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AKB48(pictured 2009) is Japan's best-selling idol group and holds theGuinness World Recordfor "largest pop group",[1] with more than 90 members divided among several teams.
Morning Musume(pictured 2016), the longest-running female idol group, renewed interest in idols in the 1990s. They hold the record for the most consecutive top 10 singles for any Japanese artist.
Momoiro Clover Z(pictured 2012) ranked number one among female idol groups, according toThe Nikkei2013–2018 surveys.[2][3][4][5][6][7][8]
Babymetal(pictured 2014), whose third studio album,Metal Galaxy,is the highest charting Japanese-language album on the USBillboard200chart.

Anidol(アイドル,aidoru)is a type of entertainer marketed for image, attractiveness, and personality inJapanese pop culture.Idols are primarily singers with training in other performance skills such as acting, dancing, and modeling. Idols are commercialized through merchandise and endorsements bytalent agencies,while maintaining aparasocial relationshipwith a financially loyal consumer fan base.

Japan's idol industry first emerged in the 1960s and became prominent in the 1970s and 1980s due to television. During the 1980s, regarded as the "Golden Age of Idols", idols drew in commercial interest and began appearing in commercials and television dramas. As more niche markets began to appear in the late 2000s and early 2010s, it led to a significant growth in the industry known as the "Idol Warring Period." Today, over 10,000 teenage girls in Japan are idols, with over 3,000 groups active. Japan's idol industry has been used as a model for other pop idol industries, such asK-pop.

Sub-categories of idols includegravure idols,junior idols,net idols,idolvoice actors,virtual idols,AV idols,alternative idols,underground idols,Akiba-keiidols, local idols, bandols, and Japanese-South Korean idols.

Definition[edit]

Roles and training[edit]

An idol is a type of entertainer whose image is manufactured to cultivate a dedicated consumer fan following. Talent agencies commercialize idols by recruiting preteens and teenagers with little or no experience in the entertainment industry, and market them as aspiring stars.[9][10]Idols are marketed for their image, attractiveness, and personalities.[11][12]: 6–7 An idol's main objective is to "sell dreams", offering fans a form ofescapismfrom the troubles of daily life.[13]Idols are predominantly singers, but are also often trained in acting, dancing, and modeling.[11][14][15][16][17][18][19]This style of recruiting and training was pioneered byJohnny Kitagawa,the founder ofJohnny & Associates,and has since been used in other pop idol industries such asKorean idolsinK-pop.[20][21]

Idols often spend time isolated from family and friends while enduring busy work schedules,[22]with some agencies withholding job assignments from their talents and notifying them of work on short notice to prevent them from taking time off.[23]Some talent agencies do not rigorously train their idols and market them as amateurs who will gain experience over the course of their careers and with support from their fans.[24][9][25]Despite being trained in multiple roles in entertainment, idols in Japan are not expected to meet the high standards of performances that professionals in their fields do.[24]Because of their manufactured image, idols are generally not regarded as authentic artists.[26]Likewise, many young Japanese artists pursuing careers in acting or music reject the idol label in their bid to be seen as professionals.[27]

Music from idol singers is generally categorized underJ-pop,[28]though talent agencies may label them under the sub-genre "idol pop" for further distinction.[9][29]Many idol singers find success as groups rather than individually.[13]Within each idol group, the members are sometimes given distinct roles. One example of a role is the center, who occupies the center position in the group's choreography and thus receives the most focus.[30]Another example is the leader, usually relegated to the oldest or most experienced member in the group, who acts as an intermediary for the members and the staff.[31]

Public image[edit]

Idols are seen as role models to the public, and their personal lives and image can sometimes be tightly controlled by their talent agencies.[32]Common restrictions include not being allowed to smoke or drink in public, or pursue romantic relationships.[32]

Outfits[edit]

AKB48(pictured 2010) popularized stylized school uniforms as costumes.[33]

Idols generally perform in elaborate costumes for specific performances.[34]Costumes are created for each song in their promotion cycle, as well as graduation events, and some groups have their own in-house costume designer.[34]AKB48,in particular, has had over 1,102 costumes created for the group since 2017.[34]The outfits worn by female idols are generally described as "cute",[35]while outfits worn by male idols are described as "cool."[36]

Among many idol groups, school uniforms have been used as a standard costume.[33]The integration of school uniforms in the idol industry originated fromOnyanko Club,who debuted in 1985 with a concept based on school.[33]Following their disbandment in 1987, other groups began adopting school uniforms as costumes, such asCoCoandRibbon,two groups put together byFuji TV's audition programs, followed bySeifuku Kōjō Iinkai[ja]in 1992 andMorning Musumein the early 2000s.[33]When AKB48 debuted in 2006, the group used a school concept and the members have performed in various stylized costumes based on school uniforms.[33]Since then, other groups have used stylized school uniforms as costumes, such as AKB48's sister groups,Sakura Gakuin,andSakurazaka46,with some modifications to suit the groups' image and choreography.[33]

In 2017,Nihon Tarento Meikannoted that stylized school uniforms being used as costumes gained popularity through AKB48 due to their unique designs, the short skirts, and the neatness of the uniform.[33]The uniforms found popularity with men, as they represent their "eternal longing" and nostalgia for high school, while only gaining popularity with women in the 2010s through anime.[33]

Retirement[edit]

Idols are typically expected to change careers after aging out of the industry, with female idols typically changing careers at age 25[37]and male idols at ages 30–45.[38]Idols who leave a group are often given a farewell concert known as "graduations"(Tốt nghiệp thức,sotsugyō-shiki).[39]The term originated from the idol groupOnyanko Club,as the group's youthful concept drew similarities to an after-school club, and the fact thatMiharu Nakajima's final single before retirement was released around graduation season in Japan.[40]Prior to the 1980s, the terms "retirement" and "disbandment" were used.[40]"Graduation" saw usage again in the 1990s during the revival of idol groups whenTsunku,who produced the groupMorning Musume,used the term as aeuphemismregarding one of the members leaving the group.[40]An idol having a "graduation" ceremony is seen more favorably than terminating a contract or voluntarily withdrawing, as the latter two terms are negatively connoted with scandals.[41]

Sub-category markets[edit]

The diversity of Japan's idol industry has created several sub-category markets, each with a specific concept appealing to certain audiences.[42]

Mia Yanagawa[ja](pictured 2019) is agravure idol,appearing inpin-upstyle pictorials.
Yua Mikami(pictured 2019), anAV idol,both appears in adult videos and performs as an idol.
  • AV idols(AV アイドル,AV aidoru):AV (adult video) idols generally refer to pornographic actresses and models, with the industry first emerging in the 1980s.[43]
  • Bandols[ja](バンドル,Bandoru):Bandols are idol groups that play instruments and perform as bands. The term first emerged in the 2000s as a shortening of the phrase, "a new genre of neither bands nor idols"(バンドでもないアイドルでもない tân ジャンル,Bando demo nai aidoru demo nai arata janru),which was used to describe the marketing concept of the bandZone.[44][45][46]
  • Gravure idols(グラビアアイドル,gurabia aidoru):Gravure idols are models who pose in provocative swimsuit and lingerie photographs in magazines and photo books marketed towards men, similar topin-up models.[47]In the 1970s,Agnes Lum,who rose to fame in Japan, is considered the first gravure idol despite the term not existing at the time.[48]Other notable swimsuit models wereShinobu Horie[ja],Reiko Katō[ja],andFumie Hosokawa.[48]AfterAkiko Hinagatabecame a rising star in 1995, the term "gravure idol" was coined to describe her.[48]In the 2000s, there was a significant growth in the gravure idol industry,[49][50]with many women of different body types modeling.[48]This led to sub-category markets in the gravure idol industry to describe their aesthetic and body types, which included "healing"(Dũ し hệ,iyashi-kei),"loli"(ロリ),"intelligent"(Tri tính phái,chisei-ha),"big breasts"(Bạo nhũ,bakunyū),and "sexy swimsuit"(Trứ エロ,mizugi-ero).[48]The gravure idol industry faced a decline in 2010 due to the popularity ofAKB48,as some of their members also did gravure modeling; as a result, the demand for newer talents was reduced.[48]
Nana Mizuki(pictured 2018) was one of the first voice actors marketed as an idol.[51]
  • Idolvoice actors(アイドル thanh ưu,Aidoru seiyū):Since the 1970s, several voice actors ofanimeand video games also held successful singing careers in addition to voice acting.[51][52]Early examples of voice actors who had an idol-like presence wereMobile Suit Gundamvoice actorsToshio FurukawaandToru Furuyain the 1970s, who gained a sizeable female following after forming their band, Slapstick.[51]In the 1980s, idol singerNoriko Hidakaeventually became a voice actress after gaining recognition for playing lead inTouch.[51]Beginning in the 1990s, several voice actors held successful concurrent singing careers alongside of voice acting, such asHekiru Shiina,Mariko Kouda,andMegumi Hayashibara.[51]As the anime industry began producing more late-night series in the 2000s, the term "idol voice actor" was popularized when more voice actors with a cultivated fan following began appearing on television.[51]While previous examples involved voice actors who incidentally drew in fans through their singing careers or former idol singers who turned to voice acting,Yui Horie,Yukari Tamura,andNana Mizukiwere intentionally produced and marketed as idol voice actors by their record labels.[51][52]Around the time when the Idol Warring Period was occurring during the mid-to-late 2000s, there was a significant boom in idols voice acting in anime, withOriconnamingAya HiranoandKoharu Kusumias examples, as both of them were established actresses and singers in mainstream Japanese entertainment before entering voice acting.[52]Hirano, in particular, was strongly marketed as an idol at the height of her voice acting career, from the late 2000s to the early 2010s.[53]While character songtie-inswere already common in the film industry by then, some voice actors also began making crossover television, stage, and concert appearances as their characters as well, leading them to be closely associated with one another.[54]
  • Japanese-Korean idols(Nhật hàn アイドル,Nikkan aidoru):While Japan and South Korea agencies have created collaborative idol groups in the past, withRoute 0in 2002,[55]during the thirdKorean wavein the mid-to-late 2010s, the term saw usage again to refer to collaborative idol groups promoting primarily in Japan, but with music, styling, marketing, and presentation produced in theK-popindustry.[56][57]The earliest example isIz*Onein 2018, followed byJO1in 2019 andNiziUin 2020.[58]
Arashi(pictured 2019) is a best-selling male idol group fromJohnny & Associates.
  • Johnny's(ジャニーズ,Janīzu):Male idols contracted toJohnny & Associatesare nicknamed "Johnny's idols" by the media and include groups such asSMAPandArashi,who have led strong careers both individually and as a group.[59]Since the company was founded in 1962 byJohnny Kitagawa,who is credited for pioneering the idol trainee system and popularizing the performance aspect of modern idols, the company has held a monopoly over the male idol industry in Japan, with Kitagawa pressuring the media to reduce coverage on male idols from other companies until his death in 2019.[21][60]Johnny's idols also rarely get negative press such as scandals due to Kitagawa's influence on the media.[61]
  • Junior idols(ジュニアアイドル,junia aidoru):Junior idols are singers and gravure models who generally are 15 years old and younger. Junior models first grew in popularity in 1995, when child magazine models became popular for their youthfulness and innocence, beginning with the elementary school girls featured in the covers of the magazinePanja.[62]In addition, in 1997, the magazineNicolawas launched, featuring elementary and middle school girls as their core demographic.[62]At the center of the phenomenon's popularity wereSayaka YoshinoandYuka Nomura,child actresses and models who became popular in Japanese media.[62]In the following years, it led to what the media named the "Chidol Boom"(チャイドルブーム),with the term "chidol" (a combination of the words "child" and "idol" ) coined by journalistAkio Nakamoriin the magazineWeekly Spa!in 1999.[63]In the 2000s, "chidol" saw fewer usage, and it was eventually replaced by the term "junior idol" to legitimize them as part of the idol industry as well as removing the focus on their age.[64]While the industry is still considered legal in Japan,[65]it has been criticized for sexual exploitation of minors.[66][67]Many junior idol distributors closed after possession of child pornography was outlawed in Japan in 2014.[68]
Perfume(pictured 2015) began as a local idol group performing in Hiroshima.[69]
  • Local idols[ja](ローカルアイドル,Rōkaru aidoru):Also written asgotōji aidoru(ご đương địa アイドル)andchihō aidoru(Địa phương アイドル)or shortened as "locodol"(ロコドル,rokodoru),local idols primarily promote in rural areas in their specific communities, where accessibility to celebrities is limited.[69]The emergence of local idols was traced back to the early 2000s withPerfumeandNegicco.[69]The "Idol Warring Period" in the 2010s led to an increase in the number of local idols, with the 2013 television dramaAmachaninspiring an accelerated growth.[69]Journalist Mamoru Onoda estimates there are approximately 2,000 local idols active as of 2021.[69]Most of the local idol groups are independently managed, relying on popularity through word-of-mouth.[69]Several local idol groups who have crossed into mainstream media in the 2010s areRev. from DVLandDorothy Little Happy,the former after a photo of then-memberKanna Hashimotowent viral on the Internet.[70]
  • Net idols(ネットアイドル,Netto aidoru):Net idols areInternet celebritieswho emerged with the accessibility of the Internet in the 1990s, using self-made websites and blogs to discuss their daily lives.[71]Net idols currently conduct the majority of their activities through video streaming websites and social media beginning in the 2000s. Around March 2007,dance covers(known asodottemita(Dũng ってみた,lit."I tried dancing" )) became popular in video-sharing websites such asNiconico,which in turn led people into performing choreographed dances from anime series and idol groups.[72]Notable creators of dance covers, known asodorite(Dũng り thủ),who later debuted as idols includeKozue Aikawa[ja]fromDanceroidandDempagumi.inc,[73]Beckii Cruel,[74]andKeekihime.[75]
  • Virtual idols(バーチャルアイドル,Bāchuaru aidoru):Virtual idols are digital avatars representing a fictional character or persona. The first fictional idol gaining mainstream crossoverLynn MinmayfromMacrossin the 1980s.[76]In 1997,Kyoko Datewas created as the first virtual idol.[77][78]In 2007,Crypton Future MediareleasedHatsune Mikuas its latest addition to theVocaloidsoftware,[79]who subsequently saw positive reception from amateur songwriters, with her character and music based on user-generated content.[80]Virtualonline streamerKizuna AI,who first appeared in 2016, led to a boom ofVirtual YouTuberswho similarly conduct their activities through a digital avatar onYouTubeand other streaming websites.[81]
Dempagumi.inc(pictured 2015) is anAkiba-keiidol group, with music and performances influenced by theotakuculture in Akihabara.[82]
  • Underground idols[ja](Địa hạ アイドル,Chika aidoru):Underground idols are independently managed idols who perform at small venues.[83]They are also known as live idols(ライブアイドル,raibu aidoru)or indies idols(インディーズアイドル,indīzu aidoru).[84]Underground idols first emerged in the 1990s when idol groups with large numbers of members began appearing after the popularity ofOnyanko Club.[84]Tama Himeno andKamen JoshimemberTomoka Igari,both underground idols, describe them as being different from mainstream idols (nicknamed "above-ground idols"(Địa thượng アイドル,chijō aidoru)) in that underground idols are active through live performances rather than through exposure from mass media or CD releases through major record labels, thus making them more accessible to fans in comparison to mainstream idols.[85][86]An example Igari used to describe close relationships that underground idols have with their fans is that underground idols will hold handshake events and takeinstant cameraphotos (known as "cheki"(チェキ)) with fans after every live performance.[86]
    • Akiba-keiidols[ja](アキバ hệ アイドル,Akiba-kei aidoru,lit."Akihabara-style idols" ):Akiba-keiidols are type of underground idol based in the Akihabara district of Tokyo, drawing influences from itsotakuculture.[82]Music fromAkiba-keiidols are generally sold asself-published CDsatComiketor promoted throughNiconico.[82]Akihabara Dear Stage[ja]is a dedicated venue where they perform.[82]WhileAkiba-keiidols are niche,Haruko MomoiandDempagumi.incare cited as an examples of anAkiba-keiidols crossing over to mainstream media.[82][87]Dempagumi.inc's music producer, Maiko Fukushima, describes the music fromAkiba-keiidols as distinct from anime songs, with most composers being "amateurs" and its organic music culture facing a state of theGalapagos syndrome,as they had no direct creative input from J-pop or other music genres.[82]However, Fukushima noted that songs fromR-18 gameswere also key components ofAkiba-keimusic.[82]In 2007,Vocaloidgreatly influenced the growth ofAkiba-keimusic and idol culture.[82]AKB48,one of Japan's most recognized idol groups nationwide, originated from Akihabara, but it is not considered anAkiba-keigroup.[82]
    • Alternative idols:Alternative idols, also known as alt-idols or anti-idols, is a term coined by English-speaking communities to describe idol singers that have an image concept and music different from what is considered mainstream, such as having darker images and alternative rock. The alternative idol scene was pioneered byBisandSeiko Oomoriand made popular by Bis' successorBish.[88]

History[edit]

1960–1980: Post-war era and idol beginnings[edit]

Sylvie Vartan(pictured 1966) is the codifier of the term "idol", after her appearance in the filmCherchez l'idole(1964) was well received in Japan.

The popularity of young female singers can be traced back toSayuri Yoshinagain the 1960s, as well as theTakarazuka Revueand theater shows from theMeiji era.[42]In 1962,Johnny KitagawafoundedJohnny & Associatesand created the groupJohnnys,which is retroactively considered the first idol group in Japan.[59]He is also credited with pioneering the idol trainee system, where talents would be accepted in the agency at a young age and train not only in singing, but also dancing and acting, until they were ready for debut.[21]However, the concept of an idol was not defined by mainstream Japanese media until in November 1964, when the 1963 French filmCherchez l'idolewas released in Japan under the titleAidoru o Sagase(アイドルを tham せ).[89]Many Japanese audiences took interest inSylvie Vartan,whose song "La plus belle pour aller danser"from the film sold more than a million copies in Japan.[89]Vartan was heralded for her youthful, adorable looks and musical talent, leading the Japanese entertainment industry to assign the word "idol" to singers who shared a similar aesthetic.[89]

Television greatly impacted the popularity of the idol phenomenon, as beginning in the 1970s, many idols were recruited through audition programs.[90][91]In addition, the availability of having home television sets gave audiences greater accessibility of seeing idols at any time compared to going to theaters.[92]: 201 Momoe Yamaguchi,[37]Junko Sakurada,[93]Saori Minami,andMari Amachi,some of the idols recruited through television, were some of the more popular figures of this era,[91]along with groups such asCandiesandPink Lady.[93]Saori Minami, who debuted in 1971, was noted by scholar Masayoshi Sakai to be the turning point of when teenage stars became popular in mainstream media.[42]Music was produced by a shared climate of songwriters and art directors seeking a step towards a depoliticized youth culture.[93]Idols grew in popularity over the 1970s, as they offered audiences escapism from political violence and radical student movements.[91]

Idols at the time were seen as ephemeral because of how short-lived their careers were, and how they would disappear from the public after retirement.[92]: 203 In public, idols took steps to play a distinct character and uphold an illusion of perfection, such as maintaining a virginal image.[92]: 203 Other examples include being told not to use restrooms in public and answering interview questions about their favorite food with feminine-sounding answers such as "strawberries" and "shortcake."[92]: 203 

1980–1990: Golden Age of Idols[edit]

Akina Nakamori(pictured 1985) is one of the idols defining the 1980s, the Golden Age of Idols.[19]

The influence idols had on television led the 1980s to be known as the "Golden Age of Idols",[37]in part due to Japan'seconomic bubbleand growing commercial interest in them.[42]Several figures who defined the Golden Age of Idols areSeiko Matsuda,[37]Akina Nakamori,Kyōko Koizumi,andOnyanko Club.[19]Television programs in which idols appeared often enjoyed high viewer ratings.[19]Dentsualso created the "CM idol" business model, where idols were able to gain fame by singing and appearing in commercials.[93]

Onyanko Club, in particular, shifted public perception of idols from professional stars to ordinary schoolgirls who would gain experience throughout their career.[42]They were also the first group to introduce a "graduation system", where older members would eventually leave the group while newer inexperienced members would join,[42]with the system being named such as the group drew similarities to a school club.[40]Onyanko Club also led to idols becoming closely associated with television due to the popularity of their variety show, as the visual component became important to the overall enjoyment of their music.[93]

At the same time, male idols gained popularity, with acts from Johnny & Associates normalizing idols singing and dancing at the same time.[21]However, fewer male idol acts from other companies achieved the same success as Johnny's idols due to the company's CEO, Johnny Kitagawa, controlling the media and pressuring certain programs not to invite male idols from competing agencies, as he would continue to until his death in 2019.[21][61]

1990–2000: Idol Winter Period and Chidol Boom[edit]

Namie Amuro(pictured 2017) saw popularity among girls in the 1990s,[19]despite rejecting the idol label.[42]

Around 1985, idols soon became unpopular after the public became disillusioned with the idol system.[91]By the 1990s, public interest in idols began to wane,[22]as audiences lost interest in singing and audition programs,[19]particularly due to a shift in attitudes caused by Japan'seconomic collapse.[42]The media coined the term "Idol Winter Period"(アイドル đông の thời đại,Aidoru Fuyu no Jidai)to describe the stagnation of the idol industry beginning in 1990.[94]

More young people yielded aspirations to be defined as an artist instead of an idol.[19]During this decline, public perception of idols again shifted from inexperienced amateurs to strong, independent women, in part due to a rehaul inSeiko Matsuda's public image.[42]Namie Amuro,who gained fame as the lead singer ofSuper Monkey's,found popularity among young girls who emulated her appearance.[19]At the same time,Speedalso found a fan following.[42]However, neither Amuro nor Speed referred to themselves under the idol label.[42]While idols appeared less in mainstream media, the popularity of Onyanko Club from the 1980s led to an increase of idol groups with large numbers of members debuting in the 1990s, performing under independent record labels.[84]These idols became known as underground idols.[84]Because of the lack of publicity over idols on television, many turned to the Internet.[19]

Johnny & Associates observed the popularity of formerShibugakitaimember Hirohide Yakumaru's success as an MC on variety shows, which prompted them to develop and market their current acts with distinct public personalities.[95]Groups from the company began gaining more attention, drawing in fans from Hong Kong and Taiwan,[19]and their marketing success led to many other idols doing the same.[95]

In the mid-1990s, there was an increase in young idols in the elementary school age, which the media described as the "Chidol (child idol) Boom."[49][96]The term "chidol" was coined by journalistAkio Nakamoriin the magazineWeekly Spa![63]In the 2000s, "chidol" saw fewer usage, and it was eventually replaced by the term "junior idol"to legitimize them as part of the idol industry as well as removing the focus on their age.[64]

2000–present: Media crossovers and Idol Warring Period[edit]

The 2000s saw the rise in popularity of idol groups again afterMorning Musume's debut in 1997 and the formation of theirmusical collective,Hello! Project.[42][50]Around the same time, there was an increase ingravure idols,who competed in magazine and photo book sales.[49][50]In addition,animevoice actors,such asYui Horie,Nana Mizuki,andYukari Tamura,were also marketed as idols to promote both their activities and singing careers.[51][52]

While idols briefly experienced another decline after 2002,AKB48debuted in 2005 and later became known as nation's idol group.[50]The public image of idols had diversified, with each idol group having a specific concept appealing to different audiences.[42]To celebrate the diversity of idols, AKB48,Shoko Nakagawa,andLeah Dizonperformed a medley called "Special Medley: Latest Japan Proud Culture" at the 58thKohaku Uta Gassenin 2007, introduced as "Akiba-keiidols "with each act described as a different sub-genre of idols.[97]

Kanna Hashimoto(pictured 2014), then a member ofRev. from DVL,performed as a local idol in Fukuoka. After a fan-taken photo went viral in 2013, Rev. from DVL crossed over to mainstream media.[70]

The idol industry experienced a rapid growth in the beginning of the 2010s, and the media coined the nickname "Idol Warring Period"(アイドル chiến quốc thời đại,AidoruSengokuJidai)to describe the phenomenon.[22][50]Lawyer Kunitaka Kasai cited the Internet as a reason for the rapid growth of idols, as anyone can upload videos onto websites, and AKB48's business model encouraged this even further through creating more opportunities for fan interactivity.[98]The 2013 television dramaAmachanalso inspired more idol groups to appear, the majority of them being "local idols" who performed in specific rural communities.[69][42]Several independent idol groups also crossed over into mainstream, such asDempagumi.inc,[82]Dorothy Little Happy,[69]andRev. from DVL,the latter of which gained mainstream popularity after a photo of then-memberKanna Hashimotowent viral.[70]

Since 2010, the biggest idol concert festival,Tokyo Idol Festival,has taken place.[22]More than 200 idol groups and about 1500 idols performed, attracting more than 80,000 spectators in 2017.[22]During 2014, about 486,000 people attended AKB48 andMomoiro Clover Z's live concerts, which was the highest record of all female musicians in Japan.[99]Momoiro Clover Z has been ranked as the most popular female idol group from 2013 to 2017 according to surveys byThe Nikkei,[2]There were more than 10,000 teenage girls who performed as idols in Japan in 2017.[13]In 2019, there were over 3,000 female idol groups.[100]

From 2013 to 2018,boy bandArashiwas ranked as the most popular artist overall in Japan according toOriconpolls of 20,000 people.[101][102][103][104][105]Other male idols also found success as underground idols, as well as animemedia mixprojects and2.5D musicals.[106]

In the early 2010s, the diversification of the idol industry led to several acts mixing pop music with other musical genres such asalternative rockandheavy metal;this was pioneered byBisandSeiko Oomoriand was given the sub-category "alternative idol"by English-speaking publications.[88]They have also been known for utilisingshock valueto gain public and media attention and making use of a darker image than that of the idol scene norm.[107]

Beginning in the mid-to-late 2010s, the Japanese idol industry crossed over withK-popwith the thirdKorean wavein Japan, which was sparked partially from positive reception of the Japanese members of the South Korean groupTwice.[108][109]In the years that followed, several Japanese and South Korean companies collaborated to form K-pop influenced groups for a global consumer base, such asIz*One,[110]JO1,[111]andNiziU.[58][112]

Fan culture[edit]

Fan activities[edit]

A crowd ofwotaperformwotageiat an idol concert in Akihabara in 2011.
External videos
video iconCute -Cutie Circuit 2011
Fans are swaying glow sticks in the color of their favorite band member and cheering their idols with chants. When aCutemember sings a solo line, everyone shouts her name. (For example, from 2:11: "Maimi!", "Airi!," Maimi! "," Airi! ")
video iconMomoiro Clover - "Z Densetsu".
The audience is filled with fans dressed in the color of their favoriteMomoiro Clover Zmember.

Passionate male fans of idols are colloquially referred to aswota(ヲタ),derived from the word "otaku."[113]Beginning in the 1980s, they formed cheering groups known as bodyguards(Thân vệ đội,shin'eitai)to support idols at concerts and public appearances.[19]During these events, thewotaperformwotagei,an organized sequence of fan chants and dancing to show appreciation for the idols.[114]Fan chants where an idol's name is called after each bar is sung was popularized byMari Amachi's fans in the 1970s.[92]: 202 

Because mainstream Japanese media exercises self-censorship over taboo, controversial subjects,[32]fans are influential in circulating under-reported news through social media.[115]

Idol fan culture has introduced several slang terms into the Japanese public, including:[116]: 4 

  • DD,an abbreviation fordaredemo daisuki(Thùy でも đại hảo き,lit."I love everyone" ),applying to people who do not have a favorite member or group.[116]: 4 The term has negative connotations.[117]Writer Riyan suggests that while there are fans with no favorite members or groups, they are not likely to identify themselves as DD.[118]A variation of DD is the wordbako oshi(Tương thôi し,lit."supporter of the whole package" ),which indicates support for an idol group.[119]
  • Oshimen(Thôi しメン),also shortened tooshi(Thôi し),is a favorite member or group[116]: 4 

Fan interactions[edit]

Hitomi Hondainteracts with a fan at anAKB48handshake event in 2017.

A notable trait of idols that sets them apart from typical celebrities is their relationship with fans, and they are marketed intentionally by talent agencies to have a high emotional connection with their consumer fan base. Fans are built as active supporters into the narrative of the idol's journey to become a professional entertainer,[25]viewing them as siblings, daughters/sons, orgirl/boy next doortypes due to how easily they can relate to the public.[120][18][121]One documented example are fans of female idols, typically consisting of men from 30 to 40 years of age, who seek interactions with them as a way of having a long-term relationship without the prospect of supporting a family or dealing with awkwardness outside of a controlled environment.[122]The idol fan culture idealizes the idea ofmoe,where vulnerability is seen as an attractive trait.[25]

Using idols fromJohnny & Associatesas an example, male idols appeal to female fans by representing a pseudo-romantic ideal for them.[92]: 207 However, there are some female fans, particularly in Japan, who prefer to put themselves in the role of an external observer.[92]: 207 For them, the absence of other women is a way of watching the male idols interact with one another and imagining their interactions to be similar toyaoi.[92]: 207 

Fans spend money on merchandise and endorsed products to directly support their favorites, comparing it to spending money on "loved ones"; some express feeling happy that they were able to make someone they admired happy.[123]Dedicated fans may give up their careers and devote their life savings to supporting and following their favorite members.[13]To foster a closeness between idols and fans, some talent agencies offermeet-and-greetsin the form ofhandshake events,where fans have the opportunity to shake hands, take a photograph, and speak briefly with the idols.[13][120]AKB48's business model created more opportunities for fan interactions with their "idols you can meet" concept.[98]An example of this are their elections, where fans can vote for their favorite member, thereby including the fans directly into the members' individual success.[42]Because idols share an intimate relationship with their fans, fans may feel "betrayed" if idols reveal unfavorable parts of their personal lives that are different from the image they present, or break the illusion that they are there exclusively for fans.[22]

Impact[edit]

Economic[edit]

Idols often appear in advertising, with 50–70% of commercials in Japan featuring an idol.[124]The "CM idol" business model, conceptualized by advertising agencyDentsuin the 1980s, uses idols' public image as a marketing asset.[93]As the career of idols are dependent on their image, contracting offices create their image based upon trends in the market and with the intent of generating as much revenue as possible.[125][91]Along with promoting products, commercials are also a cross-platform to promote idols at the same time by keeping both brand and idol product in the forefront of the consumers' minds.[93]Pitches for commercials are often made with a specific idol who matches the company's image in mind. Idols contracted to particular brands are expected to uphold the brand's image and may not work for competing brands or networks; the agreement extends to magazine advertisements, online videos, and appearances in dramas.[124]Idols may also provide the music orjinglefor commercials.[12]: 5 The idol industry makes approximately $1 billion a year.[13]

Media[edit]

Beginning in the 1980s, companies would compete to secure contracts for idols in dramas, which led to the current four-season television cour in Japan. Variety, talk, and music shows also became popular, in part for featuring idols as guests or the stars of the show.[12]: 5 

Anime and video games[edit]

See also:List of idol anime and manga
A banner posted at Numazu City Hall celebrates the fictional idol group Aqours, from the anime seriesLove Live! Sunshine!!,for being accepted as a participating performer in the 2018Kōhaku Uta Gassen.

The idol industry has crossed over toanimeand video games. Using amedia mixstrategy, various multimedia projects have used fictional idols to market Japanese pop culture andanisonmusic.[126]The seriesCreamy Mami, the Magic Angelwas the first notable anime series to use a media mix marketing strategy, whereTakako Ōtawould provide the voice to the main character and portray her at music events; the series was used as a vehicle to launch her singing career.[127]The first fictional idol to cross over to mainstream media isLynn MinmayfromMacross,whose 1984 single, "Ai Oboete Imasu ka",charted at #7 on theOriconWeekly Singles Chart.[76]In the late 2000s,VocaloidsoftwareHatsune Mikuwas received positively among amateur music producers, who used her as an avatar to perform their compositions,[79]influencingAkiba-keimusic.[82]

In the early 2010s, idol-themed multimedia projects, such asLove Live!,The Idolmaster,andUta no Prince-sama,became popular.[128][129]Professor Marc Steinberg suggested that the popularity of idol-related media mix projects may stem from the managerial aspect found inlife simulationgames, withThe Idolmasterbeing the first notable idol franchise to include this.[130]These franchises set the fans in the active contributing role of the "producer" and regularly involved interactivity, as input made by the players were crucial to the idols' success.[130]The growth of idol-related media mix projects in anime and video games was also seen as an attempt from the Japanese government to market Japanese pop culture overseas through theCool Japaninitiative.[130]Music produced by voice actor idols and fictional idols have crossed over to mainstream music charts,[131]withBillboard Japanlaunching the Billboard Japan Hot Animation Chart on December 1, 2010, exclusively for anime and video game music releases.[132]Fictional idols have been treated like real-life celebrities.[123]Idol-themed anime and video game series have been compared to the sports genre in anime due to a similar competitive nature and team-building the characters face, as well as being linked to theOdagiri effectfor featuring attractive people of the same gender interacting with each other.[133]

The idol fan culture is heavily tied toanimeandmanga,and most fans of anime are also fans of idols.[123][25]The idea of "moe",which was popularized by anime, can be projected onto both idols and fictional characters, linking the two.[123][25]Some may prefer fictional idols due to them never disbanding, leaving groups, or getting into scandals.[123]A 2005 study by the Nomura Research Institute revealed that idol fans were the third largest group ofotakuinterests, followingcomicsandanime.[134]

In the late-2010s, the idol agency influenced the business model ofVTuberagencies such asHololiveandNijisanji—which focus on a mix ofvideo game livestreaming,entertainment, and music.[135][136]

Criticism[edit]

Working conditions[edit]

The idol system has been criticized for its strict rules, intense work schedules, and offering idols little control over their personal lives.[32][13][25]The system has been likened to salarymen in Japan who are unable to disobey their employers.[32]Labor rights activist Shohei Sakagura stated that idols get very little revenue and are ill-prepared for the work force after leaving their groups, as many of them spend their academic years learning poor job skills.[137]In addition to this, Rob Schwartz fromBillboardaddressed that Japanese mainstream media outlets rarely bring attention to controversies and allegations ofpower harassmentdue to self-censorship on what they are allowed to write.[32]Sasetsu Takeda ofGQ Japanwrote that talent agencies dismiss idols regardless of their popularity, sometimes intentionally blocking job offers in order to pressure them to leave, all while declaring that they are "resting from illness" to the public.[23]Independently managed idol groups offer even less protection, with idols given ambiguously worded contracts that keep them in their companies for years, while offering almost no pay and compensation for transportation and costuming fees.[83][98]Lawyer Kunitaka Kasai stated management may be poor, especially among independent idol groups, because they were established by people with a lack of experience to fill a demand for idols over the industry's growth.[98]

Work schedules for idols have been criticized for being excessive, as idols are expected to work even when sick.[100]Miki Gonobe fromNikkan Sportsnoted that idols generally do not have a labor union and agencies see no need for one, as they view idol activities akin to extracurricular activities at school. She voiced concerns about young girls becoming idols at an early age, especially elementary school students.[100]In addition, Sasetsu Takeda ofGQ Japancriticized some idol managements for intentionally preventing their talents from taking time off, mentioning it "strange" that idols are only notified of their assignments the night before.[23]He also condemned the idol industry for not providing talents access to better mental health resources, as idols are often suspended or dismissed for publicly showing they are stressed out of concern that they may cause fans to feel worried or upset.[23]

In March 2018, Ehime Girls member Honoka Omoto died by suicide, with her family launching a lawsuit against her talent agency in October 2018.[98]Allegedly, Omoto was working 10 hours a day at the expense of her studies and when she had asked to leave the group, a staff member threatened her with violence while Takahiro Sasaki, the head of her managing company, told her she would have to pay a penalty fee of¥1 million.[138]In June 2018, a former member ofNiji no Conquistadorfiled a lawsuit againstPixivrepresentative director, Hiroaki Nagata, and the group's management companies for voyeurism and sexual harassment during her time with the group,[139]and Nagata filed a counter lawsuit for libel and resigned several days later.[140]On February 10, 2020, theTokyo District Courtdismissed his claims and ordered him to pay¥1.1 millionto the woman in damages.[141]

Dating ban[edit]

Minami Minegishi(pictured 2009) made international news in 2013 after a video of her with a shaved head as penance went viral. This followed news reports suggesting she was in a relationship, which led to her demotion inAKB48.[25]

Most idols are not allowed to form romantic relationships or must obtain permission from their agencies to get married.[10][13][32]Yasushi Akimoto,the producer ofAKB48,likened the group's dating ban to similar dating bans for baseball teams competing at theKōshien,where dating is seen as a distraction from preparing for tournaments.[142]On the other hand, critics have suggested a dating ban is implemented in order to sell a fantasy of idols being accessible to their fans and disagreed with them for being inhumane.[25]The Japan Timesnoted that aside from talent agencies, idol fan culture has contributed to this, especially with male fans of female idols; male fans buy into the idea of "moe",which fetishizes weakness and submissiveness while asserting" complete control "over the girls' sexual independence.[25]

Several idols who were confirmed to have been dismissed, suspended, demoted, or forced to leave their groups following reports of them dating or having sexual relations includeMari Yaguchi,[143]Ai Kago,[144]Aya Hirano,[145]Rino Sashihara,[146][147]andMinami Minegishi.[25][148]Minegishi, in particular, caught international media attention after her apology video went viral, causing international criticism over the management of her group, AKB48, as well as the Japanese idol industry.[25]A talent agency filed a lawsuit against a 17-year-old former idol singer for accepting an invitation to a hotel room from two male fans, which had caused her group to disband within the first 3 months of their debut.[149]In September 2015, Judge Akitomo Kojima, along with theTokyo District Court,ruled in favor of the talent agency and fined the woman to pay¥650,000,stating that the dating ban was necessary for idols to "win the support of male fans."[149]In January 2016, a similar lawsuit filed with the Tokyo District Court ruled in favor of a 23-year-old former idol, with Judge Kazuya Hara stating that the dating ban "significantly restricts the freedom to pursue happiness."[150]

Since handshake and other related events allow fans to be in close proximity with idols, critics also believe that marketing the idols' accessibility may cause fans to be unable to distinguish between fantasy and real life.[120]Talent agencies have also been criticized over offering inadequate protection towards idols after several incidents of violent attacks on female idols such as thesaw attack on Anna Iriyama and Rina Kawaei,thestabbing of Mayu Tomita,and theassault of Maho Yamaguchi.[120]

Sexualization[edit]

See also:Junior idol § Legal status,andChild pornography laws in Japan

Idols are often sexualized, especially female idols,[25][98]some of whom also work as gravure idols and have suggestive swimsuit photo shoots that are published in magazines targeted towards adults.[66][47][65]With the idol system commodifying youth, the industry is criticized for putting minors at risk, most particularlyjunior idols,who are aged 15 years and younger.[65][67][151][152][153]Idol swimsuit photo books are often sold in the same sections as pornographic titles.[65]In 1999, Japan banned production and distribution of sexually explicit depictions of minors, which outlawed photo books depicting nude junior idols.[66]Multiple junior idol distributors closed after possession of child pornography was made illegal in Japan in 2014.[68]However, junior idol content currently stands on legally ambiguous ground due to open interpretations ofchild pornography laws in Japan.[65][64]

In 2017, through a survey conducted by the Japanese government, 53 out of 197 women contracted with talent agencies stated that they had been asked to take part in pornographic photo or video shoots of which were not previously disclosed nor included in their contracts. 17 of the women stated that they had performed the request anyway.[154]

List of idols[edit]

See also:List of Japanese idols,List of Japanese gravure idols,andList of net idols

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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External links[edit]

Look upアイドルin Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related toJapanese idols.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japanese_idol&oldid=1223420669"