Jump to content

Iranian Kurdistan

Page extended-protected
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses of "Kurdistan", seeKurdistan (disambiguation).

Iranian KurdistanorEastern Kurdistan(Kurdish:ڕۆژھەڵاتی کوردستان,romanized:Rojhilatê Kurdistanê)[1][2]is an unofficial name for the parts of northwesternIranwith either a majority or sizable population ofKurds.Geographically, it includes theWest Azerbaijan Province,Kurdistan Province,Kermanshah Province,Ilam Provinceand parts ofHamadan ProvinceandLorestan Province.[3][4]

In totality, Kurds are about 10% of Iran's total population.[5]According to the last census conducted in 2006, the four main Kurdish-inhabited provinces in Iran – West Azerbaijan, Kermanshah Province, Kurdistan Province and Ilam Province – had a total population of 6,730,000.[6]Kurds generally consider northwestern Iran (Eastern Kurdistan) to be one of the four parts of aGreater Kurdistan,which under that conception are joined by parts of southeasternTurkey(Northern Kurdistan), northernSyria(Western Kurdistan), and northernIraq(Southern Kurdistan).[7][8]

Outside the traditional Kurdistan region, a sizable isolated community of Kurds live in north-eastern Iran, about 1000 km away from Iranian Kurdistan. They are referred to as theKurds of Khorasanand speak theKurmanjidialect unlike Kurds in western Iran.

History

People
Population
  • Homeland
History

Ancient

Karduchian dynasties

Corduene
Zabdicene
Cyrtians
Moxoene

Medieval

Modern
Culture
Languages
Kurdish languages
Religion

Kurdish dynasties

From the 10th century to 12th century A.D., two Kurdish dynasties were ruling this region, theHasanwayhids(959–1015) and theAyyarids(990–1117) (inKermanshah,Dinawar,IlamandKhanaqin). TheArdalanstate, established in the early 14th century, controlled the territories of Zardiawa (Karadagh),Khanaqin,Kirkuk,Kifri,andHawraman.The capital city of the state was first in Sharazour in present-dayIraqi Kurdistan,but was later moved to Sinne (Sanandaj) (in present-day Iran). The Ardalan Dynasty continued to rule the region until theQajarmonarchNasser-al-Din Shah(1848–1896) ended their rule in 1867.

Seljukid and Khwarazmid period

In the 12th century CE,Sultan Sanjarcreated a province called "Kurdistan" centered atBahar,located to the northeast ofHamadan.This province included Hamadan, Dinawar, Kermanshah, Sanandaj and Sharazur. It was ruled by Sulayman, the nephew of Sanjar. In 1217, Kurds ofZagrosdefeated the troops ofAla ad-Din Muhammad II,theKhwarazmidking, who were sent from Hamadan.[9]

Safavid period

According to theEncyclopaedia of Islam,the Safavid family came from Iranian Kurdistan, and later moved toAzarbaijan.They finally settled in the 11th century C.E. atArdabil.[10]DuringSafavidrule, the government tried to extend its control over Kurdish-inhabited areas in western Iran. At that time, there were a number of semi-independent Kurdishemiratessuch as the Mukriyan (Mahabad),Ardalan(Sinne), and Shikak tribes aroundLake Urmiyeand northwest Iran. Kurds resisted this policy and tried to keep some form of self-rule. This led to a series of bloody confrontations between the Safavids and the Kurds. The Kurds were finally defeated, and as a result the Safavids decided to punish rebellious Kurds by forced relocation and deportation in the 15-16th century. This policy began under the reign of the Safavid KingTahmasp I(r. 1514–1576).

Between 1534 and 1535, Tahmasp I began the systematic destruction of the old Kurdish cities and the countryside. Large numbers of Kurds from these areas found themselves deported to theAlborzmountains andKhorasan(Khurasan), as well as the heights in the centralIranian Plateau.At this time the last remnant of the ancient royal Hadhabâni (Adiabene) tribe of central Kurdistan was removed from the heartland of Kurdistan and deported to Khorasan, where they are still found today.[11][12]

The Safavid era played a substantial role in the integration of Iranian Kurdistan into the political structure of Iran. The Kurdish local elites were strongly aware of their affiliation with Iran, which helped shape Iran's western border.[13]

Battle of DimDim

Main article:Battle of DimDim

There is a well documented historical account of a long battle in 1609–1610 between Kurds and theSafavidEmpire. The battle took place around a fortress calledDimdimlocated in Beradost region aroundLake Urmiain northwestern Iran. In 1609, the ruined structure was rebuilt by Emîr Xan Lepzêrîn ( "Golden Hand Khan" ), ruler of Beradost, who sought to maintain the independence of his expanding principality in the face of bothOttomanand Safavid penetration into the region. Rebuilding Dimdim was considered a move toward independence that could threaten Safavid power in the northwest. Many Kurds, including the rulers of Mukriyan (Mahabad), rallied around Amir Khan. After a long and bloody siege led by the Safavid grand vizier Hatem Beg, which lasted from November 1609 to the summer of 1610, Dimdim was captured. All the defenders were massacred.Shah Abbasordered a general massacre in Beradost and Mukriyan (reported by Eskandar Beg Turkoman, Safavid historian, in the bookAlam Aray-e Abbasi) and resettled the TurkishAfshar tribein the region while deporting many Kurdish tribes toKhorasan.Although Persian historians (like Eskandar Beg) depicted the first battle of Dimdim as a result of Kurdish mutiny or treason, in Kurdish oral traditions (Beytî dimdim), literary works (Dzhalilov, pp. 67–72), and histories, it was treated as a struggle of the Kurdish people against foreign domination. In fact,Beytî dimdimis considered a national epic second only toMem û ZînbyAhmad Khani.The first literary account of Dimdim battle was written byFaqi Tayran. [14][15][16]

Afshar period

Kurds took advantage of theAfghaninvasion of the Safavid realm in the early 18th century, and conqueredHamadanand penetrated to the area nearIsfahan.Nader Shahsought to suppress a Kurdish rebellion in 1747, but he was assassinated before completing the expedition. After Nadir's death, Kurdish tribes exploited the power vacuum and captured parts ofFars.[17]

Qajar period

In 1880, Shaykh Ubaydullah, a Kurdish leader, engaged in a series of revolts against the Iranian government. These revolts were successfully suppressed by theQajarkings, and this was one of Iran's few victories during the Qajar period.[18]In the early 20th century, Ismail Agha Simko took advantage of the chaotic situation in the aftermath ofWorld War Iand rebelled against the Iranian government. He was finally defeated byReza Shah Pahlavi.[19]

Kurds in modern Iran

Simko revolts against Reza Shah

Main article:Simko Shikak revolt

The weakness of the Persian government duringWorld War Iencouraged some Kurdish chiefs to take advantage of the chaotic situation.Simko,chief of the Shikak tribe, established his authority in the area west ofLake Urmiafrom 1918 to 1922. Jaafar Sultan ofHewramanregion took control of the region betweenMarivanand north ofHalabjaand remained independent until 1925. In 1922, Reza Khan (who later became the firstPahlavimonarch), took action against Kurdish leaders. Simko was forced to abandon his region in the fall of 1922, and spent eight years in hiding. When the Iranian government persuaded him to submit, he was ambushed and killed around Ushno (Oshnavieh) in 1930. After this,Reza Shahpursued a crude but effective policy against the Kurds. Hundreds of Kurdish chiefs were deported and forced into exile. Their lands were also confiscated by the government.[20]

World War II

WhenAlliedtroops entered Iran in September 1941, the Persian Army was quickly dissolved and their ammunition was seized by the Kurds. Sons of the Kurdish chiefs seized the opportunity and escaped from their exile inTehran.Hama Rashid, a Kurdish chief fromBaneh,took control ofSardasht,BanehandMariwanin western Iran. He was finally driven out of the region by the Persian Army in the fall of 1944.[21]

Republic of Kurdistan in Mahabad

Main article:Republic of Mahabad

Although Iran had declared itsneutralityin theSecond World War,it was occupied by Allied forces. With support from theSoviet Union,a Kurdish state was created in the city ofMahabadin 1946 by the Kurdish MovementKomeley Jiyanewey Kurdunder the leadership ofQazi Muhammad.Since the minuscule entity extended no further than the small cities ofMahabad,Bukan,Piranshahr,andOshnaviyehin Iran, not even all of Iranian Kurdistan supported the experiment, let alone the Kurds in other states.[22]TheRepublic of Mahabad,as it is often called, lasted less than a year, as the end of the war and the withdrawal of the occupying Soviet forces allowed the central government to defeat the separatists and return Kurdistan to Iran.

Islamic Revolution and the Kurds

Main article:1979 Kurdish rebellion in Iran

Kurdish political organizations were enthusiastic supporters of the revolution against theShah,which broughtAyatollah Khomeinito power in February 1979. The Shah had shown himself to be no friend of Kurdish aspirations for greater autonomy and a loosening of Tehran's control over their affairs.

The Kurds, with their different language and traditions and their cross-border alliances, were seen as vulnerable to exploitation by foreign powers who wished to destabilize the young republic.

The crisis deepened after Kurds were denied seats in the "Assembly of Experts" gathering in 1979, which were responsible for writing the newconstitution.Ayatollah Khomeini prevented Dr.Ghassemlou,the elected representative of the region, from participating in the assembly of experts' first meeting.[23]

The wave of nationalism engulfed eastern Kurdistan after the fall of thePahlavi dynastyin line with a series of anti-revolutionary revolts across the country. In early 1979 armed conflict broke out between armed Kurdish factions and the Iranian revolutionary government's security forces. The Kurdish forces included primarily theDemocratic Party of Iranian Kurdistan(KDPI) and the leftistKomalah(Revolutionary Organization of Kurdish Toilers).[24]

In a speech in December 1979, Ayatollah Khomeini called the concept of ethnic minorities contrary to Islamic doctrines. He also accused those "who do not wish Muslim countries to be united" in creating the issue ofnationalismamong minorities. His views were shared by many in the clerical leadership.[25]

Kurdish movement between Shia Kurds in southern Iranian Kurdistan

David McDowall has argued that since the 1990sKurdish nationalismhas seeped into the Shia Kurdish area partly due to outrage against government's violent suppression of Kurds farther north,[26]but David Romano reject such claims noting that there's no evidence of an active guerrilla insurgency in the area.[27]Although, there is a new rise of Kurdish identity movement in the southern parts of Iranian Kurdistan, which has risen up from the first decade of 21st century that shows itself in the way of formation of an armed group called the Partisans of Southern Kurdistan and some other organizations specially aboutYarsani peopleof that parts of Kurdistan.[28]

1996 demonstrations

On December 2, 1996, the death of a prominent Sunni clergyman, Mulla Mohammed Rabiei, inKermanshahled to violent clashes between Sunni Kurds and the security forces. Mulla Rabiei was the prayer leader in the Al-Shafe'i mosque in Kermanshah. The protests continued for three days and spread to neighboring towns in the region.[29]

Khatami period

Piranshahr inWest Azerbaijan
A view ofSanandaj,the second-largest city in Iranian Kurdistan[30][31][32]

In 1997, Sunni Kurds like many other Iranians took part in the presidential election. Both civilian and military Kurdish opposition groups requested Kurds "not to be indifferent" toward the election.President Khatamipraised the glory of Kurdish culture and history. From the Kurdish side, the demands were mainly related to theKurdish languageand top-level officials. In his first term, Khatami appointedAbdollah Ramezanzadehto be the first Kurdish governor of the Iranian province of Kurdistan. He also appointed several Sunni and Shia Kurds as his own or cabinet members' advisors. In his second term, Khatami had two Kurdish cabinet members; both of them were Shia. The increased presence of Kurdish representatives in the sixth parliament led to expectations that some of the voters' demands would be met. After the first round, in which 18 Kurds were elected, one candidate said that he expected there would be more Kurdish instruction at the university in Sanandaj, and he called on the Khatami government to have more Kurdish officials. Subsequently, a 40-member parliamentary faction representing the predominantly Kurdish provinces of Kurdistan and Kermanshah was formed.[33]However, there were many other civilian Kurdish activists who did not join the reform movement.Mohammad Sadiq Kaboudvandwas among the latter who started an independenthuman rightsassociation to defend the rights of the Kurdish people.

1999 demonstrations

In February 1999, Kurdish nationalists took to the streets in several cities such asMahabad,SanandajandUrmiaand staged mass protests against the government and in support ofAbdullah Öcalan.This was viewed as "trans-nationalization" of the Kurdish movement.[34]These protests were violently suppressed by the government forces. According to human rights groups, at least 20 people were killed.[35]

Discrimination against Sunni Muslims

Despite the fact that more than one million Sunnis live inTehran,many of them Kurds, no Sunni mosque exists to serve their religious needs.[36]

The Shivan Qaderi incident

On July 9, 2005, a Kurdish opposition activist,Shivan Qaderi[37](also known as Shwane Qadri or Sayed Kamal Asfaram), and two other Kurdish men were shot by Iranian security forces inMahabad.

For the next six weeks, riots and protests erupted in Kurdish towns and villages throughout Eastern Kurdistan such asMahabad,Piranshahr.Sinne (Sanandaj),Sardasht,Oshnavieh(Şino),Baneh,BokanandSaqiz[38](and even inspiring protests in southwestern Iran and inBaluchistanin eastern Iran) with scores killed and injured, and an untold number arrested without charge.

On 13 March 2006,Saleh Nikbakht,a well-known Iranian human rights lawyer who is Mr. Qaderi's lawyer, announced that Qaderi's murderer was a member of the police who shot the victim illegally. He also added that the murderer and the one who ordered the act are under investigation and the judiciary system has been cooperative up to now.

Political prisoners and executions

Kurds have suffered a long history ofdiscriminationin Iran. In a report released in 2008,Amnesty Internationalsaid that Kurds have been a particular target of the Islamic Republic of Iran, and the Kurds' "social, political and cultural rights have been repressed, as have their economic aspirations."[39]As a result, many human rights activists in Iran often shift their focus to specifically identify the Iranian authorities' violations of human rights against the Kurdish minority. However, according to Amnesty International, those activists who do "link their human rights work – drawing attention to the government's failure to observe international human rights standards - to their Kurdish identity they risk further violations of their rights."[39]

At the beginning of the 21st century, a number of Kurdish activists, writers, and teachers have been arrested for their work and were sentenced to death.[40]The increase is likely due to the government's crackdown following the nationwide protests after Iran's presidential elections. Even before the elections, Kurdish rebel groups - specifically the Party for a Free Life in Kurdistan orPJAK- have taken up arms against the state.

In November 2009, Iran executedEhsan Fattahian- the first of over a dozen political prisoners on death row - despite an international campaign calling for his release.[41]Authorities accused Fattahian of carrying arms for an "illegal organization" and sentenced him to several years in prison. Fattahian never confessed to carrying arms and was not given a fair trial, nor was he permitted access to his lawyer, and the Komala - the illegal organization he was accused of associating with - claimed that he had left the group a long time ago. Fattahian attempted to appeal, and when he did so, he was sentenced to death for "enmity against God".[42]His execution was condemned by human rights groups and activists internationally.

In January 2010, Iran executed a second Kurdish political prisoner, Fasih Yasamani, for "enmity against God". Like Fattahian, Yasamani was tortured and authorities tried to force him to confess, but he refused. He was also denied a fair trial.[43]

Without notifying the families or lawyers of the political prisoners, Iranian authorities ordered the execution of four more Kurdish political prisoners - Ali Heydarian, Farhad Vakili, Mehdi Eslamian, Shirin Alam Hooli, andFarzad Kamangar,a teacher who received a lot of attention internationally following his arrest - in Iran on May 9, 2010. The four political prisoners suffered severe torture at the hands of Iranian authorities and were also forced to confess their memberships in an illegal organization - namely PJAK. None of the activists were given fair trials nor did they have access to their lawyers. Amnesty International described the executions as "a blatant attempt to intimidate members of the Kurdish minority."[44]

Despite repeated international calls demanding the release or retrial of these four political prisoners, all were executed without any prior notice or warning. Following the executions, Iranian authorities refused to return the bodies of those executed to their families.[45]

As of May 2010, there were at least 16 other Kurdish political prisoners on death row. Not one case has been reported as having received a fair trial.

Kurdish militant group operating inside Iran

The Kurdistan Free Life Partyor PJAK. Feb 4, 2009, Stuart Levey, U.S. Treasury undersecretary for terrorism and financial intelligence stated "With today's action, we are exposing PJAK's (Free Life Party of Kurdistan) terrorist ties to the PKK and supporting Turkey's efforts to protect its citizens from attack."[46]

See also

Notes

References

  1. ^Iranian Kurdistanentry for theUNPO(Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization): "Iranian Kurdistan, also known as eastern Kurdistan."
  2. ^"Bazar û cihên giştî li Rojhilatê Kurdistanê qerebalix dibin".Rûdaw(in Kurdish). 10 April 2020.Retrieved23 April2020.
  3. ^Sebastian Mastel (2018).The Kurds: An Encyclopedia of Life, Culture, and Society.Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 236.ISBN9781440842573.
  4. ^Fattah, Ismaïl Kamandâr (2000).Les dialectes kurdes méridionaux.Acta Iranica37. p. 5.
  5. ^"The Time of the Kurds".CFR.Retrieved22 April2020.
  6. ^"Iran Provinces".Archivedfrom the original on 2016-10-22.Retrieved2017-03-07.
  7. ^Iranian Kurdistanentry for theUnrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization(UNPO). “Iranian Kurdistan, also known as eastern Kurdistan.”
  8. ^Bengio, Ofra (2014).Kurdish Awakening: Nation Building in a Fragmented Homeland.University of Texas Press. p. 2.Hence the terms:rojhalat(east, Iran),bashur(south, Iraq),bakur(north, Turkey), androjava(west, Syria).
  9. ^Houtsma, Martijn Theodoor,ed. (1913–1936)."Kurds".Encyclopaedia of Islam.Vol. 4 (1st ed.).Brill.p. 1140.ISBN9004097902.OCLC258059134.
  10. ^"-AFAWIDS [VIII:765b]".Archived fromthe originalon 2005-12-16.Retrieved2010-05-18.
  11. ^Keo - HistoryArchived2008-05-01 at theWayback Machine
  12. ^IranArchived2008-04-03 at theWayback Machine,under the title "Khurasani Kurdish Dances"
  13. ^Yamaguchi 2021,p. 568.
  14. ^DIMDIMArchived2008-10-11 at theWayback Machine
  15. ^Munshī, Iskandar; Beg, Munshī Iskandar (1978).The History of Shah ʻAbbas the Great.Westview Press.ISBN978-0-89158-296-0.
  16. ^O. Dzh. Dzhalilov,Kurdski geroicheski epos "Zlatoruki Khan" (The Kurdish heroic epic "Gold-hand Khan" ),Moscow, 1967, pp. 5-26, 37-39, 206.
  17. ^D. McDowall,A Modern History of the Kurds,I.B. Tauris Publishers,ISBN978-1-85043-416-0,p. 67
  18. ^Amanat, Abbas.Pivot of the Universe: Nasir al-Din Shah Qajar and the Iranian Monarchy, 1831-1896.London: I. B. Tauris, 1997, p. 408)
  19. ^Gunter, Michael M. (November 4, 2010).Historical Dictionary of the Kurds.Scarecrow Press. pp. 274–276.ISBN978-0-8108-7507-4.
  20. ^Elphinston, W. G. (1946). "The Kurdish Question".Journal of International Affairs.22(1). Royal Institute of International Affairs: 91–103 [p. 97].doi:10.2307/3017874.ISSN0020-5850.JSTOR3017874.
  21. ^Elphinston (1946,pp. 97–98)
  22. ^Gunter.pdf (10 October 2007).https://web.archive.org/web/20071010090831/http://www.kurdishrightsconference.org/presentations/gunter.pdf.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 10 October 2007.{{cite web}}:Missing or empty|title=(help)
  23. ^Ali Reza Nourizadeh (Persian - Arabic - English)Archived2012-03-04 at theWayback Machine
  24. ^D. and in khorasan [Cultural & Civil society of Khorasani Kurds, www.cskk.org]. McDowall,A Modern History of the Kurds,1996, Chapter 13, "Subjects of the Shi'i Republic," pp. 261-287.
  25. ^Ayatollah Khomeini's Speech, Radio Tehran, December 17, 1979. Quoted in David McDowall,A Modern History of the Kurds(London:I.B. Tauris,1996, p. 271
  26. ^D. McDowall,A Modern History of the Kurds,I.B. Tauris Publishers,ISBN978-1-85043-416-0,p. 278
  27. ^Romano, David (2006).The Kurdish Nationalist Movement: Opportunity, Mobilization and Identity.Cambridge Middle East studies, 22. Cambridge, UK; New York:Cambridge University Press.p. 240.ISBN9780521850414.OCLC61425259.
  28. ^Abdullazada, Sakar."A Rise in Nationalism in Eastern Kurdistan".Kurdnas. Archived fromthe originalon 2 May 2015.Retrieved15 January2021.
  29. ^IRANArchived2013-03-13 at theWayback Machine
  30. ^"the ethnically Kurdish city of Kermanshah", Tamar Mayer, Suleiman Ali Mourad,Jerusalem: Idea and Reality,Taylor & Francis, 2008,ISBN978-0-415-42128-7,p. 171.
  31. ^"They were housed in refugee camps at Sanghour, near the Persian Gulf, and at Kamiaran, near the Kurdish city of Kermanshah", Kerim Yildiz, Kurdish Human Rights Project, Pluto, 2007,ISBN978-0-7453-2663-4,The Kurds in Iraq: The Past, Present and Future, p. 28.
  32. ^"Kermanshah (formerly Bakhtaran) historically has been the largest Kurdish city", Glenn Eldon Curtis, Eric James Hooglund, Library of Congress. Federal Research Division,Iran: A Country Study,Government Printing Office, 2008,ISBN978-0-8444-1187-3,p. 94.
  33. ^Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East - Sign In PageArchived2009-02-15 at theWayback Machine
  34. ^Natali, D.,Manufacturing Identity and Managing Kurds in Iraq, Turkey and Iran: A Study in Evolution of Nationalism,PhD Dissertation in Political Science, University of Pennsylvania, 2000, p.238
  35. ^Iran: Country Reports on Human Rights Practices - 1999,Released by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State, February 23, 2000.
  36. ^IRANArchived2013-03-13 at theWayback Machine
  37. ^PJAKArchived2011-05-26 at theWayback Machine
  38. ^Iran Focus-Iran sends in troops to crush border unrest - Iran (General) - NewsArchived2008-03-12 at theWayback Machine
  39. ^ab"Iran: Human rights abuses against the Kurdish minority".30 July 2008.Retrieved2010-05-12.
  40. ^Kurdish man at imminent risk of execution in Iran | Amnesty InternationalArchived2015-02-18 at theWayback Machine
  41. ^Iran Executes Kurdish Political Activist - Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty © 2010Archived2010-10-24 at theWayback Machine
  42. ^Iran executes Kurdish man | Amnesty InternationalArchived2015-02-18 at theWayback Machine
  43. ^After Ehsan Fatahiyan another Activist Fasih Yasamani has been ExecutedArchived2010-01-06 at theWayback Machine
  44. ^Iran executes five political prisoners - Amnesty International AustraliaArchived2011-04-05 at theWayback Machine
  45. ^Iran Denies Families Bodies of Executed Kurds - NYTimes.comArchived2010-05-16 at theWayback Machine
  46. ^"U.S. brands anti-Iran Kurdish group terrorist".Reuters.2017-02-04.Archivedfrom the original on 2016-11-11.Retrieved2017-05-21.

Sources

  • Yamaguchi, Akihiko (2021). "The Kurdish frontier under the Safavids". In Matthee, Rudi (ed.).The Safavid World.Routledge. pp. 556–571.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iranian_Kurdistan&oldid=1239220288"