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Imperial House of Japan

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For the administration of the Imperial household, seeImperial Household Agency.
Imperial House of Japan
Kōshitsu
The Imperial Seal of Japan
CountryJapan
Founded
Founder
Current headNaruhito
Titles
Cadet branches
Websitehttps://www.kunaicho.go.jp/eindex.html

TheImperial House(Hoàng thất,Kōshitsu)is thedynastyandimperial familyofJapan,consisting of those members of the extended family of the reigningemperor of Japanwho undertake official and public duties. Under the presentconstitution of Japan,the emperor is "the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people". Other members of the imperial family perform ceremonial and social duties, but have no role in the affairs of government. The duties as an emperor are passed down the line to their male children. The Japanesemonarchyis theoldest continuous hereditary monarchy in the world.[1]The imperial dynasty has no name, therefore its current members do not have a family name. However, the house may informally be termed the "House ofYamato".[citation needed][by whom?]

The imperial house recognizes 126monarchs,beginning withEmperor Jimmu(traditionally dated to 11 February 660 BC), andcontinuingup to the current emperor,Naruhito.However, scholars have agreed that there is no evidence of Jimmu's existence,[2][3]that the traditional narrative of the imperial family’s founding is mythical, and that Jimmu is a mythical figure.[4]Historical evidence for the first 25 emperors is scant, and they are considered mythical, but there is sufficient evidence of an unbrokenagnaticline since the early 6th century.[5]Historically, verifiable emperors of Japan start from AD 539 withEmperor Kinmei.[2][6][7]

List of current members

[edit]
The Japanese imperial family tree as of February 2022
EmperorNaruhitoandEmpress Masakowith some of the other members of the imperial family, 2021
This article is part ofa serieson
Politics of Japan
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The Monarchy

Naruhito

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Banri Kaieda

Hidehisa Otsuji

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Members of the imperial family show themselves to the general public during celebrations for the new emperor's enthronement. Emperor EmeritusAkihitoand Empress EmeritaMichikoare not present (4 May 2019).

Theemperor(Thiên hoàng,tennō)is the head of the Japanese imperial family.

Article 3 and 4 of theLaw for Special Exception of the Imperial House Law concerning Abdication, etc. of Emperor(Thiên hoàng の thối vị đẳng に quan する hoàng thất điển phạm đặc lệ pháp,Tennō no taii nado ni kansuru Kōshitsu Tenpan Tokureihō)define theEmperor Emeritus(Thượng hoàng,jōkō)and Empress Emerita(Thượng hoàng hậu,jōkōgō).

Article 5of theImperial Household Law(Hoàng thất điển phạm,Kōshitsu Tenpan)defines the Imperial Family members(Hoàng tộc,kōzoku)as theEmpress(Hoàng hậu,kōgō);theGrand empress dowager(Thái hoàng thái hậu,tai-kōtaigō);theEmpress dowager(Hoàng thái hậu,kōtaigō);the Emperor's legitimate sons and legitimate grandsons in the legitimate male line(Thân vương,shinnō),and their consorts(Thân vương phi,shinnōhi);the Emperor's unmarried legitimate daughters and unmarried legitimate granddaughters in the legitimate male line(Nội thân vương,naishinnō);the Emperor's other legitimate male descendants in the third and later generations in the legitimate male line(Vương,ō)and their consorts(Vương phi,ōhi);and the Emperor's other unmarried legitimate female descendants in the third and later generations in the legitimate male line(Nữ vương,joō).[8]

In English,shinnō( thân vương ) andō( vương ) are both translated as "prince"as well asshinnōhi( thân vương phi ),naishinnō( nội thân vương ),ōhi( vương phi ) andjoō( nữ vương ) as "princess".

After the removal of11 collateral branchesfrom the imperial house in October 1947, the official membership of the imperial family has effectively been limited to the male-line descendants of theEmperor Taishō,excluding females who married outside the imperial family and their descendants.[9]

There are currently 17 members of the imperial family:[10]

  • Emperor Naruhito,the eldest son and first child of the Emperor EmeritusAkihitoand the Empress EmeritaMichiko,was born in the Hospital of the Imperial Household in Tokyo on 23 February 1960. He became heir apparent upon his father's accession to the throne. Crown Prince Naruhito marriedMasako Owadaon 9 June 1993. He ascended to theChrysanthemum Throneand became the 126themperoruponhis father's abdicationon 1 May 2019.[11]
  • Empress Masakowas born on 9 December 1963, the daughter ofHisashi Owada,a former vice minister of foreign affairs and former permanent representative of Japan to the United Nations. She becameempress consortupon her husband's succession to the throne on 1 May 2019.[11]
    • Aiko, Princess Toshiwas born on 1 December 2001, and is the only child of Emperor Naruhito and Empress Masako.
  • Emperor Emeritus Akihitowas born atTokyo Imperial Palaceon 23 December 1933, the eldest son and fifth child of theEmperor ShōwaandEmpress Kōjun.He marriedMichiko Shōdaon 10 April 1959. Whenhis father diedon 7 January 1989, Akihito became emperor of Japan. He abdicated on 30 April 2019, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Naruhito on 1 May 2019.[12]
  • Empress Emerita Michikowas born in Tokyo on 20 October 1934, the eldest daughter ofHidesaburō Shōda,president and honorary chairman ofNisshin Flour Milling Inc.[12]
    • Fumihito, Crown Prince Akishinois the Emperor Emeritus' second son, the Emperor's younger brother and the currentheir presumptive.He was born on 30 November 1965 in the Hospital of the Imperial Household in Tokyo. His childhood title was Prince Aya. He received the title Prince Akishino and permission to start a new branch of the Imperial Family upon his marriage toKiko Kawashimaon 29 June 1990.[13]
    • Kiko, Crown Princess Akishinowas born on 11 September 1966, the daughter of Tatsuhiko Kawashima, professor of economics atGakushuin University.[13]Crown Prince and Princess Akishino have two daughters (one of whom remains a member of the Imperial Family) and a son:
  • Masahito, Prince Hitachiwas born on 28 November 1935, the second son and sixth child of the Emperor Shōwa and Empress Kojun. His childhood title was Prince Yoshi. He received the title Prince Hitachi and permission to set up a new branch of the Imperial Family on 1 October 1964, the day after his wedding.[14]
  • Hanako, Princess Hitachiwas born on 19 July 1940, the daughter of former Count Yoshitaka Tsugaru. The Prince and Princess Hitachi have no children.[14]
  • Yuriko, Princess Mikasais the widow ofTakahito, Prince Mikasa(2 December 1915 – 27 October 2016), the fourth son ofEmperor TaishōandEmpress Teimeiand a great-uncle of Emperor Naruhito. The Princess was born on 4 June 1923, the second daughter of Viscount Masanori Takagi. The Princess Mikasa has two daughters and three sons with the late Prince Mikasa.[15]
    • Nobuko, Princess Tomohito of Mikasais the widow ofPrince Tomohito of Mikasa(5 January 1946 – 6 June 2012), the eldest son of the Prince and Princess Mikasa and a first cousin once removed of Emperor Naruhito. Princess Tomohito was born on 9 April 1955, the daughter of Takakichi Asō, chairman of Asō Cement Co., and his wife, Kazuko, a daughter of former Prime MinisterShigeru Yoshida.[15]She has two daughters with the late Prince Tomohito of Mikasa:
    • Hisako, Princess Takamadois the widow ofNorihito, Prince Takamado(29 December 1954 – 21 November 2002), the third son and the youngest child of the Prince and Princess Mikasa and a first cousin once removed of Emperor Naruhito. The Princess Takamado was born on 10 July 1953, the eldest daughter of Shigejiro Tottori. She married the Prince Takamado on 6 December 1984. Originally known as Prince Norihito of Mikasa, he received the title Prince Takamado and permission to start a new branch of the Imperial Family on 1 December 1984.[16]The Princess Takamado has three daughters, one of whom remains a member of the Imperial Family:

Family tree

[edit]
For the full lineage of the Imperial Family, seeFamily tree of Japanese monarchs.

The following family tree shows the lineage of current members of Japanese imperial family:

Emperor Taishō
†		Empress Teimei
†
Emperor Shōwa
†		Empress Kōjun
†		The Prince Chichibu
†		The Princess Chichibu
†		The Prince Takamatsu
†		The Princess Takamatsu
†		The Prince Mikasa
†		The Princess Mikasa
The Emperor EmeritusThe Empress EmeritaThe Prince Hitachi
(3)		The Princess HitachiFive daughters
1†,2†,3†,4,5		Prince Tomohito of Mikasa
†		Princess Tomohito of MikasaThe Prince Katsura
†		The Prince Takamado
†		The Princess TakamadoTwo daughters
1,2
The EmperorThe EmpressCrown Prince Akishino
(1)		Crown Princess AkishinoSayako KurodaPrincess AkikoPrincess YōkoPrincess TsugukoTwo daughters
1,2
Princess AikoMako KomuroPrincess KakoPrince Hisahito
(2)

Notes

  • Numbers in brackets indicate places in theline of succession.
  • Boldface indicates living individuals listed as members of the imperial family.[10]
  • Italics indicate princesses who left the Imperial Family upon their marriage.[10]
  • Dashed lines indicate married couples.
  • Dagger (†) indicates deceased individuals.[10]

Living former members

[edit]
Princess Mako(left) forwent a one-off million-dollar payment given to imperial women upon leaving the imperial family

Under the terms of the 1947Imperial Household Law,naishinnō(imperial princesses) andjoō(princesses) lose their titles and membership in the family upon marriage, unless they marry the Emperor or another male member of the imperial family.

Four of the five daughters ofEmperor Shōwa,the two daughters of thePrince Mikasa,the only daughter ofEmperor Emeritus Akihito,the second and third daughter of thePrince Takamado,and most recently, the eldest daughter ofCrown Prince Akishino,left the Imperial Family upon marriage, joining the husband's family and thus taking the surname of the husband.

Shigeko, Princess Teru,the eldest daughter of Emperor Shōwa, marriedPrince Morihiro Higashikuni,the eldest son ofPrince Naruhiko Higashikuni(later served asPrime Ministerin 1945) andToshiko, Princess Yasu(daughter ofEmperor Meiji), in 1943. TheHigashikunifamily lost its imperial status in October 1947.

The living eight former imperial princesses are:

  • Atsuko Ikeda(born 7 March 1931), fourth daughter and fourth child of Emperor Shōwa and Empress Kōjun, surviving elder sister of Emperor Emeritus Akihito.
  • Takako Shimazu(born 2 March 1939), fifth daughter and youngest child of Emperor Shōwa and Empress Kōjun, younger sister of Emperor Emeritus Akihito.
  • Yasuko Konoe(born 26 April 1944), eldest daughter and eldest child of the Prince and Princess Mikasa.[17]
  • Masako Sen(born 23 October 1951), second daughter and fourth child of the Prince and Princess Mikasa.[17]
  • Sayako Kuroda(born 18 April 1969), third child and only daughter of Emperor Emeritus Akihito and Empress Emerita Michiko, younger sister of Emperor Naruhito.[18]
  • Noriko Senge(born 22 July 1988), second daughter of the Prince and Princess Takamado.[19]
  • Ayako Moriya(born 15 September 1990), third daughter and youngest child of the Prince and Princess Takamado.
  • Mako Komuro(born 23 October 1991), first daughter and eldest child of the Crown Prince and Crown Princess Akishino.

Kyū-Miyake

[edit]
Emperor Shōwa and members of theKyū-Miyake(Cadet Royal Families)

Additionally, there are several people of Imperial descent in theFushimicadet branch(Shinnōke), which itself consists of a main branch and five extant sub-branches (Ōke). The cadet royal families lost membership in the Imperial Family by theAmerican Occupation Authoritiesin October 1947, as part of the abolition of collateral imperial houses and thekazoku(hereditarypeerage). However, there are still unofficial heads of the living collateral families. These are the livingKyū-Miyake(Cựu cung gia,"former Miyake" ):

TheHigashifushimi or Komatsucollateral branch became extinct in the male line in 1922, followed by theNashimotobranch in 1951,Kachō or Kwachōbranch in 1970,Yamashinabranch in 1987, andKitashirakawabranch in 2018. The main Fushimi branch will become extinct upon the death of the current head,Fushimi Hiroaki(b. 1932), as he has no male offspring to succeed him; although he does not have any sons, his adoptive grandnephew has male issue who can be expected to become the head of theFushimi-no-miya.

Finances of the Imperial Family

[edit]

Background

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The Japanese monarchy was considered to be among the wealthiest in the world until the end ofWorld War II.[20] Before 1911, there was no distinction between the Imperial Crown Estates and the Emperor's personal properties. When the Imperial Property Law was enacted in January 1911, two categories were established namely hereditary (crown estates) and personal property of the Imperial Family. The Imperial Household Minister had the responsibility for observing any judicial proceedings concerning Imperial holdings. According to the law, Imperial properties were only taxable if there was no conflict with the Imperial House Law. However, crown estates could only be used for public or imperially-sanctioned undertakings. Personal properties of certain members of the Imperial Family, such asEmpress Dowager,the Empress, Crown Prince and Crown Princess, the Imperial Grandson and the consort of the Imperial Grandson, in addition to properties held for Imperial Family members who were minors, were exempted from taxation.[21]

Up to 1921, the Imperial Crown Estates comprised 1,112,535.58 acres (450,227.18 ha). In 1921, due to the poor economic situation in Japan, 289,259.25 acres (117,059.07 ha) of crown lands (26%) were sold or transferred to the Japanese government and theprivate sector.In 1930, the Nagoya Detached Palace (Nagoya Castle) was donated to the city ofNagoyaand six other imperial villas were sold or donated.[21]In 1939,Nijō Castlewas donated to the city ofKyoto.The former Kyoto residence of theTokugawa shogunatewhich became an imperial palace in theMeiji Restoration,was donated to the city of Kyoto.

At the end of 1935, the Imperial Court owned 3,111,965 acres (1,259,368 ha) landed estates according to official government figures. 2,599,548 acres (1,052,000 ha) of that was the Emperor's private lands. The total landholdings of the crown estates was 512,161 acres (207,264 ha). It comprised palace complexes, forest and farm lands and other residential and commercial properties. The total economic value of the Imperial properties was estimated at ¥650 million in 1935 which is approximately US$195 million at prevailing exchange rates and $19.9 billion as of 2017.[note 1][21][22]Emperor Shōwa's personal fortune was an additional hundreds of millions ofyen(estimated over $6 billion as of 2017). It included numerous family heirlooms and furnishings, purebred livestock and investments in major Japanese firms, such as theBank of Japan,other major Japanese banks, theImperial HotelandNippon Yusen.[21]

AfterWorld War II,all of the 11 collateral branches of the Imperial Family were abolished under theAlliedoccupation of Japan,and the subsequent constitutional reforms imposed under Allied supervision forced those families to sell their assets to private or government owners. Staff numbers of theImperial Household Ministrywere slashed from roughly 6000 to about 1000. The Imperial Estates and the Emperor's personal fortune (then estimated at $17.15 million in 1946, or roughly $270.70 million as of 2023) were transferred to state or private ownership with the exception of 6,810 acres (2,760 ha) of landholdings. The largest imperial divestments were the former imperial Kiso and Amagi forest lands inGifuandShizuokaprefectures, grazing lands for livestock inHokkaidoand a stock farm in theChibaregion. They were all transferred to theMinistry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries.Imperial property holdings were further reduced since 1947 after several handovers to the government. When Emperor Shōwa died, he left a personal fortune of £11 million in 1989.[23]In 2017, EmperorAkihitohad an estimated net worth of US$40 million.[24]

Property

[edit]
Panorama of theTokyo Imperial Palace

Currently the primaryImperial propertiesare theTokyo Imperial Palaceand theKyoto Imperial Palace.The estimated landholdings are 6,810 acres (2,760 ha). TheTōgū Palaceis located in the largerAkasaka Estatewhere numerous other Imperial Family members reside. There are privately used imperial villas inHayama,Nasuand theSuzaki Imperial VillainShimoda.TheKatsura Imperial Villa,Shugakuin Imperial VillaandSentō Imperial Palaceare inKyoto.There are a number of Imperial farms, residences and game preserves.[23][25]TheImperial Household Agencyadministers theShosoinImperial Repository inNara.[26]The Imperial properties are all owned by theState.[27]

Budget

[edit]

The Emperor can spend £150 million of public money annually. The imperial palaces are all owned and paid for by theState.[27]

Until 2003, facts about the Japanese Imperial Family's life and finances were kept secret behind the "Chrysanthemum Curtain." Yohei Mori (former royal correspondent for theMainichi Shimbunand assistant professor of journalism at Seijo University) revealed details about finances of the Imperial Family in his book based on 200 documents that were published with the public information law.[27]

Staff

[edit]

The Japanese Imperial Family has a staff of more than 1,000 people (47 servants per royal). This includes a 24-piece traditional orchestra (gagaku) with 1,000 year-old instruments such as thekotoand theshō,30 gardeners, 25 chefs, 40 chauffeurs as well as 78 builders, plumbers and electricians. There are 30 archaeologists to protect the 895 imperial tombs. There is asilkwormbreeder of the Momijiyama Imperial Cocoonery. The Emperor has four doctors on standby 24 hours a day, five men manage his wardrobe and 11 assist inShintorites.[27]

TheImperial Palacein Tokyo has 160 servants who maintain it. This is partly due to demarcation rules, such as a maid who wipes a table cannot also wipe the floor. There are also separate stewards in charge of handling silverware and the crystal. TheKyoto Imperial Palacehas a staff of 78 people. There are also 67 who care for the horses at theTochigiranch. There are scores of additional staff for the summer palaces at the beach and in the mountains.[27]

Expenditure

[edit]
Imperial official vehicle, Toyota Century Royal "Empress 1".

The Imperial Palace has a £2 million-a-year clinic with 42 staff and 8 medical departments. An example of lavish spending is the prior redecoration of a room for £140,000 whereCrown Princess Masakogave birth toPrincess Aikoin 2001. EmperorAkihitospent £140,000 on building a wine cellar. It has 4,500 bottles of 11 types of white wine and seven types of red such asChateau Mouton Rothschild(1982) and champagneDom Perignon(1992).[27]

The Imperial properties includes a 622 acres (252 ha) farm which suppliesproduceand meat for the Imperial Family. The farm costs were £3 million per year as of 2003;the emperor and his family had a monthly water bill of approximately £50,000, also as of 2003.

TheImperial Guardis a special over 900 strong police force that provides personal protection for theEmperorand other members of the Imperial Family including their residences for £48 million per year.[25]

The Imperial Household owns and operates a fleet ofToyota Centurymotor vehicles, designated "Empresses", for exclusive use of the Imperial Household. In 2006, theImperial Household Agencytook delivery of the first of four bespokeToyota Century Royals.The first of these specially prepared vehicles, Empress 1, serve as theofficial state carof the Emperor.[28]Two Century Royals, Empress 3 and Empress 5, were assigned to theMinistry of Foreign Affairsfor special use by visiting dignitaries and foreignheads of state.The last, Empress 2, was built in 2008 as ahearseexclusively for imperial funerals.[29][30]Despite the imperial family's extravagant expenditures, there is a limitation with travel expenses since the Emperor's entourage pays a maximum of £110 a night, regardless of the actual cost of the hotel. Hotels accept it since they regard it as an honour to host the Imperial Family.[27]

Aside from the inner court (the Emperor and Empress, and their children including the Crown Prince and Crown Princess), the civil list covers additional family members who live in imperial residences. They are not prohibited from holding jobs or running businesses. For example,Prince Tomohito of Mikasa,his wife and two daughters received £310,000 per year, but they are not well known by the Japanese public and have had few imperial duties.[27]

The real annual cost was estimated to be $325 million per year, also as of 2003.[27]

Involvement in war

[edit]

World War II

[edit]
Emperor Shōwa as head of theImperial General Headquarterson 29 April 1943

Members of the imperial family, includingNaruhiko, Prince Higashikuni,Yasuhito, Prince Chichibu,Takahito, Prince MikasaandTsuneyoshi, Prince Takeda,were involved inunethical human experimentation programsin various ways, which included authorizing, funding, supplying, and inspecting biomedical facilities.[31][32]

Since 1978, the Emperors of Japan (Emperor Shōwa, Akihito and Naruhito) have never visitedYasukuni Shrinedue to Emperor Shōwa's displeasure over the enshrinement of convicted Class-A war criminals.[33]

Support

[edit]

A 1997 survey byAsahi Shimbunshowed that 82% of Japanese supported the continuation of themonarchy.Polls after showed1⁄3of respondents were "indifferent" towards it. The imperial system is considered a symbol of the country, it provides a sense of linkage, purpose, spiritual core, diplomatic role as ambassador and a source of tradition and stability. A small percentage argue that the imperial system is out of date, not in synchrony with the contemporary times.[34]

Imperial standards currently in use

[edit]
See also:List of Japanese flagsandImperial Seal of Japan
  • Imperial Standard of the Emperor (tennō)
    Imperial Standard of the Emperor (tennō)
  • Imperial Standard of the Emperor Emeritus (jōkō)
    Imperial Standard of the Emperor Emeritus (jōkō)
  • Imperial Standard of the Empress (kōgō)
    Imperial Standard of the Empress (kōgō)
  • Imperial Standard of the Crown Prince (kōshi)
    Imperial Standard of the Crown Prince (kōshi)
  • Imperial Standard of a member of the Imperial House
    Imperial Standard of a member of the Imperial House

See also

[edit]



[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^(¥650 million was worth $195 million in 1935 and $19.9 billion as of 2017https://www.measuringworth.com/calculators/uscompare/Archived2018-10-22 at theWayback Machine)

References

[edit]
  1. ^"5 Things to know about Japan's emperor and imperial family".8 August 2016.Archivedfrom the original on 25 April 2022.Retrieved21 July2020.
  2. ^abHoye, Timothy (1999).Japanese Politics: Fixed and Floating Worlds.p. 78.
  3. ^Ruoff, Kenneth J. (2021-02-01).Japan's Imperial House in the Postwar Era, 1945–2019.BRILL. p. 171.ISBN978-1-68417-616-8.Archivedfrom the original on 2024-05-26.Retrieved2022-01-10.
  4. ^Shillony, Ben-Ami(2008).The Emperors of Modern Japan.BRILL. p. 15.ISBN978-90-04-16822-0.Archivedfrom the original on 2024-05-26.Retrieved2022-01-10.
  5. ^Goldman, Russell (8 August 2016)."5 Things to Know About Japan's Emperor and Imperial Family".The New York Times.Archived fromthe originalon March 26, 2022.
  6. ^"5 things to know as Japan's Emperor Akihito steps down".29 April 2019.Archivedfrom the original on 29 July 2023.Retrieved23 March2022.
  7. ^"Emperor of Japan".Archivedfrom the original on 2023-10-01.Retrieved2022-03-23.
  8. ^"The Imperial House Law".kunaicho.go.jp.Archivedfrom the original on 27 November 2012.Retrieved16 October2012.
  9. ^Saitō Katsuhisa (June 20, 2022)."Royal Reduction: The Postwar Downsizing of Japan's Imperial Family".Nippon.com.Archived fromthe originalon June 20, 2022.
  10. ^abcd"Genealogy of the Imperial Family".kunaicho.go.jp.Archivedfrom the original on 9 August 2016.Retrieved16 October2012.
  11. ^ab"Activities of Their Majesties the Emperor and Empress".The Imperial Household Agency.Archivedfrom the original on 19 August 2012.Retrieved5 November2022.
  12. ^ab"Their Majesties the Emperor Emeritus and Empress Emerita".The Imperial Household Agency.Archivedfrom the original on 25 November 2022.Retrieved5 November2022.
  13. ^ab"Their Imperial Highnesses Crown Prince and Crown Princess Akishino and their family".kunaicho.go.jp.Archivedfrom the original on 19 August 2012.Retrieved16 October2012.
  14. ^ab"Their Imperial Highnesses Prince and Princess Hitachi".kunaicho.go.jp.Archivedfrom the original on 19 August 2012.Retrieved16 October2012.
  15. ^ab"Their Imperial Highnesses Prince and Princess Mikasa and their family".kunaicho.go.jp.Archivedfrom the original on 19 August 2012.Retrieved16 October2012.
  16. ^"Her Imperial Highness Princess Takamado and her family".kunaicho.go.jp.Archivedfrom the original on 29 November 2012.Retrieved16 October2012.
  17. ^ab"Personal Histories of Their Imperial Highnesses Prince and Princess Mikasa and their family".kunaicho.go.jp.Archivedfrom the original on 15 January 2018.Retrieved16 October2012.
  18. ^"Personal Histories of Their Majesties the Emperor and Empress".kunaicho.go.jp.Archivedfrom the original on 19 August 2012.Retrieved16 October2012.
  19. ^"Personal Histories of Her Imperial Highness Princess Takamado and her family".kunaicho.go.jp.Archivedfrom the original on 19 April 2017.Retrieved5 January2017.
  20. ^"Legacy of Hirohito".The Times.3 May 1989.
  21. ^abcd"Japan – The Imperial Court".The Japan-Manchoukuo Year Book.The Japan-Manchoukuo Year Book Co. 1938. pp. 50–51.
  22. ^pp. 332–333, "Exchange and Interest Rates",Japan Year Book 1938–1939,Kenkyusha Press, Foreign Association of Japan, Tokyo
  23. ^abReed, Christopher (5 October 1971). "Few personal possessions for reigning monarch".The Times.
  24. ^"Akihito Net Worth 2017: How Rich Is Japanese Emperor As Parliament Passed Historic Law For His Abdication".The International Business Times.June 9, 2017.Archivedfrom the original on May 28, 2018.RetrievedMay 27,2018.
  25. ^ab"Imperial Guard Home page".Archivedfrom the original on 2018-10-08.Retrieved2018-10-28.
  26. ^Kyoto National Museum | Her Majesty the Empress and the Sericulture of the Koishimaru SilkwormArchived2008-08-15 at theWayback Machine
  27. ^abcdefghiColin Joyce (7 September 2003)."Book lifts the lid on Emperor's high living".The Daily Telegraph.Archived fromthe originalon July 10, 2018.Retrieved27 September2018.
  28. ^"Goryō new vehicles – the Imperial Household Management Division"(in Japanese). 2006-07-12.Archivedfrom the original on 2009-12-08.Retrieved2009-11-14.
  29. ^トヨタ センチュリー ロイヤル tẩm đài xa[Toyota Century Royal hearse].Archivedfrom the original on 2021-12-21.Retrieved2017-10-15– via YouTube.
  30. ^Iwasaki, Koyata (2016-02-22)."Toyota Century Royal hearse".Archivedfrom the original on 2017-10-16.Retrieved2017-10-15– via Wheelsage.
  31. ^Harris, Sheldon (1995).Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932–45, and the American Cover-Up.Routledge.ISBN978-0415932141.
  32. ^Large, Stephen (1995).Emperor Hirohito and Showa Japan, A Political Biography.Routledge. pp. 67–68, 134, 117–119, 144–145.ISBN9781-138009110.
  33. ^"Explainer: Why Yasukuni shrine is a controversial symbol of Japan's war legacy".Reuters.14 August 2021.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-04-24.Retrieved2022-04-28.
  34. ^William D. Hoover (2011).Historical Dictionary of Postwar Japan(second ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. p. 147.ISBN978-1538111550.
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