Irish nationalism

See also:Irish republicanism

Thenational flagof theRepublic of Ireland,which was created to represent all ofIreland

Government Buildings inDublin

Irish nationalismis anationalistpolitical movementwhich, in its broadest sense, asserts that the people of Ireland should govern Ireland as asovereign state.Since the mid-19th century, Irish nationalism has largely taken the form ofcultural nationalismbased on the principles ofnational self-determinationandpopular sovereignty.Irish nationalists during the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries such as theUnited Irishmenin the 1790s,Young Irelandersin the 1840s, theFenian Brotherhoodduring the 1880s,Fianna Fáilin the 1920s, andSinn Féinstyled themselves in various ways after French left-wingradicalismandrepublicanism.Irish nationalism celebrates theculture of Ireland,especially theIrish language,literature, music, and sports. It grew more potent during the period in which all of Ireland was part of theUnited Kingdom,which led to most of the island gaining independence from the UK in 1922.

Irish nationalists believe that foreign English and later British rule in Ireland from the 1169EnglishNorman Invasion of Irelandonwards has been detrimental to Irish interests.At the time of thepartition of Irelandmost of the island wasRoman Catholicand largely indigenous, while a sizeable portion of the country, particularly in the north, wasProtestantand chiefly descended from people ofGreat Britainwhocolonised the land as settlersduring the reign ofKing James Iin 1609. Partition was along these ethno-religious lines, with most of Ireland gaining independence, while six northern counties remained part of the United Kingdom. Irish nationalists supportIrish reunification.

History

Early development

Generally, Irish nationalism is regarded as having emerged following theRenaissancerevival of the concept of thepatriaand the religious struggle between the ideology of the ProtestantReformationand the CatholicCounter-Reformation.At this early stage in the 16th century, Irish nationalism represented an ideal of the nativeGaelic Irishand theOld Englishbanding together in common cause, under the banner of Catholicism and Irish civic identity ( "faith and fatherland" ),hoping to protect their land and interests from theNew EnglishProtestant forces sponsored byEngland.This vision sought to overcome the old ethnic divide betweenGaeil(the native Irish) andGaill(the Normans) which had been a feature of Irish life since the 12th century, following theNorman invasion of Ireland.

Protestantism in England introduced a religious element to the 16th-centuryTudor conquest of Ireland,as many of the native Gaels andHiberno-Normansremained Catholic. ThePlantations of Irelanddispossessed many native Catholic landowners in favour of Protestant settlers from England and Scotland.In addition, thePlantation of Ulster,which began in 1609, "planted" a sizeable population of English and Scottish Protestant settlers into the north of Ireland.

Irish aristocrats waged many campaigns against the English presence. A prime example is the rebellion ofHugh O'Neillwhich became known as theNine Years' Warof 1594–1603, which aimed to expel the English and make Ireland a Spanishprotectorate.

Thegreen harp flagwas first used byIrish Confederate troopsin theEleven Years War,and became the main symbol of Irish nationalism from the 17th to the early 20th century.

A more significant movement came in the 1640s, after theIrish Rebellion of 1641,when a coalition of Gaelic Irish andOld EnglishCatholics set up ade factoindependent Irish state to fight in theWars of the Three Kingdoms(seeConfederate Ireland). The Confederate Catholics of Ireland, also known as the Confederation of Kilkenny, emphasised the idea of Ireland as a Kingdom independent from England, albeit under the same monarch. They demanded autonomy for theIrish Parliament,full rights for Catholics and an end to the confiscation of Catholic-owned land. However, theCromwellian conquest of Ireland(1649–1653) destroyed the Confederate cause and resulted in the permanent dispossession of the old Catholic landowning class.

A similar Irish Catholic monarchist movement emerged in the 1680s and 1690s, when Irish CatholicJacobitessupportedJames IIafter his deposition in England in theGlorious Revolutionof 1688–1689. The Jacobites demanded that Irish Catholics have a majority in an autonomous Irish Parliament, the restoration of confiscated Catholic land, and an Irish-bornLord Deputy of Ireland.Similarly to the Confederates of the 1640s, the Jacobites were conscious of representing the "Irish nation" but were not separatists and largely represented the interests of the landed class as opposed to all the Irish people. Also similarly to the Confederates they suffered defeat, in theWilliamite War in Ireland(1689–1691). Thereafter, the largely EnglishProtestant Ascendancydominated Irish government and landholding. ThePenal Lawsdiscriminated against non-Anglicans.(See alsoHistory of Ireland 1536–1691.)

This coupling of religious and ethnic identity – principally Roman Catholic andGaelic– as well as a consciousness of dispossession and defeat at the hands of British and Protestant forces, became enduring features of Irish nationalism. However, the Irish Catholic movements of the 16th century were invariably led by a small landed and clerical elite. Professor Kevin Whelan has traced the emergence of the modern Catholic-nationalist identity that formed in 1760–1830.Irish historianMarc Caball,on the other hand, claims that "early modern Irish nationalism" began to be established after theFlight of the Earls(1607), based on the concepts of "the indivisibility of Gaelic cultural integrity, territorial sovereignty, and the interlinking of Gaelic identity with profession of the Roman Catholic faith".

Early nationalism

Pre-Union

"Daniel O'Connell: The Champion of Liberty" poster published in Pennsylvania, 1847

The exclusively ProtestantParliament of Irelandof the eighteenth century repeatedly called for more autonomy from the British Parliament – particularly the repeal ofPoynings' Law,which allowed the latter to legislate for Ireland. They were supported by popular sentiment that came from the various publications ofWilliam Molyneuxabout Irish constitutional independence; this was later reinforced byJonathan Swift's incorporation of these ideas intoDrapier's Letters.

Parliamentarians who wanted more self-government formed theIrish Patriot Party,led byHenry Grattan,who achievedsubstantial legislative independence in 1782–83.Grattan and radical elements of the 'Irish Whig' party campaigned in the 1790s for Catholic political equality and reform of electoral rights.He wanted useful links with Britain to remain, best understood by his comment: 'The channel [the Irish sea] forbids union; the ocean forbids separation'.

Grattan's movement was notable for being both inclusive and nationalist as many of its members were descended from the Anglo/Irish minority. Many other nationalists such asSamuel Neilson,Theobald Wolfe ToneandRobert Emmetwere also descended from plantation families which had arrived in Ireland since 1600. From Grattan in the 1770s toParnellup to 1890, nearly all the leaders of Irish separatism wereProtestant nationalists.

Modern Irish nationalism with democratic aspirations began in the 1790s with the founding of theSociety of the United Irishmen.It sought to end discrimination against Catholics and Presbyterians and to found an independent Irish republic. Most of the United Irish leaders were Catholic and Presbyterian and inspired by theFrench Revolution,wanted a society withoutsectariandivisions, the continuation of which they attributed to the British domination over the country. They were sponsored by theFrench Republic,which was then the enemy of theHoly See.The United Irishmen led theIrish Rebellion of 1798,which was repressed with great bloodshed. As a result, the Irish Parliament voted to abolish itself in theAct of Union of 1800–01 and thereafter Irish Members of Parliament sat in London.

Post-Union

Two forms of Irish nationalism arose from these events. One was a radical movement, known asIrish republicanism.It believed the use of force was necessary to found a secular, egalitarian Irish republic, advocated by groups such as theYoung Irelanders,some of whom launched a rebellion in 1848.

The other nationalist tradition was more moderate, urging non-violent means to seek concessions from the British government.While both nationalist traditions were predominantly Catholic in their support base, the hierarchy of the Catholic Church were opposed to republican separatism on the grounds of its violent methods and secular ideology, while they usually supported non-violent reformist nationalism.

Daniel O'Connellwas the leader of the moderate tendency. O'Connell, head of theCatholic AssociationandRepeal Associationin the 1820s, 1830s and 1840s, campaigned forCatholic Emancipation– full political rights for Catholics – and then Repeal of the Union, or Irish self-government under the Crown. Catholic Emancipation was achieved, but self-government was not. O'Connell's movement was more explicitly Catholic than its eighteenth-century predecessors.It enjoyed the support of the Catholic clergy, who had denounced theUnited Irishmenand reinforced the association between Irish identity and Catholicism. The Repeal Association used traditional Irish imagery, such as theharp,and located its mass meetings in sites such asTaraandClontarfwhich had a special resonance in Irish history.

Repeal Association and Young Ireland

TheGreat Famineof 1845–1849 caused great bitterness among Irish people against the British government, which was perceived as having failed to avert the deaths of up to a million people.British support for the 1860plebiscitesonItalian unificationpromptedAlexander Martin Sullivanto launch a "National Petition"for a referendum on repeal of the union; in 1861Daniel O'Donoghuesubmitted the 423,026 signatures to no effect.

TheIrish Republican Brotherhood(IRB) andFenian Brotherhoodwere set up in Ireland and the United States, respectively, in 1858 by militant republicans, includingYoung Irelanders.The latter dissolved into factions after organisingunsuccessful raidsonCanadaby Irish veterans of theAmerican Civil War,and the IRB launchedClan na Gaelas a replacement. In Ireland itself, the IRB tried anarmed revolt in 1867but, as it was heavily infiltrated by police informers, the rising was a failure.

In the late 19th century, Irish nationalism became the dominant ideology in Ireland, having a majorParliamentaryparty in theParliament of the United KingdomatWestminsterthat launched a concerted campaign for self-government.

Land League

Mass nationalist mobilisation began whenIsaac Butt'sHome Rule League(which had been founded in 1873 but had little following) adopted social issues in the late 1870s – especially the question of land redistribution.Michael Davitt(an IRB member) founded theIrish Land Leaguein 1879 during an agricultural depression to agitate for tenant's rights. Some would argue the land question had a nationalist resonance in Ireland as many Irish Catholics believed that land had been unjustly taken from their ancestors by Protestant English colonists in the 17th-centuryPlantations of Ireland.Indeed, the Irish landed class was still largely anAnglo-IrishProtestant group in the 19th century. Such perceptions were underlined in the Land league's language and literature.However, others would argue that the Land League had its direct roots in tenant associations formed in the period of agricultural prosperity during the government ofLord Palmerstonin the 1850s and 1860s, who were seeking to strengthen the economic gains they had already made.Following the depression of 1879 and the subsequent fall in prices (and hence profits), these farmers were threatened with rising rents and eviction for failure to pay rents. In addition, small farmers, especially in the west faced the prospect of another famine in the harsh winter of 1879. At first, the Land League campaigned for the "Three Fs"– fair rent, free sale and fixity of tenure. Then, as prices for agricultural products fell further and the weather worsened in the mid-1880s, tenants organised themselves by withholding rent during the 1886–1891Plan of Campaignmovement.

Militant nationalists such as the Fenians saw that they could use the groundswell of support for land reform to recruit nationalist support, this is the reason why theNew Departure– a decision by the IRB to adopt social issues – occurred in 1879.Republicans from Clan na Gael (who were loath to recognise the British Parliament) saw this as an opportunity to recruit the masses to agitate for Irish self-government. This agitation, which became known as the "Land War",turned increasingly violent when Land Leaguers resisted attempts by theRoyal Irish Constabulary(RUC) to evict tenant farmers by force.This upheaval eventually resulted in the British government subsidising the sale of landlords' estates to their tenants in theIrish Land Actsauthored byWilliam O'Brien.It also provided a mass base for constitutional Irish nationalists who had founded theHome Rule Leaguein 1873.Charles Stewart Parnell(somewhat paradoxically, a Protestant landowner) took over the Land League and used its popularity to launch theIrish National Leaguein 1882 as a support basis for the newly formedIrish Parliamentary Party,to campaign forHome Rule.

Cultural nationalism

A flowchart illustrating all the political parties that have existed throughout the history of Northern Ireland and leading up to its formation (1889 onwards). Nationalist parties are in green.

An important feature of Irish nationalism from the late 19th century onwards was a commitment toGaelicIrish culture. A broad intellectual movement, theCeltic Revival,grew up in the late 19th century. Though largely initiated by artists and writers of Protestant or Anglo-Irish background, the movement nonetheless captured the imaginations of idealists from native Irish and Catholic background. Periodicals such asUnited Ireland,Weekly News,Young Ireland,andWeekly National Press(1891–92), became influential in promoting Ireland's native cultural identity. A frequent contributor, the poetJohn McDonald's stated aim was "to hasten, as far as in my power lay, Ireland's deliverance".

Other organisations promoting theIrish languageor theGaelic Revivalwere theGaelic Leagueand laterConradh na Gaeilge.TheGaelic Athletic Associationwas also formed in this era to promoteGaelic football,hurling,andGaelic handball;it forbade its members to play English sports such asassociation football,rugby union,andcricket.

Most cultural nationalists were English speakers, and their organisations had little impact in the Irish speaking areas orGaeltachtaí, where the language has continued to decline (seearticle). However, these organisations attracted large memberships and were the starting point for many radical Irish nationalists of the early twentieth century, especially the leaders of theEaster Risingof 1916 such as Patrick Pearse,Thomas MacDonagh,and Joseph Plunkett. The main aim was to emphasise an area of difference between Ireland andGermanicEngland, but most of the population continued to speak English.

The cultural Gaelic aspect did not extend into actual politics; while nationalists were interested in the survivingChiefs of the Name,the descendants of the former Gaelic clan leaders, the chiefs were not involved in politics, nor noticeably interested in the attempt to recreate a Gaelic state.

Home Rule beginnings

Main article:Irish Home Rule Movement

Although Parnell and some other Home Rulers, such asIsaac Butt,were Protestants, Parnell's party was overwhelmingly Catholic. At local branch level, Catholic priests were an important part of its organisation. Home Rule was opposed byUnionists(those who supported the Union with Britain), mostly Protestant and fromUlsterunder the slogan, "Home Rule isRome Rule."

At the time, some politicians and members of the British public would have seen this movement as radical and militant. Detractors quoted Charles Stewart Parnell's Cincinnati speech in which he claimed to be collecting money for "bread and lead". He was allegedly sworn into the secretIrish Republican Brotherhoodin May 1882. However, the fact that he chose to stay in Westminster following the expulsion of 29 Irish MPs (when those in the Clan expected an exodus of nationalist MPs from Westminster to set up a provisional government in Dublin) and his failure in 1886 to support thePlan of Campaign(an aggressive agrarian programme launched to counter agricultural distress), marked him as an essentially constitutional politician, though not averse to using agitational methods as a means of putting pressure on parliament.

Coinciding as it did with the extension of thefranchisein British politics – and with it the opportunity for most Irish Catholics to vote – Parnell's party quickly became an important player in British politics. Home Rule was favoured byWilliam Ewart Gladstone,but opposed by many in the BritishLiberalandConservativeparties.Home Rulewould have meant adevolvedIrish parliament within theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.The first twoIrish Home Rule Billswere put before theHouse of Commons of the United Kingdomin 1886 and 1893, but they were bitterly resisted and the second bill ultimately defeated in the Conservative's pro-Unionistmajority controlledHouse of Lords.

Following the fall and death of Parnell in 1891 after a divorce crisis, which enabled the Irish Roman Catholic hierarchy to pressure MPs to drop Parnell as their leader, the Irish Party split into two factions, theINLand theINF,becoming practically ineffective from 1892 to 1898. Only after the passing of theLocal Government (Ireland) Act 1898which granted extensive power to previously non-existent county councils, allowing nationalists for the first time through local elections to democratically run local affairs previously under the control of landlord dominated "Grand Juries",and William O'Brien founding theUnited Irish Leaguethat year, did the Irish Parliamentary Party reunite underJohn Redmondin January 1900, returning to its former strength in the followingSeptember general election.

Transformation of rural Ireland

The first decade of the twentieth century saw considerable advancement in economic and social development in rural Ireland, where 60% of the population lived.The introduction of local self-government in 1898 created a class of experienced politicians capable of later taking over national self-government in the 1920s. TheLand Purchase (Ireland) Act 1903(theWyndhamAct), passed largely through the efforts of William O'Brien, abolishedlandlordism,and made it easier fortenant farmersto purchase lands, financed and guaranteed by the government. By 1914, 75 per cent of occupiers were buying out their landlords' freehold interest through theLand Commission,mostly under the Land Acts of 1903 and 1909.O'Brien then pursued and won in alliance with theIrish Land and Labour AssociationandD.D. Sheehan,who followed in the footsteps of Michael Davitt, the landmark 1906 and 1911 Labourers (Ireland) Acts, where the Liberal government financed 40,000 rural labourers to become proprietors of their own cottage homes, each on an acre of land. "It is not an exaggeration to term it a social revolution, and it was the first large-scale rural public-housing scheme in the country, with up to a quarter of a million housed under the Labourers Acts up to 1921, the majority erected by 1916",changing the face of rural Ireland.

The combination of land reform and devolved local government gave Irish nationalists an economic political base on which to base their demands for self-government. Some in the British administration felt initially that paying for such a degree of land and housing reform amounted to an unofficial policy of "killing home rule by kindness", yet by 1914 some form of Home Rule for most of Ireland was guaranteed. This was shelved on the outbreak ofWorld War Iin August 1914.

A new source of radical Irish nationalism developed in the same period in the cities outsideUlster.In 1896,James Connolly,founded theIrish Socialist Republican Partyin Dublin. Connolly's party was small and unsuccessful in elections, but his fusion of socialism and Irish republicanism was to have a sustained impact on republican thought. In 1913, during the general strike known as theDublin Lockout,Connolly andJames Larkinformed a workers militia, theIrish Citizen Army,to defend strikers from the police. While initially a purely defensive body, under Connolly's leadership, the ICA became a revolutionary body, dedicated to an independent Workers Republic in Ireland. After the outbreak of the First World War, Connolly became determined to launch an insurrection to this end.

Home Rule crisis 1912–14

Poster for a 1913 anti-Carsonmeeting, hosted by Protestants ofBallymoney.Speakers includedRoger CasementandRobert Glendinning.

Home Rule was eventually won byJohn Redmondand theIrish Parliamentary Partyand granted under the ThirdHome Rule Act 1914.However, Irish self-government was limited by the prospect of partition of Ireland between north and south. This idea had first been mooted under theSecond Home Rule Billin 1893. In 1912, following the entry of the Third Home Rule Bill through the House of Commons, unionists organised mass resistance to its implementation, organising around the "Ulster Covenant".In 1912 they formed theUlster Volunteers,an armed wing of Ulster Unionism who stated that they would resist Home Rule by force. British Conservatives supported this stance. In addition, in 1914 British officers based at theCurragh Campindicated that they would beunwilling to act against the Ulster Volunteersshould they be ordered to.

In response, Nationalists formed their own paramilitary group, theIrish Volunteers,to ensure the implementation of Home Rule. It looked for several months in 1914 as if civil war was imminent between the two armed factions. Only theAll-for-Ireland Leagueparty advocated granting every conceivable concession to Ulster to stave off a partition amendment. Redmond rejected their proposals. The amended Home Rule Act was passed and placed withRoyal Assenton the statute books, but was suspended after the outbreak ofWorld War Iin 1914, until the end of the war. This led radical republican groups to argue that Irish independence could never be won peacefully and gave the northern question little thought at all.

World War I and the Easter Rising

The Irish Volunteer movement was divided over the attitude of their leadership toIreland's involvementin World War I. The majority followed John Redmond in support of the British andAlliedwar effort, seeing it as the only option to ensure the enactment of Home Rule after the war, Redmond saying "you will return as an armed army capable of confronting Ulster's opposition to Home Rule". They split off from the main movement and formed theNational Volunteers,and were among the 180,000 Irishmen who served inIrish regimentsof the Irish10thand16th Divisionsof theNew British Armyformed for the War.

A minority of the Irish Volunteers, mostly led by members of theIrish Republican Brotherhood(IRB), refused to support the War and kept their arms to guarantee the passage of Home Rule. Within this grouping, another faction planned an insurrection againstBritish rule in Ireland,while the War was going on. Critical in this regard were Patrick Pearse,Thomas MacDonagh, and Thomas Clarke. These men were part of an inner circle that were operating in secret within the ranks of the IRB to plan this rising unknown to the rest of the volunteers.James Connolly, the labour leader, first intended to launch his own insurrection for an Irish Socialist Republic decided early in 1916 to combine forces with the IRB. In April 1916, just over a thousand dissident Volunteers and 250 members of the Citizen's Army launched theEaster Risingin the DublinGeneral Post Officeand, in theEaster Proclamation,proclaimed the independence of theIrish Republic.The Rising was put down within a week, at a cost of about 500 killed, mainly unengaged civilians.Although the rising failed, Britain'sGeneral Maxwellexecuted fifteen of the Rising's leaders, including Pearse, MacDonagh, Clarke and Connolly, and arrested some 3,000 political activists which led to widespread public sympathy for the rebel's cause. Following this example,physical force republicanismbecame increasingly powerful and, for the following seven years or so, became the dominant force in Ireland, securing substantial independence but at a cost ofdividing Ireland.

The Irish Parliamentary Party was discredited after Home Rule had been suspended at the outbreak of World War I, in the belief that the war would be over by the end of 1915, then by the severe losses suffered byIrish battalionsinGallipoliatCape Hellesand on theWestern Front.They were also damaged by the harsh British response to the Easter Rising, who treated the rebellion as treason in time of war when they declaredmartial lawin Ireland. Moderate constitutional nationalism as represented by the Irish Party was in due course eclipsed bySinn Féin– a hitherto small party which the British had (mistakenly) blamed for the Rising and subsequently taken over as a vehicle for Irish Republicanism.

Two further attempts to implement Home Rule in 1916 and 1917 also failed when John Redmond, leader of the Irish Party, refused to concede partition while accepting there could be no coercion of Ulster. AnIrish Conventionto resolve the deadlock was established in July 1917 by the British Prime Minister,Lloyd George,its members both nationalists and unionists tasked with finding a means of implementing Home Rule. However, Sinn Féin refused to take part in the convention as it refused to discuss the possibility of full Irish independence. TheUlster unionistsled byEdward Carsoninsisted on the partition of six Ulster counties from the rest of Ireland,stating that the 1916 rebellion proved a parliament in Dublin could not be trusted.

The convention's work was disrupted in March 1918 by Redmond's death and the fierceGerman spring offensiveon the Western Front, causing Britain to attempt to contemplate extending conscription to Ireland. This was extremely unpopular, opposed both by the Irish Parliamentary Party under its new leaderJohn Dillon,theAll-for-Ireland Partyas well as Sinn Féin and other national bodies. It resulted in theConscription Crisis of 1918.In May at the height of the crisis 73 prominent Sinn Féiners were arrested on the grounds of an allegedGerman Plot.Both these events contributed to a widespread rise in support for Sinn Féin and the Volunteers.TheArmisticeended the war in November, and was followed by elections.

Militant separatism and Irish independence

In theGeneral election of 1918,Sinn Féinwon 73 seats, 25 of these unopposed, or statistically nearly 70% of Irish representation, under the British "First past the post"voting-system, but had a minority representation in Ulster. They achieved a total of 476,087 (46.9%) of votes polled for 48 seats, compared to 220,837 (21.7%) votes polled by the IPP for only six seats, who due to the" first past the post "voting system did not win a proportional share of seats.Unionists (including Unionist Labour) votes were 305,206 (30.2%)

The Sinn Féin MPs refused to take their seats in Westminster, 27 of these (the rest were either still imprisoned or impaired) setting up their own Parliament called theDáil Éireannin January 1919 and declared theIrish Republicto be in existence. Nationalists in the south of Ireland, impatient with the lack of progress on Irish self-government, tended to ignore the unresolved and volatile Ulster situation, generally arguing that unionists had no choice but to ultimately follow. On 11 September 1919, the British proscribed the Dáil, which had met nine times by then, declaring it an illegal assembly, Ireland being still part of the United Kingdom. In 1919, a guerilla war broke out between theIrish Republican Army(IRA) (as the Irish Volunteers were now calling themselves) and the British security forces(SeeIrish War of Independence).

The campaign created tensions between the political and military sides of the nationalist movement. The IRA, nominally subject to the Dáil, in practice, often acted on its own initiative. At the top, the IRA leadership, ofMichael CollinsandRichard Mulcahy,operated with little reference toCathal Brugha,the Dáil's Minister for Defence orÉamon de Valera,the President of theIrish Republic– at best giving them a supervisory role.At local level, IRA commanders such asDan Breen,Sean Moylan,Tom Barry,Sean MacEoin,Liam Lynchand others avoided contact with the IRA command, let alone the Dáil itself.This meant that the violence of the War of Independence rapidly escalated beyond what many in Sinn Féin and Dáil were happy with.Arthur Griffith,for example, favoured passive resistance over the use of force, but he could do little to affect the cycle of violence between IRA guerrillasand Crown forces that emerged over 1919–1920. The military conflict produced only a handful of killings in 1919, but steadily escalated from the summer of 1920 onwards with the introduction of the paramilitary police forces, theBlack and TansandAuxiliary Divisioninto Ireland. From November 1920 to July 1921, over 1000 people died in the conflict (compared to c. 400 until then).

Northern Ireland

For the first hundred years of its existence,Northern Irelandhad a unionist majority, but had a large nationalist minority who would prefer to be part of aunited Ireland.In Northern Ireland, the term "nationalist" is used to refer either to theCatholicpopulation in general or to the supporters of the moderateSocial Democratic and Labour Party."Nationalism" in this restricted meaning refers to a political tradition that favours an independent, united Ireland achieved by non-violent means. The more militant strand of nationalism, as espoused bySinn Féin,is generally described as "republican" and was regarded as somewhat distinct, although the modern-day party is a constitutional party committed to exclusively peaceful and democratic means.

55.8% of voters in Northern Ireland voted for the United Kingdom to remain a part of theEuropean Unionin the23 June 2016 referendumin which the country as a whole voted to leave the union. The results in Northern Ireland were influenced by fears of a strong border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland as well as by fears of a hard border breaking theGood Friday Agreement.

Three significant events occurred in December 2019, February 2020 and May 2022, respectively. First, theUK general electionsaw more nationalist MPs elected in Northern Ireland than unionist ones for the first time ever (nine nationalists and eight unionists).Two months later, Sinn Féin won the most votes in the2020 Irish general election,thus ending 100 years of dominance in the Republic byFine GaelandFianna Fáil,but still finished one seat behind the latter in the Daíl.Finally, at the2022 Northern Ireland Assembly election,Sinn Féin won the highest number of seats, the first time a nationalist party had done so in Northern Ireland's 101-year history.This resulted in the Assembly's first nationalist First Minister,Michelle O'Neillbeing selected in February 2024.

References

Sources

• Kee, Robert (1972).The Green Flag: A History of Irish Nationalism.Weidenfeld and Nicolson.ISBN029717987X.
• O'Donoghue, David James (1892).The Poets of Ireland: A Biographical Dictionary with Bibliographical Particulars(PDF).

Further reading

• Brundage, David.Irish Nationalists in America: The Politics of Exile, 1798–1998(Oxford University Press,2016). x, 288
• Boyce, D. George.Nationalism in Ireland,1982
• Campbell, F.Land and Revolution,2005
• Cronin, Sean.Irish Nationalism: Its Roots and Ideology,1980
• Edwards, Ruth Dudley,Patrick Pearse: The Triumph of Failure,1977
• Elliot, Marianne,Wolfe Tone,1989
• English, Richard.Irish Freedom,2008
• Garvin, Tom.The Evolution of Irish Nationalist Politics,1981;Nationalist Revolutionaries in Ireland, 1858–1928,1987
• Kee, Robert.The Green Flag,1976
• MacDonagh, Oliver.States of Mind,1983
• McBride, Lawrence.Images, Icons, and the Irish Nationalist Imagination,1999
• McBride, Lawrence.Reading Irish Histories,2003
• Maume, Patrick.The Long Gestation,1999
• Nelson, Bruce.Irish Nationalists and the Making of the Irish Race.Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press,2012
• Strauss, E.Irish Nationalism and British Democracy,1951
• O'Farrell, Patrick.Ireland's English Question,1971
• Phoenix, Éamon.Northern Nationalism: Nationalist Politics, Partition and the Catholic Minority in Northern Ireland, 1890–1940
• Ward, Margaret.Unimaginable Revolutionaries: Women and Irish Nationalism,1983
• (attrib.)Winter, John Pratt (1797).An address to the thinking independent part of the community: on the present alarming state of public affairs(1 ed.). Dublin.
• Zách, L. (2020). 'The first of the small nations': The significance of central European small states in Irish nationalist political rhetoric, 1918–22.Irish Historical Studies,44(165), 25–40.

External links

• Irish NationalismArchived17 May 2007 at theWayback Machine(Archived2009-10-31) – ninemsn Encarta (short introduction)