Inuit navigation

Inuit navigationtechniques are those navigation skills used for thousands of years by theInuit,a group of culturally similarindigenous peopleswho inhabit theArcticandsubarcticregions ofGreenland,Canada,andAlaska(United States). On thetundra,Inuit hunters would travel for long distances when hunting for game, and on the coastal waters, hunters would travel out of the sight of land, and they would need to orientate themselves to the location of favoured fishing or hunting places, or on the return journey to their dwelling place.

The Inuit relied on a large body of knowledge from oral tradition to navigate across tundra,sea ice,and open sea, that presented, to those not familiar with the knowledge, as indistinguishable and seemingly monotonous landscapes, and also rapidly changing seascapes, with few navigation points of reference during ablizzardorwhite-outand when out of sight of islands, coastal landmarks, or features on the horizon.^[1]

Inuit hunters orient themselves on the land through their understanding ofprevailing windsand the patterns resulting insnowdriftsand an understanding ofcaribou,fishandbird migrationbehaviour, and astronomical observation.^[2]TheInuit languagesallowed them to describenuanced differences in snowand the patterns resulting from the effect of the prevailing wind on snowdrifts and ice formations.

The Inuit possessed a comprehensive native system oftoponymyto name any geographical feature. Where natural landmarks were insufficient, the Inuit would erect aninuksuk(inukshuk or rock cairn).

Thelatitudeof the Arctic environment results in long periods of sunlight during summer, and cold, dark, snow-covered winter conditions, with the surface of theArctic Oceanfreezing. A definition of the Arctic region, describes it as the area north of theArctic Circle(about 66° 34'N), the approximate southern limit of themidnight sunandpolar night.The number of days per year with midnight sun (or polar night) increasing the closer one goes towards thegeographical North Pole.

Celestial navigation[edit]

Celestial navigationis available to Inuit travellers, although the time that navigation technique is available is limited by the variability of night-time through the year and other factors.^[3]Cloudy and blizzard conditions and the light of theaurora borealislimit its use.^[4]Snow that was kept airborne by the wind, created a type of fog. Even if the night sky was free of clouds or snow fog, the moonlight shining on the ice and snow, and reflecting into the sky, could obscure the view of the stars.^[4]

Navigation on sea ice[edit]

TheInuit languagesdescribed the prevailing winds of the place or region and also thesea iceconditions that could result from the winds, tides and currents. Inuit travellers could orientate themselves, and give directions to others, to describing sea-ice conditions that were known to recur at the same locations each year: such as,ice dunesandpressure ridges,an ice build-up,polynyas,areas of open water surrounded by sea ice, caused by the prevailing wind or marine currents, andice cracks or leadsopening in thedrift icezone.^[1]

The areas of open water resulting from polynyas, ice cracks and leads could be identified on the horizon as resulting in a blue reflection of the water on the sky that was different to the background colour of the sky.^[1]

Navigation on land[edit]

The prevailing wind is the most reliable source of spatial orientation for Inuit travellers because of the prevailing wind would cause consistent shapes and patterns in the snowdrifts, includingsastrugi,which the Inuit callkalutoqaniq.^[1]^[3]^[5]^[6]These distinctive shapes and patterns would be features on the snowscape, which would indicate the direction of the prevailing wind. Inuit travellers to set their bearings using these distinctive shapes and patterns in the snowdrifts while travelling across the flat tundra, or when a blizzard or other weather conditions or darkness obscured other features or landmarks.^[1]^[6]

The Inuit would erectinuksuk(rock cairns), with various designs meeting different purposes, such as the grave of anangakkuq,or to funnel caribou to assist in hunting, which would also act as navigational indicators.^[6]^[7]

Transport[edit]

In summer the Inuit huntedsea animalsfrom single-passenger, covered seal-skin boats calledqajaq^[8](Inuktitut syllabics:ᖃᔭᖅ) which were extraordinarily buoyant, and could easily be righted by a seated person, even if completely overturned. Because of this property, the design was copied by Europeans and Americans who still produce them under the English namekayak.

Inuit also madeumiaq(known in some areas as a "woman's boat" ), larger open boats made of wood frames covered with animal skins, for transporting people, goods, and dogs. They were 6–12 m (20–39 ft) long and had a flat bottom so that the boats could come close to shore.

In winter, both on land and on sea ice, the Inuit useddog sleds(qamutik) for transportation. Thehuskydog breed comes from theSiberian Husky.The current evidence infers that their ancestors were domesticated inSiberia23,000 years ago byancient North Siberians,then later dispersed eastward into the Americas and westward across Eurasia.^[9]Ateam of dogsin either a tandem/side-by-side or fan formation would pull a sled made of wood, animal bones, or thebaleenfrom a whale's mouth and even frozen fish,^[10]over the snow and ice.

Map making[edit]

Inuit navigators understood the concept of maps and could construct a relief map from sand, sticks, and pebbles to give directions to others.^[6]Maps were also drawn on skins using plant dyes.^[6]For example, the bark of thealdertree provided a red-brown shade, andspruceproduced red,^[11]and berries, lichen, moss and algae also provided colours.^[12]^[13]

Greenlandic InuitcreatedAmmassalik wooden maps,which are carved portable maps made from driftwood that represent the coast line.