Jaguar

Jaguar; Temporal range: Early Pleistocene–present(~850,000–0YBP)
Conservation status
	; Near Threatened(IUCN 3.1)
	CITESAppendix I(CITES)
Scientific classification
Domain:	Eukaryota
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Order:	Carnivora
Suborder:	Feliformia
Family:	Felidae
Subfamily:	Pantherinae
Genus:	Panthera
Species:	P. onca
Binomial name
	Panthera onca; (Linnaeus,1758)
Subspecies
	Panthera onca onca; †Panthera onca augusta; †Panthera onca mesembrina;
	Current range Former range
Synonyms
	Felis augustus(Leidy, 1872) ; Felis listai(Roth, 1899) ; Felis oncaLinnaeus, 1758 ; Felis oncasubsp.boliviensisNelson & Goldman, 1933 ; Felis oncasubsp.coxiNelson & Goldman, 1933 ; Felis oncasubsp.ucayalaeNelson & Goldman, 1933 ; Felis veronisHay, 1919 ; Iemish listai(Roth, 1899) ; Panthera augusta(Leidy, 1872) ; Panthera oncasubsp.augusta(Leidy, 1872) ; Uncia augusta(Leidy, 1872) ;

Thejaguar(Panthera onca) is a largecatspecies and the onlylivingmember of the genusPantherathat is native to theAmericas.With a body length of up to 1.85 m (6 ft 1 in) and a weight of up to 158 kg (348 lb), it is the biggest cat species in the Americas and thethird largestin the world. Its distinctively markedcoatfeatures pale yellow to tan colored fur covered by spots that transition torosetteson the sides, although amelanisticblack coat appears in some individuals. The jaguar's powerful bite allows it to pierce thecarapacesofturtlesandtortoises,and to employ an unusual killing method: it bites directly through the skull ofmammalian preybetween the ears to deliver a fatal blow to the brain.

The modern jaguar's ancestors probably entered the Americas fromEurasiaduring theEarly Pleistocenevia theland bridgethat once spanned theBering Strait.Today, the jaguar's range extends from theSouthwestern United StatesacrossMexicoand much ofCentral America,theAmazon rainforestand south toParaguayand northernArgentina.It inhabits a variety of forested and open terrains, but its preferredhabitatistropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forest,wetlandsand wooded regions. It is adept at swimming and is largely a solitary, opportunistic, stalk-and-ambushapex predator.As akeystone species,it plays an important role in stabilizingecosystemsand in regulating prey populations.

The jaguar is threatened byhabitat loss,habitat fragmentation,poachingfor trade with its body parts and killings inhuman–wildlife conflictsituations, particularly withranchersin Central andSouth America.It has been listed asNear Threatenedon theIUCN Red Listsince 2002. The wild population is thought to have declined since the late 1990s. Priority areas for jaguarconservationcomprise 51 Jaguar Conservation Units (JCUs), defined as large areas inhabited by at least 50 breeding jaguars. The JCUs are located in 36 geographic regions ranging from Mexico to Argentina.

The jaguar has featured prominently in the mythology ofindigenous peoples of the Americas,including those of theAztecandMaya civilizations.

Etymology

The word "jaguar" is possibly derived from theTupi-Guaraniwordyaguarameaning 'wild beast that overcomes its prey at a bound'.^[4]^[5]In North America, the word is pronounced disyllabic/ˈdʒæɡwɑːr/,while in British English, it is pronounced with three syllables/ˈdʒæɡjuːər/.^[6]^[7]Because that word also applies to other animals,indigenous peoples in Guyanacall itjaguareté,with the added sufixeté,meaning "true beast".^[8] "Onca" is derived from the Portuguese nameonçafor a spotted cat that is larger than alynx;cf.ounce.^[9]The word "panther" is derived fromclassical Latinpanthēra,itself from theancient Greekπάνθηρ(pánthēr).^[10]

Taxonomy and evolution

Taxonomy

In 1758,Carl Linnaeusdescribed the jaguar in his workSystema Naturaeand gave it thescientific nameFelis onca.^[11]

In the 19th and 20th centuries, several jaguartype specimensformed the basis for descriptions ofsubspecies.^[3]In 1939,Reginald Innes Pocockrecognized eight subspecies based on the geographic origins and skullmorphologyof these specimens.^[12] Pocock did not have access to sufficientzoological specimensto critically evaluate their subspecific status but expressed doubt about the status of several. Later consideration of his work suggested only three subspecies should be recognized. The description ofP. o. palustriswas based on afossilskull.^[5]

By 2005, nine subspecies were considered to bevalidtaxa:^[3]

P. o. onca(Linnaeus, 1758)was a jaguar from Brazil.^[11]
P. o. peruviana(De Blainville,1843)was a jaguar skull from Peru.^[13]
P. o. hernandesii(Gray,1857)was a jaguar fromMazatlánin Mexico.^[14]
P. o. palustris(Ameghino,1888)was afossiljaguarmandibleexcavated in theSierras PampeanasofCórdova District,Argentina.^[15]
P. o. centralis(Mearns,1901)was a skull of a male jaguar fromTalamanca,Costa Rica.^[16]
P. o. goldmani(Mearns, 1901)was a jaguar skin from Yohatlan inCampeche,Mexico.^[16]
P. o. paraguensis(Hollister,1914)was a skull of a male jaguar from Paraguay.^[17]
P. o. arizonensis(Goldman,1932)was a skin and skull of a male jaguar from the vicinity ofCibecue, Arizona.^[18]
P. o. veraecrucis(Nelsonand Goldman, 1933)was a skull of a male jaguar fromSan Andrés Tuxtlain Mexico.^[19]

Reginald Innes Pocock placed the jaguar in thegenusPantheraand observed that it shares several morphological features with theleopard(P. pardus). He, therefore, concluded that they are most closely related to each other.^[12]Results ofmorphologicalandgeneticresearch indicate aclinalnorth–south variation between populations, but no evidence for subspecific differentiation.^[20]^[21]DNAanalysis of 84 jaguar samples from South America revealed that thegene flowbetween jaguar populations inColombiawas high in the past.^[22]Since 2017, the jaguar is considered to be amonotypic taxon,^[23]though the modernPanthera onca oncais still distinguished from two fossil subspecies,Panthera onca augustaandPanthera onca mesembrina.However, the 2024 study suggested that the validity of subspecific assignments on bothP. o. augustaandP. o. mesembrinaremains unresolved, since both fossil and living jaguars show a considerable variation inmorphometry.^[24]

Evolution

ThePantheralineageis estimated to havegenetically divergedfrom thecommon ancestorof theFelidaearound9.32 to 4.47million years agoto11.75 to 0.97million years ago.^[25]^[26]^[27]Some genetic analyzes place the jaguar as asister speciesto the lion with which it diverged3.46 to 1.22million years ago,^[25]^[26]but other studies place the lion closer to the leopard.^[28]^[29]

The lineage of the jaguar appears to have originated in Africa and spread to Eurasia 1.95–1.77 mya. The living jaguar species is often suggested to have descended from the EurasianPanthera gombaszoegensis.The ancestor of the jaguar entered the American continent viaBeringia,the land bridge that once spanned theBering Strait,^[30]^[31]Some authors have disputed the close relationship betweenP. gombaszoegensis(which is primarily known from Europe) and the modern jaguar.^[32]The oldest fossils of modern jaguars (P. onca) have been found in North America dating between 850,000-820,000 years ago.^[1]Results ofmitochondrial DNAanalysis of 37 jaguars indicate that current populations evolved between 510,000 and 280,000 years ago in northern South America and subsequently recolonized North and Central America after the extinction of jaguars there during theLate Pleistocene.^[20]

Two extinct subspecies of jaguar are recognized in the fossil record: the North AmericanP. o. augustaand South AmericanP. o. mesembrina.^[33]

Phylogeneticrelationships of the jaguar as derived through analysis of

Felidae

Felinae

Pantherinae

Panthera

	Lion(P. leo)

	Jaguar

Leopard(P. pardus)

	Tiger(P. tigris)

	Snow leopard(P. uncia)

Neofelis

Felidae

Felinae

Pantherinae

Panthera

	Lion

	Leopard

Snow leopard

Jaguar

Tiger

Neofelis

Description

Skull of a jaguar

Illustration ofcheetah,leopard and jaguar

A black jaguar. Suchmelanisticjaguars as well as leopards are commonly calledblack panthers

The jaguar is a compact and muscular animal. It is the largest cat native to the Americas and thethird largestin the world, exceeded in size only by the tiger and the lion.^[5]^[34]^[35]It stands 57 to 81 cm (22.4 to 31.9 in) tall at the shoulders.^[36]^[37] Its size and weight vary considerably depending on sex and region: weights in most regions are normally in the range of 56–96 kg (123–212 lb). Exceptionally big males have been recorded to weigh as much as 158 kg (348 lb).^[38]^[39] The smallest females fromMiddle Americaweigh about 36 kg (79 lb). It issexually dimorphic,with females typically being 10–20% smaller than males. The length from the nose to the base of the tail varies from 1.12 to 1.85 m (3 ft 8 in to 6 ft 1 in). The tail is 45 to 75 cm (18 to 30 in) long and the shortest of anybig cat.^[38] Its muscular legs are shorter than the legs of otherPantheraspecies with similar body weight.^[40]

Size tends to increase from north to south. Jaguars in theChamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserveon the Pacific coast of central Mexico weighed around 50 kg (110 lb).^[41] Jaguars in Venezuela andBrazilare much larger, with average weights of about 95 kg (209 lb) in males and of about 56–78 kg (123–172 lb) in females.^[5]

The jaguar'scoatranges from pale yellow to tan or reddish-yellow, with a whitish underside and covered in black spots. The spots and their shapes vary: on the sides, they becomerosetteswhich may include one or several dots. The spots on the head and neck are generally solid, as are those on the tail where they may merge to form bands near the end and create a black tip. They are elongated on the middle of the back, often connecting to create a median stripe, and blotchy on the belly.^[5]These patterns serve ascamouflagein areas with dense vegetation and patchy shadows.^[42] Jaguars living in forests are often darker and considerably smaller than those living in open areas, possibly due to the smaller numbers of large, herbivorous prey in forest areas.^[43]

The jaguar closely resembles the leopard but is generally more robust, with stockier limbs and a more square head. The rosettes on a jaguar's coat are larger, darker, fewer in number and have thicker lines, with a small spot in the middle.^[40] It has powerful jaws with the third-highest bite force of all felids, after the tiger and the lion.^[44] It has an average bite force at thecaninetip of 887.0Newtonand abite force quotientat the canine tip of 118.6.^[45] A 100 kg (220 lb) jaguar can bite with a force of 4.939 kN (1,110 lbf) with the canine teeth and 6.922 kN (1,556 lbf) at thecarnassialnotch.^[46]

Color variation

Melanisticjaguars are also known asblack panthers.The blackmorphis less common than the spotted one.^[47] Black jaguars have been documented in Central and South America. Melanism in the jaguar is caused by deletions in themelanocortin 1 receptorgene and inherited through adominant allele.^[48]Black jaguars occur at higher densities in tropical rainforest and are more active during the daytime. This suggests that melanism provides camouflage in dense vegetation with high illumination.^[49]

In 2004, a camera trap in theSierra Madre Occidentalmountains photographed the first documented black jaguar in Northern Mexico.^[50]Black jaguars were also photographed in Costa Rica'sAlberto Manuel Brenes Biological Reserve,in the mountains of theCordillera de Talamanca,inBarbilla National Parkand in easternPanama.^[51]^[49]^[52]^[53]

Distribution and habitat

A female jaguar atPiquiri River,Mato Grossostate, Brazil

A jaguar inSão Lourenço River

In 1999, the jaguar's historic range at the turn of the 20th century was estimated at 19,000,000 km²(7,300,000 sq mi), stretching from the southern United States through Central America to southern Argentina. By the turn of the 21st century, its global range had decreased to about 8,750,000 km²(3,380,000 sq mi), with most declines occurring in the southern United States, northern Mexico, northern Brazil, and southern Argentina.^[54] Its present range extends from Mexico through Central America to South America comprisingBelize,Guatemala,Honduras,Nicaragua,Costa Rica,particularly on theOsa Peninsula,Panama,Colombia,Venezuela,Guyana,Suriname,French Guiana,Ecuador,Peru,Bolivia,Brazil,ParaguayandArgentina.It is considered to belocally extinctinEl SalvadorandUruguay.^[2]

Jaguars have been occasionally sighted inArizona,New MexicoandTexas,with 62 accounts reported in the 20th century.^[55]^[56] Between 2012 and 2015, a malevagrantjaguar was recorded in 23 locations in theSanta Rita Mountains.^[57]Eight jaguars were photographed in the southwestern US between 1996 and 2024.^[58]

The jaguar prefers dense forest and typically inhabits drydeciduous forests,tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests,rainforestsandcloud forestsin Central and South America; open, seasonally floodedwetlands,drygrasslandand historically alsooak forestsin the United States. It has been recorded at elevations up to 3,800 m (12,500 ft) but avoidsmontane forests.It favors riverine habitat andswampswith dense vegetation cover.^[43]In the Mayan forests of Mexico and Guatemala, 11 GPS-collared jaguars preferred undisturbed dense habitat away from roads; females avoided even areas with low levels of human activity, whereas males appeared less disturbed by human population density.^[59]A young male jaguar was also recorded in thesemi-arid Sierra de San Carlosat a waterhole.^[60]

Former range

In the 19th century, the jaguar was still sighted at theNorth Platte River48–80 km (30–50 miles) north ofLongs PeakinColorado,in coastalLouisiana,northern Arizona and New Mexico.^[61] Multiple verified zoological reports of the jaguar are known in California, two as far north asMontereyin 1814 and 1826. The only record of an active jaguar den with breeding adults and kittens in the United States was in theTehachapi Mountainsof California prior to 1860.^[62]The jaguar persisted in California until about 1860.^[56] The last confirmed jaguar in Texas was shot in 1948, 4.8 km (3 miles) southeast ofKingsville, Texas.^[63] In Arizona, a female was shot in theWhite Mountainsin 1963. By the late 1960s, the jaguar was thought to have been extirpated in the United States. Arizona outlawed jaguar hunting in 1969, but by then no females remained, and over the next 25 years only two males were sighted and killed in the state. In 1996, a rancher and hunting guide fromDouglas, Arizonacame across a jaguar in thePeloncillo Mountainsand became a researcher on jaguars, placing trail cameras, which recorded four more jaguars.^[64]

Behavior and ecology

The jaguar is mostly active at night and duringtwilight.^[37]^[65]^[66] However, jaguars living in densely forested regions of theAmazon Rainforestand thePantanalare largely active by day, whereas jaguars in theAtlantic Forestare primarily active by night.^[67] The activity pattern of the jaguar coincides with the activity of its main prey species.^[68]Jaguars are good swimmers and play and hunt in the water, possibly more than tigers. They have been recorded moving between islands and the shore. Jaguars are also good at climbing trees but do so less often than cougars.^[5]

Ecological role

The adult jaguar is anapex predator,meaning it is at the top of thefood chainand is not preyed upon in the wild. The jaguar has also been termed akeystone species,as it is assumed that it controls the population levels of prey such asherbivorousandseed-eatingmammals and thus maintains the structural integrity of forest systems.^[41]^[69]^[70] However, field work has shown this may be natural variability, and the population increases may not be sustained. Thus, thekeystone predatorhypothesis is not accepted by all scientists.^[71]

The jaguar issympatricwith thecougar.In central Mexico, both prey onwhite-tailed deer,which makes up 54% and 66% of jaguar and cougar's prey, respectively.^[41]In northern Mexico, the jaguar and the cougar share the same habitat, and their diet overlaps dependent on prey availability. Jaguars seemed to preferdeerand calves. In Mexico and Central America, neither of the two cats are considered to be the dominant predator.^[72] In South America, the jaguar is larger than the cougar and tends to take larger prey, usually over 22 kg (49 lb). The cougar's prey usually weighs between 2 and 22 kg (4 and 49 lb), which is thought to be the reason for its smaller size.^[73] This situation may be advantageous to the cougar. Its broader prey niche, including its ability to take smaller prey, may give it an advantage over the jaguar in human-altered landscapes.^[41]

Hunting and diet

The jaguar is anobligate carnivoreand depends solely on flesh for its nutrient requirements. An analysis of 53 studies documenting the diet of the jaguar revealed that its prey ranges in weight from 1 to 130 kg (2.2 to 286.6 lb); it prefers prey weighing 45–85 kg (99–187 lb), with thecapybaraand thegiant anteaterbeing the most selected. When available, it also preys onmarsh deer,southern tamandua,collared peccaryandblack agouti.^[34]In floodplains, jaguars opportunistically take reptiles such asturtlesandcaimans.Consumption of reptiles appears to be more frequent in jaguars than in other big cats.^[74]One remote population in the Brazilian Pantanal is recorded to primarily feed on aquatic reptiles and fish.^[75] The jaguar also preys on livestock incattle ranchingareas where wild prey is scarce.^[76]^[77] The daily food requirement of a captive jaguar weighing 34 kg (75 lb) was estimated at 1.4 kg (3.1 lb) of meat.^[78]

The jaguar's bite force allows it to pierce thecarapacesof theyellow-spotted Amazon river turtleand theyellow-footed tortoise.^[78]^[79]It employs an unusual killing method: it bites mammalian prey directly through theskullbetween the ears to deliver a fatal bite to the brain.^[80]It kills capybara by piercing itscanine teeththrough thetemporal bonesof its skull, breaking itszygomatic archandmandibleand penetrating its brain, often through the ears.^[81] It has been hypothesized to be an adaptation to cracking open turtle shells; armored reptiles may have formed an abundant prey base for the jaguar following the latePleistocene extinctions.^[78]However, this is disputed, as even in areas where jaguars prey on reptiles, they are still taken relatively infrequently compared to mammals in spite of their greater abundance.^[74]

Between October 2001 and April 2004, 10 jaguars were monitored in the southern Pantanal. In the dry season from April to September, they killed prey at intervals ranging from one to seven days; and ranging from one to 16 days in the wet season from October to March.^[82]

The jaguar uses a stalk-and-ambush strategy when hunting rather than chasing prey. The cat will slowly walk down forest paths, listening for and stalking prey before rushing or ambushing. The jaguar attacks from cover and usually from a target's blind spot with a quick pounce; the species' ambushing abilities are considered nearly peerless in the animal kingdom by both indigenous people and field researchers and are probably a product of its role as an apex predator in several different environments. The ambush may include leaping into water after prey, as a jaguar is quite capable of carrying a large kill while swimming; its strength is such that carcasses as large as aheifercan be hauled up a tree to avoid flood levels. After killing prey, the jaguar will drag the carcass to athicketor other secluded spot. It begins eating at the neck and chest. The heart and lungs are consumed, followed by the shoulders.^[83]

Social activity

The jaguar is generallysolitaryexcept for females with cubs. In 1977, groups consisting of a male, female and cubs, and two females with two males were sighted several times in a study area in theParaguay Rivervalley.^[84]In some areas, males may form paired coalitions which together mark, defend and invade territories, find and mate with the same females and search for and share prey.^[85]A radio-collared female moved in ahome rangeof 25–38 km²(9.7–14.7 sq mi), which partly overlapped with another female. The home range of the male in this study area overlapped with several females.^[84]

The jaguar uses scrape marks, urine, and feces tomark its territory.^[86]^[87] The size of home ranges depends on the level of deforestation and human population density. The home ranges of females vary from 15.3 km²(5.9 sq mi) in thePantanalto 53.6 km²(20.7 sq mi) in the Amazon to 233.5 km²(90.2 sq mi) in theAtlantic Forest.Male jaguar home ranges vary from 25 km²(9.7 sq mi) in the Pantanal to 180.3 km²(69.6 sq mi) in the Amazon to 591.4 km²(228.3 sq mi) in the Atlantic Forest and 807.4 km²(311.7 sq mi) in theCerrado.^[88] Studies employingGPS telemetryin 2003 and 2004 found densities of only six to seven jaguars per 100 km (62 mi) in the Pantanal region, compared with 10 to 11 using traditional methods; this suggests the widely used sampling methods may inflate the actual numbers of individuals in a sampling area.^[89]Fights between males occur but are rare, and avoidance behavior has been observed in the wild.^[86]In one wetland population with degraded territorial boundaries and more social proximity, adults of the same sex are more tolerant of each other and engage in more friendly and co-operative interactions.^[75]

Captive jaguar vocalizing while playing

The jaguarroars/grunts for long-distance communication;^[5]^[78]intensive bouts of counter-calling between individuals have been observed in the wild.^[78]This vocalization is described as "hoarse" with five or sixgutturalnotes.^[5]Chuffingis produced by individuals when greeting, duringcourting,or by a mother comforting her cubs. This sound is described as low intensity snorts, possibly intended to signal tranquility and passivity.^[90]^[91]Cubs have been recorded bleating, gurgling and mewing.^[5]

Reproduction and life cycle

In captivity, the female jaguar is recorded to reachsexual maturityat the age of about 2.5 years.Estruslasts 7–15 days with anestrus cycleof 41.8 to 52.6 days. During estrus, she exhibits increased restlessness with rolling and prolonged vocalizations.^[92] She is aninduced ovulatorbut can also ovulate spontaneously.^[93]^[94] Gestationlasts 91 to 111 days.^[95] The male is sexually mature at the age of three to four years.^[96] His meanejaculatevolume is 8.6±1.3 ml.^[97] Generation lengthof the jaguar is 9.8 years.^[98]

In the Pantanal,breeding pairswere observed to stay together for up to five days. Females had one to two cubs.^[99] The young are born with closed eyes but open them after two weeks. Cubs areweanedat the age of three months but remain in the birth den for six months before leaving to accompany their mother on hunts.^[100] Jaguars remain with their mothers for up to two years. They appear to rarely live beyond 11 years, but captive individuals may live 22 years.^[5]

In 2001, a male jaguar killed and partially consumed two cubs inEmas National Park.DNA paternity testingof blood samples revealed that the male was the father of the cubs.^[101]Two more cases ofinfanticidewere documented in the northern Pantanal in 2013.^[102]To defend against infanticide, the female may hide her cubs and distract the male with courtship behavior.^[103]

Attacks on humans

The Spanishconquistadorsfeared the jaguar. According toCharles Darwin,theindigenous peoples of South Americastated that people did not need to fear the jaguar as long as capybaras were abundant.^[104] The first official record of a jaguar killing a human in Brazil dates to June 2008.^[105] Two children were attacked by jaguars in Guyana.^[106] The majority of known attacks on people happened when it had been cornered or wounded.^[107]

Threats

The jaguar is threatened bylossandfragmentationof habitat, illegal killing in retaliation for livestock depredation and for illegal trade in jaguar body parts. It is listed asNear Threatenedon theIUCN Red Listsince 2002, as the jaguar population has probably declined by 20–25% since the mid-1990s.Deforestationis a major threat to the jaguar across its range. Habitat loss was most rapid in drier regions such as the Argentinepampas,the arid grasslands of Mexico and the southwestern United States.^[2]

In 2002, it was estimated that the range of the jaguar had declined to about 46% of its range in the early 20th century.^[54]In 2018, it was estimated that its range had declined by 55% in the last century. The only remaining stronghold is the Amazon rainforest, a region that is rapidly being fragmented by deforestation.^[108] Between 2000 and 2012, forest loss in the jaguar range amounted to 83.759 km²(32.340 sq mi), with fragmentation increasing in particular in corridors between Jaguar Conservation Units (JCUs).^[109] By 2014, direct linkages between two JCUs in Bolivia were lost, and two JCUs in northern Argentina became completely isolated due to deforestation.^[110]

In Mexico, the jaguar is primarily threatened bypoaching.Its habitat is fragmented in northern Mexico, in theGulf of Mexicoand theYucatán Peninsula,caused by changes in land use, construction of roads and tourism infrastructure.^[111] In Panama, 220 of 230 jaguars were killed in retaliation for predation on livestock between 1998 and 2014.^[112] In Venezuela, the jaguar was extirpated in about 26% of its range in the country since 1940, mostly in drysavannasand unproductive scrubland in the northeastern region ofAnzoátegui.^[113] In Ecuador, the jaguar is threatened by reduced prey availability in areas where the expansion of the road network facilitated access of human hunters to forests.^[114] In theAlto Paraná Atlantic forests,at least 117 jaguars were killed inIguaçu National Parkand the adjacentMisiones Provincebetween 1995 and 2008.^[115] SomeAfro-Colombiansin the ColombianChocó Departmenthunt jaguars for consumption and sale of meat.^[116] Between 2008 and 2012, at least 15 jaguars were killed by livestock farmers in central Belize.^[117]

The international trade of jaguar skins boomed between the end of theSecond World Warand the early 1970s.^[118] Significant declines occurred in the 1960s, as more than 15,000 jaguars were yearly killed for their skins in theBrazilian Amazonalone; the trade in jaguar skins decreased since 1973 when theConvention on International Trade in Endangered Specieswas enacted.^[119] Interview surveys with 533 people in the northwestern Bolivian Amazon revealed that local people killed jaguars out of fear, in retaliation, and for trade.^[120] Between August 2016 and August 2019, jaguar skins and body parts were seen for sale in tourist markets in the Peruvian cities ofLima,IquitosandPucallpa.^[121] Human-wildlife conflict,opportunistic hunting and hunting for trade in domestic markets are key drivers for killing jaguars in Belize and Guatemala.^[122] Seizure reports indicate that at least 857 jaguars were involved in trade between 2012 and 2018, including 482 individuals in Bolivia alone; 31 jaguars were seized inChina.^[123] Between 2014 and early 2019, 760 jaguar fangs were seized that originated in Bolivia and were destined for China. Undercover investigations revealed that thesmugglingof jaguar body parts is run by Chinese residents in Bolivia.^[124]

Conservation

The jaguar is listed onCITES Appendix I,which means that all international commercial trade in jaguars or their body parts is prohibited. Hunting jaguars is prohibited in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, French Guiana, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, the United States, and Venezuela. Hunting jaguars is restricted in Guatemala and Peru.^[2]In Ecuador, hunting jaguars is prohibited, and it is classified as threatened with extinction.^[125] In Guyana, it is protected as an endangered species, and hunting it is illegal.^[126]

In 1986, theCockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuarywas established in Belize as the world's first protected area for jaguar conservation.^[127]

Jaguar Conservation Units

In 1999, field scientists from 18 jaguar range countries determined the most important areas for long-term jaguar conservation based on the status of jaguar population units, stability of prey base and quality of habitat. These areas, called "Jaguar Conservation Units" (JCUs), are large enough for at least 50 breeding individuals and range in size from 566 to 67,598 km²(219 to 26,100 sq mi); 51 JCUs were designated in 36 geographic regions including:^[54]

theSierra Madre OccidentalandSierra de Tamaulipasin Mexico
theSelva Mayatropical forests extending over Mexico, Belize and Guatemala
theChocó–Darién moist forestsfrom Honduras and Panama to Colombia
Venezuelan Llanos
northernCerradoandAmazon basinin Brazil
Tropical Andesin Bolivia and Peru
Misiones Provincein Argentina

Optimal routes of travel between core jaguar population units were identified across its range in 2010 to implementwildlife corridorsthat connect JCUs. These corridors represent areas with the shortest distance between jaguar breeding populations, require the least possible energy input ofdispersingindividuals and pose a low mortality risk. They cover an area of 2,600,000 km²(1,000,000 sq mi) and range in length from 3 to 1,102 km (1.9 to 684.8 mi) in Mexico and Central America and from 489.14 to 1,607 km (303.94 to 998.54 mi) in South America.^[128] Cooperation with local landowners and municipal, state, or federal agencies is essential to maintain connected populations and prevent fragmentation in both JCUs and corridors.^[129] Seven of 13 corridors in Mexico are functioning with a width of at least 14.25 km (8.85 mi) and a length of no more than 320 km (200 mi). The other corridors may hamper passage, as they are narrower and longer.^[130]

In August 2012, theUnited States Fish and Wildlife Serviceset aside 3,392.20 km²(838,232 acres) in Arizona and New Mexico for the protection of the jaguar.^[131]The Jaguar Recovery Plan was published in April 2019, in whichInterstate 10is considered to form the northern boundary of the Jaguar Recovery Unit in Arizona and New Mexico.^[132]

In Mexico, a national conservation strategy was developed from 2005 on and published in 2016.^[111]The Mexican jaguar population increased from an estimated 4,000 individuals in 2010 to about 4,800 individuals in 2018. This increase is seen as a positive effect of conservation measures that were implemented in cooperation with governmental and non-governmental institutions and landowners.^[133]

An evaluation of JCUs from Mexico to Argentina revealed that they overlap with high-quality habitats of about 1,500 mammals to varying degrees. Since co-occurring mammals benefit from the JCU approach, the jaguar has been called anumbrella species.^[134] Central American JCUs overlap with the habitat of 187 of 304 regional endemic amphibian and reptile species, of which 19 amphibians occur only in the jaguar range.^[135]

Approaches

In setting up protected reserves, efforts generally also have to be focused on the surrounding areas, as jaguars are unlikely to confine themselves to the bounds of a reservation, especially if the population is increasing in size. Human attitudes in the areas surrounding reserves and laws and regulations to prevent poaching are essential to make conservation areas effective.^[136]

To estimate population sizes within specific areas and to keep track of individual jaguars,camera trappingandwildlife tracking telemetryare widely used, and feces are sought out with the help ofdetection dogsto study jaguar health and diet.^[89]^[137]

Current conservation efforts often focus on educating ranch owners and promotingecotourism.^[138]Ecotourism setups are being used to generate public interest in charismatic animals such as the jaguar while at the same time generating revenue that can be used in conservation efforts. A key concern in jaguar ecotourism is the considerable habitat space the species requires. If ecotourism is used to aid in jaguar conservation, some considerations need to be made as to how existing ecosystems will be kept intact, or how new ecosystems will be put into place that are large enough to support a growing jaguar population.^[139]

Conservationists and professionals in Mexico and the United States have established the 56,000 acres (23,000 ha)Northern Jaguar Reservein northern Mexico. Advocacy for reintroduction of the jaguar to its former range in Arizona and New Mexico have been supported by documentation of natural migrations by individual jaguars into the southern reaches of both states, the recency of extirpation from those regions by human action, and supportive arguments pertaining to biodiversity, ecological, human, and practical considerations.^[140]

In culture and mythology

Jaguar warriorin the Aztec culture

Moche jaguar figurine dating to 300CE,at theLarco MuseuminLima,Peru

In thepre-ColumbianAmericas, the jaguar was a symbol of power and strength. In the Andes, a jaguar cult disseminated by the earlyChavín culturebecame accepted over most of today's Peru by 900BC.^[141]The laterMoche culturein northern Peru used the jaguar as a symbol of power in many of their ceramics.^[142]In theMuisca religioninAltiplano Cundiboyacense,the jaguar was considered a sacred animal, and people dressed in jaguar skins during religious rituals.^[143] The skins were traded with peoples in the nearbyOrinoquía Region.^[144] The name of theMuisca ruler Nemequenewas derived from theChibchawordsnymyandquyne,meaning "force of the jaguar".^[145]^[146]

Sculptures with "Olmec were-jaguar"motifs were found on the Yucatán Peninsula inVeracruzandTabasco;they show stylized jaguars with half-human faces.^[147]In the laterMaya civilization,the jaguar was known asbalamorbolom'in many of theMayan languages,and was used to symbolize warriors and the elite class for being brave, fierce and strong.^[148]The cat was associated with theunderworldand its image was used to decorate tombs and grave-good vessels.^[149]

TheAzteccivilization called the jaguarocelotland considered it to be the king of the animals. It was believed to be fierce and courageous, but also wise, dignified and careful. The military had two classes of warriors, theocelotlorjaguar warriorsand thecuauhtlioreagle warriorsand each dressed like their representative animal. In addition, members of the royal class would decorate in jaguar skins. The jaguar was considered to be thetotemanimal of the powerful deitiesTezcatlipoca^[148]andTepeyollotl.^[149]

Aconch shellgorget depicting a jaguar was found in aburial moundinBenton County, Missouri.The gorget shows evenly-engraved lines and measures 104 mm × 98 mm (4.1 in × 3.9 in).^[61] Rock drawings made by theHopi,AnasaziandPuebloall over the desert andchaparralregions of the American Southwest show an explicitly spotted cat, presumably a jaguar, as it is drawn much larger than anocelot.^[56]

The jaguar is also used as a symbol in contemporary culture.^[150]It is thenational animalof Guyana and is featured in itscoat of arms.^[151]

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External links

"JaguarPanthera onca".IUCN Cat Specialist Group.
"Jaguars: Born free".BBC Natural World.2013.Retrieved13 August2021.
People and Jaguars a Guide for Coexistence
Felidae Conservation Fund
"Jaguar".Encyclopedia Americana.1920.

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v t e National symbolsofBrazil
Official	Flag Coat of arms National anthem National seal
Other	Republic's Effigy National bird National fauna National flora Patron saint

Taxon identifiers
Panthera onca	Wikidata:Q35694 Wikispecies:Panthera onca ADW:Panthera_onca BioLib:2015 BOLD:263143 CoL:4CGXQ ECOS:3944 EoL:328606 EPPO:PNTHON GBIF:5219426 iNaturalist:41970 IRMNG:10201333 ITIS:180593 IUCN:15953 MDD:1006021 MSW:14000240 NatureServe:2.103664 NCBI:9690 Observation.org:83736 Open Tree of Life:42322 Paleobiology Database:49735 Species+:6385 TSA:12800
Felis onca	Wikidata:Q122170157 GBIF:2435226 ZooBank:51146A50-7A07-4DEF-A027-6F68813970EC