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Judaea (Roman province)

Coordinates:32°30′N34°54′E/ 32.500°N 34.900°E/32.500; 34.900
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This article is about the Roman Province. For region in theLevant,seeJudea.

Province of Judaea
Provincia Iudaea(Latin)
Ἐπαρχία Ιουδαίας(Koinē Greek)
Provinceof theRoman Empire
6 AD–132 AD

The Roman Empire under the reign ofHadrian(125 AD) with Judaea highlighted in red
CapitalCaesarea Maritima
Area
• Coordinates32°30′N34°54′E/ 32.500°N 34.900°E/32.500; 34.900
Government
Prefectsbefore 41,Procuratorsafter 44
• 6–9 AD
Coponius
• 26–36 AD
Pontius Pilate
• 64–66 AD
Gessius Florus
• 117 AD
Lusius Quietus
• 130–132 AD
Tineius Rufus
King of the Jews
• 41–44
Agrippa I
• 48–93/100
Agrippa II
LegislatureSynedrion/Sanhedrin
Historical eraRoman Principate
6 AD
c. 30/33 AD
• Crisis underCaligula
37–41 AD
• Incorporation ofGalileeandPeraea
44 AD
70 AD
• Governor of praetorian rank and given the 10th Legion
c. 74 AD
• Merging intoSyria Palestina
132 AD 132 AD
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Herodian Tetrarchy
Syria Palaestina
Today part ofIsrael
Palestine
Before 4 August 70 is referred to asSecond Temple Judaism,from which theTannaimandEarly Christianity emerged.

Judaea(Latin:Iudaea[juːˈdae̯.a];Ancient Greek:Ἰουδαία,romanized:Ioudaía[i.uˈdɛ.a]) was aRoman provincefrom 6 to 132AD,which incorporated theLevantineregions ofJudea,SamariaandIdumea,extending over parts of the former regions of theHasmoneanandHerodian kingdomsof Judea. The nameJudaea(like the similarJudea) was derived from theIron AgeKingdom of Judah.

Since theRoman Republic's conquest of Judea in 63 BC, the latter had maintained a system of semi-autonomousvassalage.The incorporation of the Roman province was enacted by the firstRoman emperor,Augustus,after an appeal by the populace against the ill rule ofHerod Archelaus(4 BC – 6 AD).

With the onset of direct rule,the official censusinstituted byPublius Sulpicius Quirinius,the governor ofRoman Syria,caused tensions and led to an uprising by Jewish rebelJudas of Galilee(6 AD). Other notable events in the region include thecrucifixion of Jesusc. 30–33 AD(which led to the emergence ofChristianity) and in 37 AD, EmperorCaligulaordered the erection of a statue of himself in theJewish temple.

Growing discontent at Roman rule led to theFirst Jewish–Roman Warin 66–73 AD and ultimately theSiege of Jerusalemand destruction of the temple in 70 AD,[1]bringing an end to theSecond Temple period.In 44 AD,GalileeandPereawere added to the province.[citation needed]In 132 AD, sources say the merging of Galilee and Judea resulted in an enlarged province namedSyria Palaestina.[2][3][4]

Background[edit]

Pompey in the Temple of Jerusalem,byJean Fouquet

The first intervention of Rome in the region dates from 63 BCE, following the end of theThird Mithridatic War,in whichPompeydefeatedMithridates VI Eupator,sacked Jerusalem,and established theprovince of Syria.The assertion of Roman hegemony and the rise of Roman political and cultural influence brought an end toHellenistic Palestine.

Pompey installed the Hasmonean princeHyrcanus IIasEthnarchandHigh Priest of Israel,but not as king. Some years laterJulius CaesarappointedAntipater the Idumaean,also known asAntipas,as the firstRoman Procurator.Antipater's sonHerodwas designated "King of the Jews"by theRoman Senatein 40 BCE[5]but he did not gain military control until 37 BCE. During his reign, the last representatives of the Hasmoneans were eliminated, and the huge port ofCaesarea Maritimawas built.[6]

Herod died in 4 BCE, and his kingdom was divided among three of his sons, two of whom (PhilipandHerod Antipas) becametetrarchs('rulers of a quarter part'). The third son,Archelaus,became anethnarchand ruled over half of his father's kingdom.[7]One of these principalities wasJudea,corresponding to the territory of the historic Judea, plus Samaria and Idumea.

Archelausruled Judea so badly that he was dismissed in 6 CE by the firstRoman emperor,Augustus,after an appeal from his own population. Herod Antipas, ruler ofGalileeandPereafrom 4 BCE, was dismissed by EmperorCaligulain 39 CE. Herod's son Philip ruled the northeastern part of his father's kingdom.[8]

Judea as a Roman province[edit]

The Roman empire in the time ofHadrian(ruled 117–138 CE), showing, in western Asia, the Roman province of Judea
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    Revolt and removal of Herod Archelaus[edit]

    Following the death ofHerod the Great,theHerodian Kingdom of Judeawas divided into theHerodian Tetrarchy,jointly ruled by Herod's sons and sister:Herod Archelaus(who ruledJudea,SamariaandIdumea),Herod Philip(who ruledBatanea,Trachonitisas well asAuranitis),Herod Antipas(who ruledGalileeandPerea) andSalome I(who briefly ruledJamnia).

    A messianic revolt erupted in Judea in 4 BCE because of Archelaus's incompetence; the revolt was brutally crushed by theLegateofSyria,Publius Quinctilius Varus,who occupiedJerusalemand crucified 2,000 Jewish rebels.[9][10]

    Because of his failure to properly rule Judea, Archelaus was removed from his post by EmperorAugustusin 6 CE, while Judea, Samaria, and Idumea came under direct Roman administration.[11]

    This event had significant and ever-lasting effects on the Jewish population, the Temple, and thedevelopment of Christianity.[12]

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    Under a prefect (6–41 AD)[edit]

    Map of Judaea Roman Province (6–41 CE)

    The Judean province did not initially includeGalilee,Gaulanitis (today's Golan),norPeraeaor theDecapolis.Its revenue was of little importance to the Roman treasury, but it controlled the land and coastal sea routes to the "bread basket" ofEgyptand was a buffer against theParthian Empire.The capital was moved from Jerusalem toCaesarea Maritima.[13]

    Augustus appointedPublius Sulpicius Quiriniusto the post ofLegateofSyriaand he conducteda tax census of Syria and Judeain 6 CE, which triggered the revolt ofJudas of Galilee;the revolt was quickly crushed by Quirinius.[14]

    Judea was not asenatorial province,nor animperial province,but instead was a "satellite of Syria"[15]governed by aprefectwho was aknight of the Equestrian Order(as was that ofRoman Egypt), not a former consul orpraetorofsenatorial rank.Quirinius appointedCoponiusas first prefect of Judea.[16]

    Still, Jews living in the province maintained some form of independence and could judge offenders by their own laws, including capital offenses, untilc. 28 CE.[17]Judea in the earlyRoman periodwas divided into five administrative districts with centers in Jerusalem,Gadara,Amathus,Jericho,andSepphoris.[18]

    In 30–33 CE, Roman prefectPontius PilatehadJesus of Nazarethcrucifiedon the charge ofsedition,an act that led to the birth ofChristianity.[19][20][21]In 36 CE another messianic revolt erupted nearMount Gerizim,under the lead of aSamaritan,and was quickly crushed by Pilate; the Samaritans complained against Pilate's brutality to the Legate of SyriaLucius Vitellius the Elder,who removed Pilate from his post and sent him to Rome to account, replacing him with an acting prefect calledMarcellus.[22]

    Old Roman era gate,Bab al-'Amudin Jerusalem'sOld City(today part ofDamascus Gate)

    In 37 CE, Emperor Caligula ordered the erection of a statue of himself in the JewishTemple of Jerusalem,[23]a demand in conflict with Jewish monotheism.[24]TheLegateof Syria,Publius Petronius,fearing civil war if the order was carried out, delayed implementing it for nearly a year.[25]KingHerod Agrippa Ifinally convinced Caligula to reverse the order.[26]Caligula later issued a second order to have his statue erected in the Temple of Jerusalem, but he was murdered before the statue reached Jerusalem and his successorClaudiusrescinded the order.[27]The "Crisis under Caligula" has been proposed as the first open break between Rome and the Jews.[28]

    Autonomy under Herod Agrippa (41–44)[edit]

    Between 41 and 44 AD, Judea regained its nominalautonomy,whenHerod Agrippawas madeKing of the Jewsby the emperorClaudius,thus in a sense restoring the Herodian dynasty. Claudius had allowedprocurators,who served as personal agents to the Emperor and often as provincial tax and finance ministers, to be elevated to governing magistrates with full state authority to keep the peace. He may have elevated Judea's procurator to imperial governing status because the imperial legate of Syria was not sympathetic to the Judeans.[29]

    Under a procurator (44–66)[edit]

    Following Agrippa's death in 44, the province returned to direct Roman control, incorporating Agrippa's personal territories of Galilee and Peraea, under a row of procurators. Nevertheless, Agrippa's son,Agrippa IIwas designatedKing of the Jewsin 48. He was the seventh and last of theHerodians.

    Jerusalem was plagued by famine between 44 and 48[30]According toJosephus,Helena of Adiabene[31]"...went down to the city Jerusalem, her son conducting her on her journey a great way. Now her coming was of very great advantage to the people of Jerusalem; for whereas a famine did oppress them at that time, and many people died for want of what was necessary to procure food withal, queen Helena sent some of her servants to Alexandria with money to buy a great quantity of corn, and others of them to Cyprus, to bring a cargo of dried figs. And as soon as they were come back, and had brought those provisions, which was done very quickly, she distributed food to those that were in want of it, and left a most excellent memorial behind her of this benefaction, which she bestowed on our whole nation. And when her sonIzateswas informed of this famine, he sent great sums of money to the principal men in Jerusalem.[32]

    In 66-70 theFirst Jewish–Roman Warerupted.[33]

    Under a legate (70–132)[edit]

    First century Iudaea province

    From 70 until 132 Judea's rebelliousness required a governing Romanlegatecapable of commanding legions. Because Agrippa II maintained loyalty to the Empire, the Kingdom was retained until he died, either in 93/94 or 100, when the area returned to complete, undivided Roman control.

    Judaea was the stage of two, possibly three, majorJewish–Roman wars:

    • 66–70:First Jewish–Roman War,resulting in thesiege of Jerusalem,the destruction ofHerod's Templeand ending with thesiege of Masadain 73–74 (seeJosephus). Before the war Judaea was a Roman province of the third category, that is, under the administration of a procurator of equestrian rank and under the overall control of thegovernor of Syria.After the war it became an independent Roman province with the official name ofJudaeaand under the administration of a governor of praetorian rank, and was therefore moved up into the second category (it was only later, in about 120, that Judaea became a consular province, that is, with a governor of consular rank).[34]
    • 115–117: theKitos War(Second Jewish-Roman War); Judea's role in it is disputed though, as it played itself out mainly in the Jewish diaspora and there are no fully trustworthy sources on Judea's participation in the rebellion, nor is there any archaeological way of distinguishing destruction levels of 117 CE from those of theBar Kokhba revolt(Third Jewish-Roman War) revolt of just a decade and a half later.
    • 132: The province of Judaea was merged with Galilee into an enlarged province namedSyria Palaestina.[2][3][4]As a result of the Jews' defeat in theBar Kokhba revolt(132-136 CE),Jerusalem was destroyed.A few years later, a new colony was founded in its place, namedAelia Capitolina.One scholarly view the aim of renaming Judea was to disassociate the Jewish people from the land,[35]though other explanations have also been proposed,[36]and an alternative theory is that the renaming efforts preceded and helped precipitate the rebellion.[37]The renaming did not prevent the Jewish people from referring to the country in their writings as either "Yehudah" (Hebrew:יהודה)[38][39]or "The Land of Israel" (Hebrew:ארץ ישראל).[40]

    Division into three provinces (135)[edit]

    Roman stepped roadin theShephelahhill country of Judea (adjacent toHighway 375)

    UnderDiocletian(284–305) the region was divided into three provinces:[41]

    Economy[edit]

    Agriculture[edit]

    Agricultureplayed a significant role in economic life in Judaea. Wheat, barley, olives and grapes were the main crops grown in Judaea's fields. Evidence for the cultivation of herbs, vegetables, and legumes comes fromRabbinic literature,Josephus' works, and theNew Testament.Writings from the late first and early second centuries indicate that Jewish farmers introduced rice to Judea during the early Roman period. The local crop was fine, large-kernel rice.[42][43]

    Coinage[edit]

    Main article:Procuratorial coinage of Roman Judaea

    During the Roman administration of Judaea, some governors commissioned the minting of coins for local use. Only six governors are known to have issued such coins, all minted in Jerusalem.[44]All issues minted wereprutot,smallbronzecoins averaging 2-2.5 grams, similar to the Romanquadrans.[45]

    The design of the coins reflects an attempt to accommodate Jewish sensibilities, likely in collaboration with the Jewish leadership in Jerusalem.[45]Unlike typicalRoman coinagefeaturing the emperor's portrait, these coins displayed symbols likepalm treeandears of grain,echoing earlierHasmoneanandHerodiandesigns. A notable exception is the coinage ofPontius Pilate,(26-36 CE), which included Roman cultic items like thesimpulumandlituuson one side, though the reverse maintained Jewish imagery.[46][47]

    Attributing these coins to specific governors is a challenge. They lack the governor's name, but display the reigning emperor'sregnal yearand name in Greek. Scholars rely on cross-referencing this information with historical records, particularly the writings of Josephus, to establish a governor's chronology and assign the coins accordingly.[44][45]

    These coins were primarily circulated within Judaea, with the highest concentration found in Jerusalem, where hundreds have been discovered. However, evidence indicates that the coins transcended their intended region, with discoveries inTransjordanand even in distant locations likeDuraandAntioch.[45]

    The minting of provincial coins ceased in 59 CE, and they continued to circulate until the end of theFirst Jewish–Roman Warin 70 CE. Following the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple, Jews lost their previously held rights, and subsequent Roman coinage in Judaea no longer reflected Jewish influence.[45]

    List of governors (6–135 CE)[edit]

    Main article:Roman administration of Judaea (AD 6–135)
    Name Reign Length of rule Category
    Coponius 6–9 3 Roman Prefect
    Marcus Ambivulus 9–12 3 Roman Prefect
    Annius Rufus 12–15 3 Roman Prefect
    Valerius Gratus 15–26 (?) 11 Roman Prefect
    Pontius Pilate 26–36 (?) 10 Roman Prefect
    Marcellus 36–37 1 Roman Prefector caretaker
    Marullus 37–41 4 Roman Prefect
    Agrippa I(autonomous king) 41–44 3 King of Judaea
    Cuspius Fadus 44–46 2 Roman Procurator
    Tiberius Julius Alexander 46–48 2 Roman Procurator
    Ventidius Cumanus 48–52 4 Roman Procurator
    Marcus Antonius Felix 52–60 8 Roman Procurator
    Porcius Festus 60–62 2 Roman Procurator
    Lucceius Albinus 62–64 2 Roman Procurator
    Gessius Florus 64–66 2 Roman Procurator
    Marcus Antonius Julianus 66–70 (dates uncertain) 4 Roman Procurator
    Sextus Vettulenus Cerialis 70–71 1 Roman Legate
    Sextus Lucilius Bassus 71–72 1 Roman Legate
    Lucius Flavius Silva 72–81 9 Roman Legate
    Marcus Salvidienus 80–85 5 Roman Legate
    Gnaeus Pompeius Longinus c.86 1 Roman Legate
    Sextus Hermentidius Campanus c.93 1 Roman Legate
    Tiberius Claudius Atticus Herodes 99–102 3 Roman Legate
    Gaius Julius Quadratus Bassus 102–104 2 Roman Legate
    Quintus Pompeius Falco 105–107 2 Roman Legate
    Tiberianus 114–117 3 Roman Legate
    Lusius Quietus 117–120 3 Roman Legate
    Gargilius Antiquus[48] c. 124–? 1 Roman Prefect
    Quintus Tineius Rufus 130–132/3 3 Roman Legate
    Sextus Julius Severus c. 133/4–135 1 Roman Legate

    See also[edit]

    References[edit]

    1. ^Westwood, Ursula (1 April 2017)."A History of the Jewish War, AD 66–74".Journal of Jewish Studies.68(1): 189–193.doi:10.18647/3311/jjs-2017.ISSN0022-2097.
    2. ^abClouser, Gordon (2011).Jesus, Joshua, Yeshua of Nazareth Revised and Expanded.iUniverse.ISBN978-1-4620-6121-1.
    3. ^abSpolsky, Bernard (27 March 2014).The Languages of the Jews: A Sociolinguistic History.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-107-05544-5.
    4. ^abBrand, Chad; Mitchell, Eric; Staff, Holman Reference Editorial (2015).Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary.B&H Publishing Group.ISBN978-0-8054-9935-3.
    5. ^Jewish War 1.14.4:Mark Antony"... then resolved to get him made king of the Jews... told them that it was for their advantage in theParthian warthat Herod should be king; so they all gave their votes for it. And when the senate was separated, Antony andCaesarwent out, with Herod between them; while the consul and the rest of themagistrateswent before them, to offer sacrifices [to the Roman gods], and to lay the decree in the Capitol. Antony also made a feast for Herod on the first day of his reign. "
    6. ^"Founded in the years 22–10 or 9 B.C. by Herod the Great, close to the ruins of a small Phoenician naval station named Strato's Tower (Stratonos Pyrgos, Turns Stratonis), which flourished during the 3d to 1st c. B.C. This small harbor was situated on the N part of the site. Herod dedicated the new town and its port (limen Sebastos) toCaesar Augustus.During the Early Roman period, Caesarea was the seat of the Roman procurators of the province of Judea. Vespasian, proclaimed emperor at Caesarea, raised it to the rank of Colonia Prima Flavia Augusta, and later Alexander Severus raised it to the rank of Metropolis Provinciae Syriae Palestinae. "A. Negev," CAESAREA MARITIMA Palestine, Israel "in: Richard Stillwell et al. (eds.),The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites(1976).
    7. ^Josephus,De Bello Judaico(Wars of the Jews)2.6.3;Antiquities17.11.4(17.317).
    8. ^Josephus,Antiquities17.188–189,War1.664.
    9. ^Josephus,The Jewish War,Book 2, Chapter 56
    10. ^Josephus,Antiquities of the Jews,Book 17, Chapters 271-272
    11. ^Malamat, Abraham; Tadmor, Hayim (1976).A History of the Jewish People.Harvard University Press.ISBN978-0-674-39731-6.When Archelaus was deposed from theethnarchyin 6 CE, Judea proper, Samaria and Idumea were converted into a Roman province under the name Iudaea.
    12. ^Millar, Fergus (1995).The Roman Near East: 31 BC–AD 337.Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 44.ISBN978-0-674-77886-3.
    13. ^A History of the Jewish People,H. H. Ben-Sasson editor, 1976, page 247: "When Judea was converted into a Roman province [in 6 CE, page 246], Jerusalem ceased to be the administrative capital of the country. The Romans moved the governmental residence and military headquarters to Caesarea. The centre of government was thus removed from Jerusalem, and the administration became increasingly based on inhabitants of the Hellenistic cities (Sebaste,Caesarea and others). "
    14. ^"Josephus, Antiquities Book XVIII".earlyjewishwritings.com.
    15. ^H. H. Ben-Sasson,A History of the Jewish Peoples,page 247–248: "Consequently, the province of Judea may be regarded as a satellite of Syria, although, in view of the measure of independence left to its governor in domestic affairs, it would be wrong to say that in the Julio-Claudian era Judea was legally part of the province of Syria."
    16. ^Josephus,Antiquities17.355 & 18.1–2;
    17. ^Babylonian Talmud,Avodah Zarah8b; ibid,Sanhedrin41a; ibid,Shabbat15a;Jerusalem Talmud,Sanhedrin1:1 (1b)
    18. ^Gabba, Emilio (2008). "The social, economic and political history of Palestine 63 bce – ce 70". In William David Davies; Louis Finkelstein; William Horbury (eds.).The Cambridge History of Judaism: The early Roman period.Cambridge University Press. p. 98.ISBN978-0-521-24377-3.
    19. ^Josephus,Antiquities of the Jews,Book 18, Chapter 3, Paragraph 3
    20. ^Tacitus,Annals,Book 15, Chapter 44
    21. ^Eddy, Paul Rhodes; Boyd, Gregory A. (2007).The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition.Baker Academic. p. 172.ISBN978-0-8010-3114-4....if there is any fact of Jesus' life that has been established by a broad consensus, it is the fact of Jesus' crucifixion.
    22. ^Josephus,Antiquities of the Jews,Book 18, Chapter 4, Paragraphs 1-2
    23. ^Philo of Alexandria,On the Embassy to GaiusXXX.203.
    24. ^Philo of Alexandria,On the Embassy to GaiusXVI.115.
    25. ^Philo of Alexandria,On the Embassy to GaiusXXXI.213.
    26. ^Josephus,Antiquities of the JewsXVIII.8.1.
    27. ^Josephus,Antiquities of the JewsXVIII.8.
    28. ^H. H. Ben-Sasson,A History of the Jewish People,Harvard University Press, 1976,ISBN0-674-39731-2,The Crisis Under Gaius Caligula,pages 254–256: "The reign of Gaius Caligula (37–41) witnessed the first open break between the Jews and theJulio-Claudianempire. Until then – if one acceptsSejanus' heyday and the trouble caused by the census after Archelaus' banishment – there was usually an atmosphere of understanding between the Jews and the empire... These relations deteriorated seriously during Caligula's reign, and, though after his death the peace was outwardly re-established, considerable bitterness remained on both sides.... Caligula ordered that a golden statue of himself be set up in the Temple in Jerusalem.... Only Caligula's death, at the hands of Roman conspirators (41), prevented the outbreak of a Jewish–Roman war that might well have spread to the entire East. "
    29. ^Tac. A.12.60
    30. ^"New Testament Parallels to the Works of Josephus - Page Two".www.josephus.org.Retrieved9 March2023.
    31. ^Josephus,"Book XX",The Antiquities of the Jews,retrieved9 March2023
    32. ^Josephus.The Antiquities of the Jews.Vol.Book XX.
    33. ^"Supplementum Epigraphicum GraecumSenatusconsulta. Decrees concerning the Jews in Josephus' Antiquities".Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum.doi:10.1163/1874-6772_seg_a46_2380.Retrieved26 February2024.
    34. ^Schäfer, Peter (2 September 2003).The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World: The Jews of Palestine from Alexander the Great to the Arab Conquest.Routledge. p. 131.ISBN1-134-40316-X.[From 74 to 123 CE] The consequences of the first great war of the Jews against Rome were extremely far-reaching and their significance for the future history of Judaism can hardly be overestimated. The immediate political consequences were drastic. As has already been mentioned, before the war Judaea was a Roman province of the third category, that is, under the administration of a procurator of equestrian rank and under the overall control of the governor of Syria. After the war it became an independent Roman province with the official name ofJudaeaand under the administration of a governor of praetorian rank, and was therefore moved up into the second category (it was only later, in about 120 CE, that Judaea became a consular province, that is, with a governor of consular rank). This new status of the province also implies that a standing legion, thelegio X Fretensis,was stationed in Judaea. The headquarters of the 10th legion was the totally destroyed Jerusalem; the governor resided with parts of the 10th legion in Caesarea (Maritima), which Vespasian had converted into a Roman colony.
    35. ^H.H. Ben-Sasson,A History of the Jewish People,Harvard University Press, 1976,ISBN0-674-39731-2,page 334: "In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land, Hadrian changed the name of the province from Iudaea to Syria-Palestina, a name that became common in non-Jewish literature."
    36. ^Jacobson 2001,p. 44–45: "Hadrian officially renamed Judea Syria Palaestina after his Roman armies suppressed the Bar-Kokhba Revolt (the Second Jewish Revolt) in 135 C.E.; this is commonly viewed as a move intended to sever the connection of the Jews to their historical homeland. However, that Jewish writers such as Philo, in particular, and Josephus, who flourished while Judea was still formally in existence, used the name Palestine for the Land of Israel in their Greek works, suggests that this interpretation of history is mistaken. Hadrian's choice of Syria Palaestina may be more correctly seen as a rationalization of the name of the new province, in accordance with its area being far larger than geographical Judea. Indeed, Syria Palaestina had an ancient pedigree that was intimately linked with the area of greater Israel."
    37. ^Ronald Symesuggested the name change preceded the revolt; he writes "Hadrian was in those parts in 129 and 130. He abolished the name of Jerusalem, refounding the place as a colony, Aelia Capitolina. That helped to provoke the rebellion. The supersession of the ethnical term by the geographical may also reflect Hadrian's decided opinions about Jews."Syme, Ronald (1962). "The Wrong Marcius Turbo".The Journal of Roman Studies.52(1–2): 87–96.doi:10.2307/297879.ISSN0075-4358.JSTOR297879.S2CID154240558.(page 90)
    38. ^The Mishnah(ed.Herbert Danby), Oxford University Press: Oxford 1933, s.v. TractateShebiit9:2;compiled by RabbiJudah the Princein 189CE.
    39. ^See p. 1 in:Feldman, Louis (1990). "Some Observations on the Name of Palestine".Hebrew Union College Annual.61:1–23.JSTOR23508170.
    40. ^The Mishnah(ed.Herbert Danby), Oxford University Press: Oxford 1933, s.v. TractateKelim1:6
    41. ^H. H. Ben-Sasson,A History of the Jewish People,Harvard University Press, 1976,ISBN0-674-39731-2,page 351
    42. ^Decker, Michael (2009).Tilling the Hateful Earth: Agricultural Production and Trade in the Late Antique East.Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 109–110.ISBN978-0-19-956528-3.OCLC316430311.
    43. ^Safrai, Zeev (2003). "Trade in the Land of Israel during the Second Temple period".The Economy of Roman Palestine.Taylor & Francis. pp. 125–128.ISBN1-280-09423-0.OCLC814404092.
    44. ^abMeshorer, Ya'akov; Bijovsky, Gabriela; Hendin, David; Meadows, Andrew (2013).Coins of the Holy Land: the Abraham and Marian Sofaer Collection at the American Numismatic Society and the Israel Museum.Ancient coins in North American collections. American numismatic society. New York: American Numismatic Society. p. 269.ISBN978-0-89722-283-9.
    45. ^abcdeMeshorer, Ya'akov (1982).Ancient Jewish Coinage.Vol. II: Herod the Great through Bar Cochba. Amphora Books. pp. 173–174, 186–187.LCCN82-074517.
    46. ^McGing, Brian C. (1991)."Pontius Pilate and the Sources".The Catholic Biblical Quarterly.53(3): 425.ISSN0008-7912.JSTOR43718282.
    47. ^Graves, D. E. (2019). Pilate’s Ring and Roman Religion.Near East Archaeological Society Bulletin,64,p. 7
    48. ^"Ancient Inscription Identifies Gargilius Antiques as Roman Ruler on Eve of Bar Kochva Revolt".December 2016.

    Works cited[edit]

    Further reading[edit]

    External links[edit]

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