also imprecisely referred to as "concentration camps".[7]

TheUniversal Declaration of Human Rightsrestricts the use of internment, with Article 9 stating, "No one shall be subjected toarbitrary arrest,detentionorexile."[8]

Defining internment and concentration camp

Cuban victims ofSpanish reconcentration policies,1896
Ten thousand inmates were kept inEl Agheila,one of theItalian concentration camps in Libyaduring theItalian colonization of Libya.
Women at theKalevankangas concentration campofTamperein 1918, several months after theFinnish Civil War
Jewish slave laborers at theBuchenwald concentration campnearWeimarphotographed after their liberation by theAllieson 16 April 1945

TheAmerican Heritage Dictionarydefines the termconcentration campas: "A camp where persons are confined, usually without hearings and typically under harsh conditions, often as a result of their membership in a group which the government has identified as dangerous or undesirable."[9]

Although the first example of civilian internment may date as far back as the 1830s,[10]the English termconcentration campwas first used in order to refer to thereconcentration camps(Spanish:reconcentrados) which were set up by theSpanish militaryinCubaduring theTen Years' War(1868–1878).[11][12]The label was applied yet again to camps set up by the United States during thePhilippine–American War(1899–1902).[13]And expanded usage of theconcentration camplabel continued, when theBritish set up campsduring theSecond Boer War(1899–1902) in South Africa for interningBoersduring the same time period.[11][14]

During the 20th century, the arbitrary internment of civilians by the state reached its most extreme forms in theSovietGulag system of concentration camps(1918–1991)[15]and theNazi concentration camps(1933–1945). The Soviet system was the first applied by a government on its own citizens.[12]The Gulag consisted in over 30,000 camps for most of its existence (1918–1991) and detained some 18 million from 1929 until 1953,[15]which is only a third of its 73-year lifespan. The Nazi concentration camp system was extensive, with as many as 15,000 camps[16]and at least 715,000 simultaneous internees.[17]The total number of casualties in these camps is difficult to determine, but the deliberate policy ofextermination through laborin many of the camps was designed to ensure that the inmates would die of starvation, untreated disease andsummary executionswithin set periods of time.[18]Moreover, Nazi Germany established sixextermination camps,specifically designed to kill millions of people, primarily bygassing.[19][20]

As a result, the term "concentration camp" is sometimes conflated with the concept of an "extermination camp"and historians debate whether the term" concentration camp "or the term" internment camp "should be used to describe other examples of civilian internment.[4]

The former label continues to see expanded use for cases post-World War II,for instance in relation toBritish camps in Kenyaduring theMau Mau rebellion(1952–1960),[21][22]and camps set up inChileduring themilitary dictatorshipofAugusto Pinochet(1973–1990).[23]According to theUnited States Department of Defenseas many as 3 millionUyghursand members of otherMuslimminority groups are being held inChina'sre-education campswhich are located in theXinjiangregion and which American news reports often label asconcentration camps.[24][25]The camps were established in the late 2010s underGeneral SecretaryXi Jinping'sadministration.[26][27]

Impact

Scholars have debated the efficacy of internment as acounterinsurgencytactic. A 2023 study found that internment during theIrish war of independenceled to greater grievances among Irish rebels and led them to fight longer in the war.[28]

Examples

Main article:List of concentration and internment camps

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See also

References

  1. ^Lowry, David (1976). "Human Rights Vol. 5, No. 3" INTERNMENT: DENTENTION WITHOUT TRIAL IN NORTHERN IRELAND "".Human Rights.5(3). American Bar Association: ABA Publishing: 261–331.JSTOR27879033.The essence of internment lies in incarceration without charge or trial.
  2. ^Kenney, Padraic(2017).Dance in Chains: Political Imprisonment in the Modern World.Oxford University Press.p. 47.ISBN978-0-19-937574-5.A formal arrest usually comes with a charge, but many regimes employed internment (that is, detention without intent to file charges
  3. ^"the definition of internment".www.dictionary.com.
  4. ^abSchumacher-Matos, Edward; Grisham, Lori (10 February 2012)."Euphemisms, Concentration Camps And The Japanese Internment".npr.org.
  5. ^"The Second Hague Convention, 1907".Yale.edu. Archived fromthe originalon 19 October 2012.Retrieved1 February2013.
  6. ^Stone, Dan(2015).Concentration Camps: A Very Short Introduction.Oxford University Press. pp. 122–123.ISBN978-0-19-879070-9.Concentration camps throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries are by no means all the same, with respect either to the degree of violence that characterizes them or the extent to which their inmates are abandoned by the authorities... The crucial characteristic of a concentration camp is not whether it has barbed wire, fences, or watchtowers; it is, rather, the gathering of civilians, defined by a regime as de facto 'enemies', in order to hold them against their will without charge in a place where the rule of law has been suspended.
  7. ^"Nazi Camps".United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.Retrieved3 October2020.
  8. ^Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 9,United Nations
  9. ^"Concentration camp".American Heritage Dictionary.Retrieved22 July2014.
  10. ^James L. Dickerson (2010).Inside America's Concentration Camps: Two Centuries of Internment and Torture.Chicago Review Press. p. 29.ISBN978-1-55652-806-4.
  11. ^abThe Columbia Encyclopedia: Concentration Camp(Sixth ed.). Columbia University Press. 2008.
  12. ^ab"Concentration Camps Existed Long Before Auschwitz".Smithsonian.2 November 2017.
  13. ^Storey, Moorfield;Codman, Julian(1902).Secretary Root's record. "Marked severities" in Philippine warfare. An analysis of the law and facts bearing on the action and utterances of President Roosevelt and Secretary Root.Boston: George H. Ellis Company. pp. 89–95.
  14. ^"Documents re camps in Boer War".sul.stanford.edu. Archived fromthe originalon 9 June 2007.
  15. ^ab"Gulag: A History, by Anne Applebaum (Doubleday)".The Pulitzer Prizes.2004.Retrieved13 November2019.
  16. ^"Concentration Camp Listing".Belgium: Editions Kritak.Sourced from Van Eck, LudoLe livre des CampsandGilbert, Martin (1993).Atlas of the Holocaust.New York: William Morrow.ISBN0-688-12364-3..In this online site are the names of 149 camps and 814 subcamps, organized by country.
  17. ^Evans, Richard J. (2005).The Third Reich in Power.New York: Penguin Group.ISBN978-0-14-303790-3.
  18. ^Marek Przybyszewski.IBH Opracowania – Działdowo jako centrum administracyjne ziemi sasińskiej[Działdowo as the centre of local administration] (in Polish). Archived fromthe originalon 22 October 2010 – via Internet Archive.
  19. ^Robert Gellately; Nathan Stoltzfus (2001).Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany.Princeton University Press. p. 216.ISBN978-0-691-08684-2.
  20. ^Anne Applebaum (18 October 2001)."A History of Horror| Review ofLe Siècle des campsby Joël Kotek and Pierre Rigoulot ".The New York Review of Books.
  21. ^"Museum of British Colonialism releases online 3D models of British concentration camps in Kenya".Morning Star.27 August 2019.
  22. ^"The Mau Mau Rebellion".The Washington Post.31 December 1989.
  23. ^"Chilean coup: 40 years ago I watched Pinochet crush a democratic dream".The Guardian.7 September 2013.
  24. ^"As the U.S. Targets China's 'Concentration Camps', Xinjiang's Human Rights Crisis is Only Getting Worse".Newsweek.22 May 2019.
  25. ^"Uighurs and their supporters decry Chinese 'concentration camps', 'genocide' after Xinjiang documents leaked".The Washington Post.17 November 2019.
  26. ^Ramzy, Austin; Buckley, Chris (16 November 2019)."'Absolutely No Mercy': Leaked Files Expose How China Organized Mass Detentions of Muslims ".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331.Retrieved16 November2019.
  27. ^Kate O'Keeffe and Katy Stech Ferek (14 November 2019)."Stop Calling China's Xi Jinping 'President', U.S. Panel Says".The Wall Street Journal.
  28. ^Huff, Connor (2023)."Counterinsurgency Tactics, Rebel Grievances, and Who Keeps Fighting".American Political Science Review.118:475–480.doi:10.1017/S0003055423000059.ISSN0003-0554.
  29. ^"Life inside a North Korea labour camp: 'We were forced to throw rocks at a man being hanged'".The Independent.28 September 2017.
  30. ^"Political Prison Camps in North Korea Today"(PDF).19 October 2013. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 19 October 2013.Retrieved18 December2019.
  31. ^Leigh, David (25 April 2011)."Guantánamo Bay files: Torture gets results, US military insists".The Guardian.ISSN0261-3077.Retrieved18 December2019.
  32. ^"Professor David Isaacs Speech"(PDF).
  33. ^EXCLUSIVE: Italian doctor laments Libya's 'concentration camps' for migrants,archived fromthe originalon 30 October 2021,retrieved18 December2019
  34. ^"Europe's apathy toward humanitarian rescue outrages NGOs".InfoMigrants.11 December 2018.Retrieved18 December2019.
  35. ^Wehrey, Frederic (25 November 2019)."What the 'Danish Lawrence' Learned in Libya (5th paragraph from the last one)".The New York Review of Books.Retrieved18 December2019.
  36. ^"Detained migrants killed in Libya airstrike used as 'human shields'".
  37. ^Mediapart, La Rédaction De (2 December 2019)."France cancels speedboats delivery to Libyan coastguard".Mediapart.Retrieved18 December2019.
  38. ^"China is creating concentration camps in Xinjiang. Here's how we hold it accountable".The Washington Post.24 November 2018.
  39. ^"Saudi crown prince defends China's right to put Uighur Muslims in concentration camps".The Daily Telegraph.22 February 2019.Archivedfrom the original on 11 January 2022.
  40. ^"The persecution of gay men in Chechnya has chilling similarities to the Third Reich".NewsComAu.19 April 2017.Retrieved17 December2019.
  41. ^Stefanello, Viola (15 January 2019)."Is there a 'gay purge' in Chechnya? Rights group fears the worst".euronews.Retrieved17 December2019.
  42. ^"Report: Chechnya Opens 'Concentration Camp for Homosexuals'".Snopes.com.11 April 2017.Retrieved17 December2019.
  43. ^"Question to the EU Commission by Matt Carthy"(PDF).
  44. ^Ramirez, Fernando (14 June 2018)."Movement to call migrant detention centers 'concentration camps' swells online".Chron.The practice of separating migrant families began in April when Attorney General Jeff Sessions announced a new "zero-tolerance" policy prosecuting 100 percent of illegal border crossings.
  45. ^Hignett, Katherine (24 June 2019)."Academics rally behind Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez over concentration camp comments: 'She is completely historically accurate'".Newsweek.Retrieved23 August2019.
  46. ^Holmes, Jack (13 June 2019)."An Expert on Concentration Camps Says That's Exactly What the U.S. Is Running at the Border".Esquire.Retrieved3 July2019.
  47. ^Beorn, Waitman Wade (20 June 2018)."Yes, you can call the border centers 'concentration camps,' but apply the history with care".The Washington Post.Retrieved30 August2019.
  48. ^Jonathan Hutson (25 September 2021)."Eyewitness accounts, video confirm reports of Tigrayan children held in concentration camp".Salon.com.WikidataQ125771844.Archivedfrom the original on 2 May 2024.
  49. ^Lucy Kassa(7 November 2021)."'They just vanished': Tigrayans disappear for months in secret Ethiopian detention camps".The Globe and Mail.ISSN0319-0714.WikidataQ125771289.Archivedfrom the original on 2 May 2024.
  50. ^Clark, Helen;Lapsley, Michael;Alton, David(26 November 2021)."The warning signs are there for genocide in Ethiopia – the world must act to prevent it".The Guardian.Archivedfrom the original on 27 November 2021.Retrieved27 November2021.
  51. ^The Silent Suffering of the Amhara People in Ethiopia,European Centre for Law and Justice, April 2024,WikidataQ125791341,archivedfrom the original on 4 May 2024
  52. ^https://www.msn.com/en-gb/news/world/thousands-of-mariupol-survivors-being-detained-and-e2-80-98tortured-e2-80-99-in-russia-controlled-prisons-in-occupied-ukraine/ar-AAXrRjm
  53. ^"'You can't imagine the conditions' - Accounts emerge of Russian detention camps ".25 April 2022.Retrieved29 May2024.
  54. ^https://en.interfax.com.ua/news/general/831791.html
  55. ^Civil War Internment Collection(Report). Defense Forces of Ireland. 2017.Retrieved22 May2024.
  56. ^"Open Letter to Members of the Security Counsel Concerning Detentions in Iraq"(PDF).
  57. ^"Largest American Internment Camp in Iraq Shuts Down | The Takeaway".WNYC Studios.Retrieved17 December2019.
  58. ^"How U.S. Torture Led to the Rise of ISIS".The Big Picture.23 December 2014.Retrieved17 December2019.
  59. ^"Excerpts From Red Cross Report".The Wall Street Journal.7 May 2004.ISSN0099-9660.Retrieved17 December2019.
  60. ^Anderson, Jon Lee (26 July 2013)."Breaking Out of Abu Ghraib".The New Yorker.ISSN0028-792X.Retrieved17 December2019.
  61. ^"Defense.gov News Article: Abuse Resulted From Leadership Failure, Taguba Tells Senators".archive.defense.gov.Archived fromthe originalon 21 May 2020.Retrieved17 December2019.

Further reading

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