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Datura stramonium

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(Redirected fromJamestown weed)
"Jimson Weed" redirects here. For the painting by Georgia O'Keeffe, seeJimson Weed (painting).
Not to be confused withSolanum incanum,also known by the common name "thorn apple".

Jimsonweed
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Solanales
Family: Solanaceae
Genus: Datura
Species:
D. stramonium
Binomial name
Datura stramonium
Synonyms[1]
Synonymy
  • Datura bernhardii(Lundstr.)
  • Datura bertolonii(Parl. ex Guss.)
  • Datura cabanesii(P.Fourn.)
  • Datura capensis(Bernh.)
  • Datura ferocissima(Cabanès & P.Fourn.)
  • Datura ferox(Nees 1834 not L. 1756)
  • Datura hybrida(Ten.)
  • Datura inermis(Juss. ex Jacq.)
  • Datura laevis(L.f.)
  • Datura loricata(Sieber ex Bernh.)
  • Datura lurida(Salisb.)
  • Datura microcarpa(Godr.)
  • Datura muricata(Godr. 1873 not Bernh. 1818 nor Link 1821)
  • Datura parviflora(Salisb.)
  • Datura praecox(Godr.)
  • Datura pseudostramonium(Sieber ex Bernh.)
  • Datura tatula(L.)
  • Datura wallichii(Dunal)
  • Stramonium foetidum(Scop.)
  • Stramonium laeve(Moench)
  • Stramonium spinosum(Lam.)
  • Stramonium tatula(Moench)
  • Stramonium vulgare(Moench)
  • Stramonium vulgatum(Gaertn.)

Datura stramonium,known by the common namesthornapple,jimsonweed(jimson weed), ordevil's trumpet,[2]is a poisonousflowering plantin theDaturaetribeof the nightshade familySolanaceae.[3]Its likely origin was inCentral America,[2][4]and it has been introduced in many world regions.[5][6][7]It is an aggressiveinvasive weedintemperate climatesandtropical climatesacross the world.[2]D. stramoniumhas frequently been employed in traditional medicine to treat a variety of ailments. It has also been used as a hallucinogen (of theanticholinergic/antimuscarinic,delirianttype), takenentheogenicallyto cause intense, sacred or occult visions.[2][8]It is unlikely ever to become a major drug of abuse owing to effects upon both mind and body frequently perceived as being highlyunpleasant,giving rise to a state of profound and long-lasting disorientation ordelirium(anticholinergic syndrome) with a potentially fatal outcome. It containstropane alkaloidswhich are responsible for the psychoactive effects, and may be severely toxic.[2][9]

Description

[edit]
Mature (left) and immature (right) seed capsules

Datura stramoniumis an erect,annual,freely branching herb that forms a bush up to 60 to 150 cm (2 to 5 ft) tall.[10][11][12]

Therootis long, thick, fibrous, and white. Thestemis stout, erect, leafy, smooth, and pale yellow-green to reddish purple in color. The stem forks off repeatedly into branches and each fork forms a leaf and a single, erect flower.[12]

The leaves are about 8 to 20 cm (3–8 in) long, smooth, toothed,[11]soft, and irregularly undulated.[12]The upper surface of the leaves is a darker green, and the bottom is a light green.[11]The leaves have a bitter and nauseating taste, which is imparted to extracts of the herb, and remains even after the leaves have been dried.[12]

Datura stramoniumgenerally flowers throughout the summer. The fragrant flowers have a pleasing odour; are trumpet-shaped, white to creamy or violet, and6 to 9 cm (2+1⁄2–3+1⁄2in) long; and grow on short stems from either theaxilsof the leaves or the places where the branches fork. Thecalyxis long and tubular, swollen at the bottom, and sharply angled, surmounted by five sharp teeth. Thecorolla,which is folded and only partially open, is white, funnel-shaped, and has prominent ribs. The flowers open at night, emitting a pleasant fragrance, and are fed upon by nocturnal moths.[12]

The egg-shaped seedcapsuleis 3 to 8 cm (1–3 in) in diameter and either covered with spines or bald. At maturity, it splits into four chambers, each with dozens of small, black seeds.[12]

Etymology and common names

[edit]
Fruits and seeds –MHNT

The genus name is derived from the plant'sHindiname,dhatūra,ultimately fromSanskritdhattūra,'white thorn-apple'.[13]The origin of Neo-Latinstramoniumis unknown; the nameStramoniawas used in the 17th century for variousDaturaspecies.[14]There is some evidence thatStramoniumis originally from Greekστρύχνον,'nightshade' andμανικόν,'which makes mad'.[15]It is calledummetta(ఉమ్మెత్త) inTelugu,[16]andumathai(ஊமத்தை) inTamil.;[17]both of which are believed to have derived from the Sanskrit wordunmatta(उन्मत्तः), meaning 'mad' or 'insane'.

In the United States the plant is called "Jimsonweed", or more rarely "Jamestown weed" deriving from the town ofJamestown, Virginia,where English soldiers consumed it while attempting to suppressBacon's Rebellion.They spent 11 days in altered mental states:

The James-Town Weed (which resembles the Thorny Apple of Peru, and I take to be the plant so call'd) is supposed to be one of the greatest coolers in the world. This being an early plant, was gather'd very young for a boil'd salad, by some of the soldiers sent thither to quell the rebellion of Bacon (1676); and some of them ate plentifully of it, the effect of which was a very pleasant comedy, for they turned natural fools upon it for several days: one would blow up a feather in the air; another would dart straws at it with much fury; and another, stark naked, was sitting up in a corner like a monkey, grinning and making mows [grimaces] at them; a fourth would fondly kiss and paw his companions, and sneer in their faces with a countenance more antic than any in a Dutch droll.

In this frantic condition they were confined, lest they should, in their folly, destroy themselves—though it was observed that all their actions were full of innocence and good nature. Indeed, they were not very cleanly; for they would have wallowed in their own excrements if they had not been prevented. A thousand such simple tricks they played, and after eleven days returned themselves again, not remembering anything that had passed.

— Robert Beverley Jr.,The History and Present State of Virginia, Book II: Of the Natural Product and Conveniencies in Its Unimprov'd State, Before the English Went Thither,1705[18]

Common names forDatura stramoniumvary by region[2]and includethornapple,[19]moon flower,[20]hell's bells,devil's trumpet,devil's weed,tolguacha,Jamestown weed,stinkweed,locoweed,pricklyburr,false castor oil plant,[21]anddevil's cucumber.[22]

Range and habitat

[edit]

Datura stramoniumis native to Central America, but was spread widely to the Old World early where it has also becomenaturalized.[2]It was scientifically described and named by Swedish botanistCarl Linnaeusin 1753, although it had been described a century earlier bybotanistssuch asNicholas Culpeper.[23]Today, it grows wild in all the world's warm and temperate regions, where it is found along roadsides and at dung-rich livestock enclosures.[24][25][26]In Europe, it is found as a weed in garbage dumps and wastelands,[24]and is toxic to animals consuming it.[27]In South Africa, it is colloquially known by theAfrikaansnamemalpitte('mad seeds').[28]

Through observation, the seed is thought to be carried by birds and spread in their droppings.[citation needed]Its seeds can lie dormant underground for years and germinate when the soil is disturbed. TheRoyal Horticultural Societyhas advised worried gardeners to dig it up or have it otherwise removed,[29]while wearing gloves to handle it.[30]

Toxicity

[edit]

All parts ofDaturaplants contain dangerous levels of the tropane alkaloidsatropine,hyoscyamine,andscopolamine,all of which are classified asdeliriants,oranticholinergics.[2][9]The risk of fataloverdoseis high among uninformed users, and many hospitalizations occur among recreational users who ingest the plant for itspsychoactiveeffects.[9][24][31]Deliberate or inadvertent poisoning resulting from smoking jimsonweed and other related species has been reported.[32]Numerous other alkaloids have been detected at lower levels in the plant includingmethylecgoninein the roots,apoatropinein the stems, leaves, and other parts, andtropinein the flowers and other parts.[33]

The amount of toxins varies widely from plant to plant. As much as a 20:1 variation can be found between plants, and a given plant's toxicity depends on its age, where it is growing, and the local weather conditions.[24]A particularly strong difference has been found between plants growing in their native ranges and plants that have adjusted to growing in non-native ranges: in the latter, the atropine and scopolamine concentration may be up to 20–40 times lower than in the native range. It is suspected that this is an evolutionary response to lower predatory pressures.[34]Additionally, within a given plant, toxin concentration varies by part and even from leaf to leaf. When the plant is younger, the ratio of scopolamine to atropine is about 3:1; after flowering, this ratio is reversed, with the amount of scopolamine continuing to decrease as the plant gets older.[35]In traditional cultures, a great deal of experience and detailed knowledge ofDaturawas critical to minimize harm.[24]An individual seed contains about 0.1 mg of atropine, and the approximate fatal dose for adult humans is >10 mg atropine or >2–4 mg scopolamine.[36]

Daturaintoxicationtypically produces delirium, hallucination,hyperthermia,tachycardia,bizarre behavior,urinary retention,and severemydriasis,with resultant painfulphotophobiathat can last several days.[9]Pronouncedamnesiais another commonly reported effect.[37]The onset of symptoms generally occurs around 30 to 60 minutes after ingesting the herb. These symptoms generally last from 24 to 48 hours, but have been reported in some cases to last as long as two weeks.[32]

As with other cases of anticholinergic poisoning, intravenousphysostigminecan be administered in severe cases as an antidote.[38]

Natural defenses

[edit]

These chemical production responses present inDatura stramoniumfunction as a natural defense for the plant against dangers.[39]Such dangers can range from biotic factors such asherbivores,pathogens,viruses,fungiandoomycetesto abiotic conditions such as drought, light, temperature, and nutrient deprivation.Datura stramoniumcan adjust to all these conditions through protein activity that is correlated with specific domains. Examples of this areterpenoidproduction to target herbivores present in multiple sites and abiotic stress responses. The abiotic responses are driven primarily by proteinkinaseregulatory subunits which are over-represented, expanded, and positively selected. These traits also show signs ofphysicochemicaldivergence, which put emphasis on the plant's overall adaptability.[40]In addition to this, terpenoids play a key role in mediating plant defense responses, as they trigger terpenemetaboliteactivity.[41][40]Such activity has the effect of defending against herbivore damage through asulfakinin(SK) domain that reduces sensitivity of taste receptors for certain insects that come into contact with the plant. Additionally, terpenoids serve as attractants for carnivorous entities that would then attack these same herbivores. Gene domains relating to thisimmune responsehave been seen in positively selected and expanded proteins in Datura stramonium.[41]Overall, these compounds target the central nervous systems of organisms that ingest them, to deter the herbivorous behavior.[12]Terpenoids are also used for plant-to-plant communication, which could be used for a community-wide threat response.[40]Datura stramoniumalso features leaf trichomes as a defensive trait to prevent herbivory.[42]

The physiology of the plant itself is important for understanding patterns of defense as its status as an annual plant limits opportunities for biomass regrowth post-destruction, due to its inability to engage regrowthmeristems.This results in the leaves being susceptible to injury from even small instances of attacks. To compensate, they have a large initial size for redundancy. These leaves also have a greater longevity and ability tometabolizeeven when damaged. However, the way these plants have evolved to display these characteristics differs from traditional defense mechanisms, asDatura stramoniumuses a combination of both resistance and growth simultaneously to address these issues, instead of relying exclusively on one or the other. It has been hypothesized that this is due to the fact that these two methods have no negative correlation between them in experimental conditions. However, resource limitations may result in a tradeoff between one method of defense versus the other. In addition, herbivores are not solely the driving force that triggers these responses within the plant. Another factor that impacts behavior is the fact that due to the wide habitat range, a number of different, region-specific response patterns have been observed. However, these defensive responses have been observed to have varying impacts on growth and fitness when put to the test against predators. Studies in ecological reserves have shown that herbivore presence can either increase or decrease plant growth, fitness, and resistance. These results can be attributed to the significant genetic variation of the individual variants present in testing.[39]

Regional variation

[edit]

TheDaturagenus itself has seen little research done in regards to its various genomic sequences. As such, it is difficult to track the evolution of its traits (aside from a few instances of model species), which results in a limited understanding of how it has evolved to adapt to various environmental conditions. However, some limited studies have been done intoDaturadiversity.Datura stramoniumdiverged from the rest of theDaturagenus around 30million years ago. This terminal branch has the most rapidly significant, evolving gene families compared to other members of the Solanaceae family. The most recent contractions in the tree also correspond with themost recent common ancestorof theDaturaspeciesclade.However, the subspecies ofDatura stramoniumtend to vary greatly in regards to both gene family contractions and expansions. Variables such as immunity, response to abiotic stress, and defense against biotic threats determinegene expansionsignaling, positive selection, andphysicochemicaldivergence. Despite this,Daturagenomes have high amounts of repetitive DNA elements even compared to other Solanaceae species' genomes, in addition to a recent, yet independent surge inretrotransposonexpansion. Major genomic variations have been witnessed, most likely through the rapid spread of the plant's range due to human behavior. An example of this is a 59-fold difference intropane alkaloidconcentration present in different regions of Mexico.[40]Datura stramoniumregional variants have been observed to have an overall similar genome size to each other.[39][40]

Tropane alkaloid evolution and implementation

[edit]

Tropane alkaloidbiosynthesisis another avenue of defense withcodonspositively selected and expanded in theDaturabranch. It is aided by the tropane alkaloidLittorinerearrangement which is very important toscopolamineandatropine/hyoscyamineproduction, all of which serve to debilitate any organism that would come into contact with them.Datura stramoniumhas the highest tropane alkaloid production level in all the Solanaceae family, with scopolamine, atropine, andanisodaminebeing the primary tropane alkaloids found in the plant that inhibitneurotransmitters.Thepmtgene family responsible for tropane alkaloid development has been observed to have significant gene expansion in theDaturagenus evolution. The least common ancestor had only one gene copy, while modern variants have a range of three to two present, which results in higher mutation rates for traits involved with these various alkaloids.[40]Use of tropane alkaloids, however, has had development spread out around manyangiospermfamilies and evolutionary distances. Their presence has been reported to have arisen multiple times in Solanaceae lineages, some instances of which being independent of each other. This gives credence to the same diversification of tropane alkaloid production witnessed in theDatura stramoniumregional variants.[41]Another aspect of these varying Solanaceae lineages is thatenzymesfrom completely different protein groups have been observed to be utilized to form similar biosynthesis reactions. In addition to this, differingprotein foldsand domain expressions correlate to different levels of tropane alkaloid production.[40]

Poisoning incidents

[edit]

In Australia in December 2022, around 200 people reported becoming ill after eating products containing spinach, sold mostly throughCostco.Datura stramoniumwas identified as the contaminant, whose young leaves had been picked alongside the spinach leaves. The weed had spread due to increased rainfall. The grower, Riviera Farms, is from theGippslandregion ofVictoria,and acted promptly to eradicate the weed.[43]

Uses

[edit]

Traditional medicine

[edit]
D. stramoniumvar.tatula,flower (front)

One of the primary active agents inDaturaisatropine,which has been used intraditional medicineand for recreation over centuries.[2][9]The leaves are generally smoked, either in a cigarette or a pipe.

During the late 18th century, James Anderson, the English Physician General of theEast India Company,learned of the practice and popularized it in Europe.[44][45]The Chinese also used it as a form ofanesthesiaduring surgery.[46]

Early folk medicine

[edit]

John Gerard'sHerball(1597) states,[12]

[T]he juice of Thornapple, boiled with hog's grease, cureth all inflammations whatsoever, all manner of burnings and scaldings, as well of fire, water, boiling lead, gunpowder, as that which comes by lightning and that in very short time, as myself have found in daily practice, to my great credit and profit.

William Lewisreported, in the late 18th century, that the juice could be made into "a very powerful remedy in various convulsive and spasmodic disorders, epilepsy and mania," and was also "found to give ease in external inflammations andhaemorrhoids".[47]

Henry Hyde Salter discussesD. stramoniumas a treatment forasthmain his 19th-century workOn Asthma: its Pathology and Treatment.Smoking of herbs, includingD. stramonium,was thought to provide relief forasthmaticssinceantiquityand into the early 20th century.[48][49]The use of smokingD. stramoniumto treat asthma would later wane following new understandings ofasthmaas an allergic inflammatory reaction, and developments in pharmacology that provided more effective treatments.[49]

Spiritualism and the occult

[edit]
Seed capsule, showingdehiscenceof the four valves to release seeds

Across the Americas, indigenous peoples, such as theAlgonquian,Aztecs,Navajo,Cherokee,Luiseñoand the indigenous peoples ofMarie-Galanteused this plant or otherDaturaspecies in sacred ceremonies for its hallucinogenic properties.[50][51][52]InEthiopia,some students anddebtrawoch(lay priests), useD. stramoniumto "open the mind" to be more receptive to learning, and creative and imaginative thinking.[53]

The common name "datura" has its origins inIndia,where the sister speciesDatura metelis considered particularly sacred – believed to be a favorite ofShivainShaivism.[54]BothDatura stramoniumandD. metelhave reportedly been used by somesadhusandcharnel groundascetics, such as theAghori,as both anentheogenand ritual poison. It was sometimes mixed withcannabis,as well as highly poisonous plants likeAconitum ferox,to intentionally create dysphoric experiences.[55]The ascetics have used unpleasant or toxic plants such as these in order to achieve spiritual liberation (moksha), in settings of extreme horror and discomfort.[56][57]

Among its visionary purposes, jimsonweed also garnered a reputation for supposed magical uses in various cultures throughout history. In his book,The Serpent and the Rainbow,Wade DavisidentifiedD. stramonium,called "zombi cucumber" inHaiti,as a central ingredient of the concoctionvodoupriests use to createzombies.[58][59]However, it has been noted that the process ofzombificationis not directly performed by vodou priests of theloabut rather bybokors.[60]In European witchcraft,D. stramoniumwas also supposedly a common ingredient used for makingwitches' flying ointmentalong with other poisonous plants of thenightshade family.[61]It was often responsible for the hallucinogenic effects of magical orlycanthropicsalves and potions.[8][62]During thewitch-phobia craze inEarly Moderntimes in England and parts of the colonialNortheastern United States,it was often considered unlucky or inappropriate to grow the plant in one's garden, as it was considered to be an aid toincantations.[12]

Cultivation

[edit]

Datura stramoniumprefers rich,calcareoussoil. Addingnitrogen fertilizerto the soil increases the concentration ofalkaloidspresent in the plant.D. stramoniumcan be grown from seed, which is sown with several feet between plants. It is sensitive to frost, so should be sheltered during cold weather. The plant is harvested when the fruits are ripe, but still green. To harvest, the entire plant is cut down, the leaves are stripped from the plant, and everything is left to dry. When the fruits begin to burst open, the seeds are harvested. For intensive plantations, leaf yields of 1,100 to 1,700 kilograms per hectare (1,000 to 1,500 lb/acre) and seed yields of 780 kg/ha (700 lb/acre) are possible.[63]

References

[edit]
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