Jazz

Jazz
Jazz
Etymology	See:Jazz (word)
Stylistic origins	Blues; ragtime(includingclassical ragtime); spirituals; folk; marches; classical European music; West African music;
Cultural origins	Late 19th century,New Orleans,U.S.
Typical instruments	Double bass; drums; guitar(typicallyelectric guitar); piano; saxophone; trumpet; clarinet; trombone; tuba; vocals; vibraphone; Hammond organ; harmonica;
Derivative forms	Rock and roll; rock; jump blues; traditional pop; reggae; rhythm and blues; ska; funk; hip hop; house; neo soul; lounge;
Subgenres
	Subgenres jazz fusion; jazz poetry; Avant-garde jazz; bebop; big band; chamber jazz; cool jazz; free jazz; gypsy jazz; hard bop; Latin jazz; mainstream jazz; modal jazz; M-Base; neo-bop; orchestral jazz; post-bop; progressive jazz; soul jazz; straight-ahead jazz; swing; third stream; traditional jazz; ; (complete list)
Fusion genres
	Fusion genres Acid jazz; Afrobeat; Afro fusion; bluegrass; bossa nova; dansband; folk jazz; free funk; humppa; Indo jazz; jam band; jazzcore; jazz-funk; jazz fusion; jazz rap; kwela; Mambo; Manila Sound; nu jazz; neo soul; punk jazz; ska jazz; smooth jazz; swing revival; Western swing; world fusion;
Regional scenes
	Regional scenes Australia; Armenia; Azerbaijan; Balkans(Bulgaria); Baltimore; Belgium; Brazil; Canada; Chicago; Cuba; Denmark; France; Germany; Haiti; India; Iran; Italy; Japan; Kansas City; Malawi; Mexico; Netherlands; New Orleans; New York City; Poland; South Africa(Cape jazz); Spain; Sweden; UK; U.S. West Coast;
Other topics
	Jazz clubs; Jazz standard; Jazz (word);
	2024 in jazz

Jazzis amusic genrethat originated in theAfrican-Americancommunities ofNew Orleans,Louisiana,in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with its roots inblues,ragtime,Europeanharmonyand African rhythmic rituals.^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6]Since the 1920sJazz Age,it has been recognized as a major form of musical expression intraditionalandpopular music.Jazz is characterized byswingandblue notes,complexchords,call and response vocals,polyrhythmsandimprovisation.

As jazz spread around the world, it drew on national, regional, and local musical cultures, which gave rise to different styles.New Orleans jazzbegan in the early 1910s, combining earlierbrass bandmarches, Frenchquadrilles,biguine,ragtime and blues with collectivepolyphonic improvisation.However, jazz did not begin as a single musical tradition in New Orleans or elsewhere.^[7]In the 1930s, arranged dance-orientedswing big bands,Kansas City jazz(a hard-swinging, bluesy, improvisational style), andgypsy jazz(a style that emphasizedmusettewaltzes) were the prominent styles.Bebopemerged in the 1940s, shifting jazz from danceable popular music toward a more challenging "musician's music" which was played at faster tempos and used more chord-based improvisation.Cool jazzdeveloped near the end of the 1940s, introducing calmer, smoother sounds and long, linear melodic lines.^[8]

The mid-1950s saw the emergence ofhard bop,which introduced influences fromrhythm and blues,gospel,and blues to small groups and particularly to saxophone and piano.Modal jazzdeveloped in the late 1950s, using themode,or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation, as didfree jazz,which explored playing without regular meter, beat and formal structures.Jazz-rock fusionappeared in the late 1960s and early 1970s, combining jazz improvisation withrock music's rhythms, electric instruments, and highly amplified stage sound. In the early 1980s, a commercial form of jazz fusion calledsmooth jazzbecame successful, garnering significant radio airplay. Other styles and genres abound in the 21st century, such asLatinandAfro-Cuban jazz.

Etymology and definition

American jazz composer, lyricist, and pianistEubie Blakemade an early contribution to the genre's etymology.

The origin of the wordjazzhas resulted in considerable research, and its history is well documented. It is believed to be related tojasm,a slang term dating back to 1860 meaning'pep, energy'.^[9]^[10]The earliest written record of the word is in a 1912 article in theLos Angeles Timesin which a minor league baseball pitcher described a pitch which he called a 'jazz ball' "because it wobbles and you simply can't do anything with it".^[9]^[10]

The use of the word in a musical context was documented as early as 1915 in theChicago Daily Tribune.^[10]^[11]Its first documented use in a musical context in New Orleans was in a November 14, 1916,Times-Picayunearticle about "jas bands".^[12]In an interview withNational Public Radio,musicianEubie Blakeoffered his recollections of the slang connotations of the term, saying: "When Broadway picked it up, they called it 'J-A-Z-Z'. It wasn't called that. It was spelled 'J-A-S-S'. That was dirty, and if you knew what it was, you wouldn't say it in front of ladies."^[13]TheAmerican Dialect Societynamed it theWord of the 20th Century.^[14]

Jazz is difficult to define because it encompasses a wide range of music spanning a period of over 100 years, fromragtimetorock-infusedfusion.Attempts have been made to define jazz from the perspective of other musical traditions, such as European music history or African music. But criticJoachim-Ernst Berendtargues that its terms of reference and its definition should be broader,^[15]defining jazz as a "form ofart musicwhich originated in the United States through the confrontation of the Negro with European music "^[16]and arguing that it differs from European music in that jazz has a "special relationship to time defined as 'swing'".Jazz involves" a spontaneity and vitality of musical production in which improvisation plays a role "and contains a" sonority and manner of phrasing which mirror the individuality of the performing jazz musician ".^[15]

A broader definition that encompasses different eras of jazz has been proposed by Travis Jackson: "it is music that includes qualities such as swing, improvising, group interaction, developing an 'individual voice', and being open to different musical possibilities".^[17]Krin Gibbard argued that "jazz is a construct" which designates "a number of musics with enough in common to be understood as part of a coherent tradition".^[18]Duke Ellington,one of jazz's most famous figures, said, "It's all music."^[19]

Elements

Improvisation

Although jazz is considered difficult to define, in part because it contains many subgenres,improvisationis one of its defining elements. The centrality of improvisation is attributed to the influence of earlier forms of music such asblues,a form of folk music which arose in part from thework songsandfield hollersof African-American slaves on plantations. These work songs were commonly structured around a repetitivecall-and-responsepattern, but early blues was also improvisational.Classical musicperformance is evaluated more by its fidelity to themusical score,with less attention given to interpretation, ornamentation, and accompaniment. The classical performer's goal is to play the composition as it was written. In contrast, jazz is often characterized by the product of interaction and collaboration, placing less value on the contribution of the composer, if there is one, and more on the performer.^[20]The jazz performer interprets a tune in individual ways, never playing the same composition twice. Depending on the performer's mood, experience, and interaction with band members or audience members, the performer may change melodies, harmonies, and time signatures.^[21]

In earlyDixieland,a.k.a. New Orleans jazz, performers took turns playing melodies and improvisingcountermelodies.In theswingera of the 1920s–'40s,big bandsrelied more onarrangementswhich were written or learned by ear and memorized. Soloists improvised within these arrangements. In thebebopera of the 1940s, big bands gave way to small groups and minimal arrangements in which the melody was stated briefly at the beginning and most of the piece was improvised.Modal jazzabandonedchord progressionsto allow musicians to improvise even more. In many forms of jazz, a soloist is supported by arhythm sectionof one or more chordal instruments (piano, guitar), double bass, and drums. The rhythm section plays chords and rhythms that outline the composition structure and complement the soloist.^[22]Inavant-gardeandfree jazz,the separation of soloist and band is reduced, and there is license, or even a requirement, for the abandoning of chords, scales, and meters.

Traditionalism

Since the emergence of bebop, forms of jazz that are commercially oriented or influenced by popular music have been criticized. According to Bruce Johnson, there has always been a "tension between jazz as a commercial music and an art form".^[17]Regarding theDixieland jazzrevival of the 1940s, Black musicians rejected it as being shallow nostalgia entertainment for white audiences.^[23]^[24]On the other hand, traditional jazz enthusiasts have dismissed bebop, free jazz, andjazz fusionas forms of debasement and betrayal. An alternative view is that jazz can absorb and transform diverse musical styles.^[25]By avoiding the creation of norms, jazz allows avant-garde styles to emerge.^[17]

Diversity in jazz

Jazz and race

For some African Americans, jazz has drawn attention to African-American contributions to culture and history. For others, jazz is a reminder of "an oppressive and racist society and restrictions on their artistic visions".^[26]Amiri Barakaargues that there is a "white jazz" genre that expresseswhiteness.^[27]White jazz musicians appeared in the Midwest and in other areas throughout the U.S.Papa Jack Laine,who ran the Reliance band in New Orleans in the 1910s, was called "the father of white jazz".^[28]TheOriginal Dixieland Jazz Band,whose members were white, were the first jazz group to record, andBix Beiderbeckewas one of the most prominent jazz soloists of the 1920s.^[29]The Chicago Style was developed by white musicians such asEddie Condon,Bud Freeman,Jimmy McPartland,andDave Tough.Others from Chicago such asBenny GoodmanandGene Krupabecame leading members of swing during the 1930s.^[30]Many bands included both Black and white musicians. These musicians helped change attitudes toward race in the U.S.^[31]

Roles of women

Female jazz performers and composers have contributed to jazz throughout its history. AlthoughBetty Carter,Ella Fitzgerald,Adelaide Hall,Billie Holiday,Peggy Lee,Abbey Lincoln,Anita O'Day,Dinah Washington,andEthel Waterswere recognized for their vocal talent, less familiar were bandleaders, composers, and instrumentalists such as pianistLil Hardin Armstrong,trumpeterValaida Snow,and songwritersIrene HigginbothamandDorothy Fields.Women began playing instruments in jazz in the early 1920s, drawing particular recognition on piano.^[32]

When male jazz musicians were drafted during World War II, manyall-female bandsreplaced them.^[32]The International Sweethearts of Rhythm,which was founded in 1937, was a popular band that became the first all-female integrated band in the U.S. and the first to travel with theUSO,touring Europe in 1945. Women were members of the big bands ofWoody HermanandGerald Wilson.Beginning in the 1950s, many women jazz instrumentalists were prominent, some sustaining long careers. Some of the most distinctive improvisers, composers, and bandleaders in jazz have been women.^[33]TrombonistMelba Listonis acknowledged as the first female horn player to work in major bands and to make a real impact on jazz, not only as a musician but also as a respected composer and arranger, particularly through her collaborations withRandy Westonfrom the late 1950s into the 1990s.^[34]^[35]

Jews in jazz

Jewish Americans played a significant role in jazz. As jazz spread, it developed to encompass many different cultures, and the work of Jewish composers inTin Pan Alleyhelped shape the many different sounds that jazz came to incorporate.^[36]

Jewish Americans were able to thrive in Jazz because of the probationary whiteness that they were allotted at the time.^[37]George Bornstein wrote that African Americans were sympathetic to the plight of the Jewish American and vice versa. As disenfranchised minorities themselves, Jewish composers of popular music saw themselves as natural allies with African Americans.^[38]

The Jazz SingerwithAl Jolsonis one example of how Jewish Americans were able to bring jazz, music that African Americans developed, into popular culture.^[39]Benny Goodmanwas a vital Jewish American to the progression of Jazz. Goodman was the leader of a racially integrated band named King of Swing. His jazz concert in theCarnegie Hallin 1938 was the first ever to be played there. The concert was described by Bruce Eder as "the single most important jazz or popular music concert in history".^[40]

Shep Fieldsalso helped to popularize "Sweet" Jazz music through his appearances andBig band remotebroadcasts from such landmark venues as Chicago'sPalmer House,Broadway'sParamount Theaterand the Starlight Roof at the famedWaldorf-Astoria Hotel.He entertained audiences with a light elegant musical style which remained popular with audiences for nearly three decades from the 1930s until the late 1950s.^[41]^[42]^[43]

Early development

Jazz originated in the late-19th to early-20th century. It developed out of many forms of music, includingblues,spirituals,hymns,marches,vaudevillesong,ragtime,anddance music.^[44]It also incorporated interpretations of American and European classical music, entwined with African and slave folk songs and the influences of West African culture.^[45]Its composition and style have changed many times throughout the years with each performer's personal interpretation and improvisation, which is also one of the greatest appeals of the genre.^[46]

Blended African and European music sensibilities

By the 18th century, slaves in the New Orleans area gathered socially at a special market, in an area which later became known as Congo Square, famous for its African dances.^[47]

By 1866, theAtlantic slave tradehad brought nearly 400,000 Africans to North America.^[48]The slaves came largely fromWest Africaand the greaterCongo Riverbasin and brought strong musical traditions with them.^[49]The African traditions primarily use a single-line melody andcall-and-responsepattern, and the rhythms have acounter-metricstructure and reflect African speech patterns.^[50]

An 1885 account says that they were making strange music (Creole) on an equally strange variety of 'instruments'—washboards, washtubs, jugs, boxes beaten with sticks or bones and a drum made by stretching skin over a flour-barrel.^[4]^[51]

Lavish festivals with African-based dances to drums were organized on Sundays at Place Congo, orCongo Square,in New Orleans until 1843.^[52]There are historical accounts of other music and dance gatherings elsewhere in the southern United States.Robert Palmersaid of percussive slave music:

Usually such music was associated with annual festivals, when the year's crop was harvested and several days were set aside for celebration. As late as 1861, a traveler in North Carolina saw dancers dressed in costumes that included horned headdresses and cow tails and heard music provided by a sheepskin-covered "gumbo box", apparently a frame drum; triangles and jawbones furnished the auxiliary percussion. There are quite a few [accounts] from the southeastern states and Louisiana dating from the period 1820–1850. Some of the earliest [Mississippi] Delta settlers came from the vicinity of New Orleans, where drumming was never actively discouraged for very long and homemade drums were used to accompany public dancing until the outbreak of the Civil War.^[53]

Another influence came from the harmonic style ofhymnsof the church, which black slaves had learned and incorporated into their own music asspirituals.^[54]Theorigins of the bluesare undocumented, though they can be seen as the secular counterpart of the spirituals. However, asGerhard Kubikpoints out, whereas the spirituals arehomophonic,rural blues and early jazz "was largely based on concepts ofheterophony".^[55]

During the early 19th century an increasing number of black musicians learned to play European instruments, particularly the violin, which they used to parody European dance music in their owncakewalkdances. In turn, European Americanminstrel showperformers inblackfacepopularized the music internationally, combiningsyncopationwith European harmonic accompaniment. In the mid-1800s the white New Orleans composerLouis Moreau Gottschalkadapted slave rhythms and melodies from Cuba and other Caribbean islands into piano salon music. New Orleans was the main nexus between the Afro-Caribbean and African American cultures.

African rhythmic retention

TheBlack Codesoutlawed drumming by slaves, which meant that African drumming traditions were not preserved in North America, unlike in Cuba, Haiti, and elsewhere in the Caribbean. African-based rhythmic patterns were retained in the United States in large part through "body rhythms" such as stomping, clapping, andpatting juba dancing.^[56]

In the opinion of jazz historianErnest Borneman,what preceded New Orleans jazz before 1890 was "Afro-Latin music", similar to what was played in the Caribbean at the time.^[57]A three-stroke pattern known in Cuban music astresillois a fundamental rhythmic figure heard in many different slave musics of the Caribbean, as well as theAfro-Caribbeanfolk dances performed in New OrleansCongo Squareand Gottschalk's compositions (for example "Souvenirs From Havana" (1859)). Tresillo (shown below) is the most basic and most prevalent duple-pulse rhythmiccellinsub-Saharan African music traditionsand the music of theAfrican Diaspora.^[58]^[59]

$\new RhythmicStaff { \clef percussion \time 2/4 \repeat volta 2 { c8. c16 r8[ c] } }$

Tresillois heard prominently in New Orleanssecond linemusic and in other forms of popular music from that city from the turn of the 20th century to present.^[60]"By and large the simpler African rhythmic patterns survived in jazz... because they could be adapted more readily to European rhythmic conceptions," jazz historianGunther Schullerobserved. "Some survived, others were discarded as the Europeanization progressed."^[61]

In the post-Civil War period (after 1865), African Americans were able to obtain surplus military bass drums, snare drums and fifes, and an original African-American drum and fife music emerged, featuring tresillo and related syncopated rhythmic figures.^[62]This was a drumming tradition that was distinct from its Caribbean counterparts, expressing a uniquely African-American sensibility. "The snare and bass drummers played syncopatedcross-rhythms,"observed the writer Robert Palmer, speculating that" this tradition must have dated back to the latter half of the nineteenth century, and it could have not have developed in the first place if there hadn't been a reservoir of polyrhythmic sophistication in the culture it nurtured. "^[56]

Afro-Cuban influence

African-American musicbegan incorporatingAfro-Cubanrhythmic motifs in the 19th century when thehabanera(Cubancontradanza) gained international popularity.^[63]Musicians fromHavanaand New Orleans would take the twice-daily ferry between both cities to perform, and the habanera quickly took root in the musically fertile Crescent City.John Storm Robertsstates that the musical genre habanera "reached the U.S. twenty years before the first rag was published."^[64]For the more than quarter-century in which thecakewalk,ragtime,and proto-jazz were forming and developing, the habanera was a consistent part of African-American popular music.^[64]

Habaneras were widely available as sheet music and were the first written music which was rhythmically based on an African motif (1803).^[65]From the perspective of African-American music, the "habanera rhythm" (also known as "congo" ),^[65]"tango-congo",^[66]ortango.^[67]can be thought of as a combination oftresilloand thebackbeat.^[68]The habanera was the first of many Cuban music genres which enjoyed periods of popularity in the United States and reinforced and inspired the use of tresillo-based rhythms in African-American music.

$\new Staff << \relative c' { \clef percussion \time 2/4 \repeat volta 2 { g8. g16 d'8 g, } } >>$

New Orleans nativeLouis Moreau Gottschalk's piano piece "Ojos Criollos (Danse Cubaine)" (1860) was influenced by the composer's studies in Cuba: the habanera rhythm is clearly heard in the left hand.^[58]^: 125In Gottschalk's symphonic work "A Night in the Tropics" (1859), the tresillo variantcinquilloappears extensively.^[69]The figure was later used by Scott Joplin and other ragtime composers.

$\new RhythmicStaff { \clef percussion \time 2/4 \repeat volta 2 { c8 c16 c r[ c c r] } }$

Comparing the music of New Orleans with the music of Cuba,Wynton Marsalisobserves thattresillois the New Orleans "clavé", a Spanish word meaning "code" or "key", as in the key to a puzzle, or mystery.^[70]Although the pattern is only half aclave,Marsalis makes the point that the single-celled figure is theguide-patternof New Orleans music.Jelly Roll Mortoncalled the rhythmic figure theSpanish tingeand considered it an essential ingredient of jazz.^[71]

Ragtime

The abolition ofslaveryin 1865 led to new opportunities for the education of freed African Americans. Although strict segregation limited employment opportunities for most blacks, many were able to find work in entertainment. Black musicians were able to provide entertainment in dances,minstrel shows,and invaudeville,during which time many marching bands were formed. Black pianists played in bars, clubs, and brothels, asragtimedeveloped.^[72]^[73]

Ragtime appeared as sheet music, popularized by African-American musicians such as the entertainerErnest Hogan,whose hit songs appeared in 1895. Two years later,Vess Ossmanrecorded a medley of these songs as abanjosolo known as "Rag Time Medley".^[74]^[75]Also in 1897, the white composerWilliam Krellpublished his "Mississippi Rag"as the first written piano instrumental ragtime piece, andTom Turpinpublished his "Harlem Rag", the first rag published by an African-American.

Classically trained pianistScott Joplinproduced his "Original Rags"in 1898 and, in 1899, had an international hit with"Maple Leaf Rag",a multi-strainragtimemarchwith four parts that feature recurring themes and a bass line with copiousseventh chords.Its structure was the basis for many other rags, and thesyncopationsin the right hand, especially in the transition between the first and second strain, were novel at the time.^[76]The last four measures of Scott Joplin's "Maple Leaf Rag" (1899) are shown below.

${ \new PianoStaff << \new Staff << \new Voice \relative c' { \clef treble \key aes \major \time 2/4 <f aes>16 bes <f aes>8 <fes aes> <fes bes>16 <es aes>~ <es aes> bes' <es, c'> aes bes <es, c'>8 <d aes'>16~ <d aes'> bes' <d, c'> aes' r <des, bes'>8 es16 <c aes'>8 <g' des' es> <aes c es aes> } >> \new Staff << \relative c, { \clef bass \key aes \major \time 2/4 <des des'>8 <des des'> <bes bes'> <d d'> <es es'> <es' aes c> <es, es'> <e e'> <f f'> <f f'> <g g'> <g g'> <aes aes'> <es es'> <aes, aes'> \bar "|." } >> >> }$

African-based rhythmic patterns such astresilloand its variants, the habanera rhythm andcinquillo,are heard in the ragtime compositions of Joplin and Turpin. Joplin's "Solace"(1909) is generally considered to be in the habanera genre:^[77]^[78]both of the pianist's hands play in a syncopated fashion, completely abandoning any sense of amarchrhythm.Ned Sublettepostulates that the tresillo/habanera rhythm "found its way into ragtime and the cakewalk,"^[79]whilst Roberts suggests that "the habanera influence may have been part of what freed black music from ragtime's European bass".^[80]

Ragtime in other regions

In the northeastern United States, a "hot" style of playing ragtime had developed, notablyJames Reese Europe's symphonicClef Cluborchestra in New York City, which played a benefit concert atCarnegie Hallin 1912.^[81]^[82]The Baltimore rag style ofEubie BlakeinfluencedJames P. Johnson's development ofstride pianoplaying, in which the right hand plays the melody, while the left hand provides the rhythm and bassline.^[83]

In Ohio and elsewhere in the mid-west the major influence was ragtime, until about 1919. Around 1912, when the four-string banjo and saxophone came in, musicians began to improvise the melody line, but the harmony and rhythm remained unchanged. A contemporary account states that blues could only be heard in jazz in the gut-bucket cabarets, which were generally looked down upon by the Black middle-class.^[84]

Blues

African genesis

${ \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c' { \clef treble \time 6/4 c4^\markup { "C blues scale" } es f fis g bes c2 } }$

${ \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c' { \clef treble \time 5/4 c4^\markup { "C minor pentatonic scale" } es f g bes c2 } }$

A hexatonicblues scaleon C, ascending

Blues is the name given to both a musical form and a music genre,^[85]which originated inAfrican-Americancommunities of primarily theDeep Southof the United States at the end of the 19th century from theirspirituals,work songs,field hollers,shoutsandchantsand rhymed simple narrativeballads.^[86]

The African use of pentatonic scales contributed to the development ofblue notesin blues and jazz.^[87]As Kubik explains:

Many of the rural blues of the Deep South arestylisticallyan extension and merger of basically two broad accompanied song-style traditions in the west central Sudanic belt:
A strongly Arabic/Islamic song style, as found for example among theHausa.It is characterized by melisma, wavy intonation, pitch instabilities within a pentatonic framework, and a declamatory voice.

An ancient west central Sudanic stratum of pentatonic song composition, often associated with simple work rhythms in a regular meter, but with notable off-beat accents.^[88]

W. C. Handy: early published blues

W. C. Handybecame interested in folk blues of the Deep South while traveling through the Mississippi Delta. In this folk blues form, the singer would improvise freely within a limited melodic range, sounding like a field holler, and the guitar accompaniment was slapped rather than strummed, like a small drum which responded in syncopated accents, functioning as another "voice".^[89]Handy and his band members were formally trained African-American musicians who had not grown up with the blues, yet he was able to adapt the blues to a larger band instrument format and arrange them in a popular music form.

Handy wrote about his adopting of the blues:

The primitive southern Negro, as he sang, was sure to bear down on the third and seventh tone of the scale, slurring between major and minor. Whether in the cotton field of the Delta or on the Levee up St. Louis way, it was always the same. Till then, however, I had never heard this slur used by a more sophisticated Negro, or by any white man. I tried to convey this effect... by introducing flat thirds and sevenths (now called blue notes) into my song, although its prevailing key was major..., and I carried this device into my melody as well.^[90]

The publication of his "Memphis Blues"sheet music in 1912 introduced the 12-bar blues to the world (althoughGunther Schullerargues that it is not really a blues, but "more like a cakewalk" ).^[91]This composition, as well as his later "St. Louis Blues"and others, included the habanera rhythm,^[92]and would becomejazz standards.Handy's music career began in the pre-jazz era and contributed to the codification of jazz through the publication of some of the first jazz sheet music.

New Orleans origins

The music ofNew Orleans,Louisianahad a profound effect on the creation of early jazz. In New Orleans, slaves could practice elements of their culture such as voodoo and playing drums.^[93]Many early jazz musicians played in the bars and brothels of the red-light district around Basin Street calledStoryville.^[94]In addition to dance bands, there were marching bands which played at lavish funerals (later calledjazz funerals). The instruments used by marching bands and dance bands became the instruments of jazz: brass, drums, and reeds tuned in the European 12-tone scale. Small bands contained a combination of self-taught and formally educated musicians, many from the funeral procession tradition. These bands traveled in black communities in the deep south. Beginning in 1914,Louisiana Creoleand African-American musicians played invaudevilleshows which carried jazz to cities in the northern and western parts of the U.S.^[95]Jazz became international in 1914, when the Creole Band with cornettistFreddie Keppardperformed the first ever jazz concert outside the United States, at thePantages Playhouse TheatreinWinnipeg,Canada.^[96]

In New Orleans, a white bandleader namedPapa Jack Laineintegrated blacks and whites in his marching band. He was known as "the father of white jazz" because of the many top players he employed, such asGeorge Brunies,Sharkey Bonano,and future members of theOriginal Dixieland Jass Band.During the early 1900s, jazz was mostly performed in African-American andmulattocommunities due to segregation laws. Storyville brought jazz to a wider audience through tourists who visited the port city of New Orleans.^[97]Many jazz musicians from African-American communities were hired to perform in bars and brothels. These includedBuddy BoldenandJelly Roll Mortonin addition to those from other communities, such asLorenzo TioandAlcide Nunez.Louis Armstrongstarted his career in Storyville^[98]and found success in Chicago. Storyville was shut down by the U.S. government in 1917.^[99]

Syncopation

Jelly Roll Morton,aLouisiana Creolejazz artist,c. 1917or 1918

Cornetist Buddy Bolden played in New Orleans from 1895 to 1906. No recordings by him exist. His band is credited with creating the big four: the first syncopated bass drum pattern to deviate from the standard on-the-beat march.^[100]As the example below shows, the second half of the big four pattern is the habanera rhythm.

$\new Staff << \relative c' { \clef percussion \time 4/4 \repeat volta 2 { g8 \xNote a' g, \xNote a' g, \xNote a'16. g,32 g8 <g \xNote a'> } \repeat volta 2 { r8 \xNote a'\noBeam g, \xNote a' g, \xNote a'16. g,32 g8 <g \xNote a'> } } >>$

Afro-Creole pianist Jelly Roll Morton began his career in Storyville. Beginning in 1904, he toured with vaudeville shows to southern cities, Chicago, and New York City. In 1905, he composed "Jelly Roll Blues",which became the first jazz arrangement in print when it was published in 1915. It introduced more musicians to the New Orleans style.^[101]

Morton considered the tresillo/habanera, which he called theSpanish tinge,an essential ingredient of jazz.^[102]"Now in one of my earliest tunes," New Orleans Blues, "you can notice the Spanish tinge. In fact, if you can't manage to put tinges of Spanish in your tunes, you will never be able to get the right seasoning, I call it, for jazz."^[71]

An excerpt of "New Orleans Blues" is shown below. In the excerpt, the left hand plays the tresillo rhythm, while the right hand plays variations on cinquillo.

${ \new PianoStaff << \new Staff << \relative c'' { \clef treble \key bes \major \time 2/2 f8 <f, f'> <g g'> <f~ cis'> <f d'> <f f'> <g d' g>4 r8 <f f'> <g g'> <f~ cis'> <f d'> <f f'> <g d' g>4 r8 <f d' f> <g d' g> <f~ cis'> <f d'> <f d' f> <g d' g> <f d' f> } >> \new Staff << \relative c { \clef bass \key bes \major \time 2/2 <bes bes'>4. <f' d'>8~ <f d'>4 <f, f'>4 <bes f' bes>4. <f' d'>8~ <f d'>4 <f, f'>4 <bes f' bes>4. <f' d'>8~ <f d'>4 <f, f'>4 } >> >> }$

Morton was a crucial innovator in the evolution from the early jazz form known as ragtime tojazz piano,and could perform pieces in either style; in 1938, Morton made a series of recordings for the Library of Congress in which he demonstrated the difference between the two styles. Morton's solos, however, were still close to ragtime, and were not merely improvisations over chord changes as in later jazz, but his use of the blues was of equal importance.

Swing in the early 20th century

$\new RhythmicStaff { \clef percussion \time 4/4 \repeat volta 2 { c8^\markup { "Even subdivisions" } c16 c c8 c16 c c8 c16 c c8 c16 c } }$

$\new RhythmicStaff { \clef percussion \time 4/4 \repeat volta 2 { c8[^\markup { "Swung correlative" } \tuplet 3/2 { c16 r c] } c8[ \tuplet 3/2 { c16 r c] } c8[ \tuplet 3/2 { c16 r c] } c8[ \tuplet 3/2 { c16 r c] } } }$

Morton loosened ragtime's rigid rhythmic feeling, decreasing its embellishments and employing aswingfeeling.^[103]Swing is the most important and enduring African-based rhythmic technique used in jazz. An oft quoted definition of swing by Louis Armstrong is: "if you don't feel it, you'll never know it."^[104]The New Harvard Dictionary of Musicstates that swing is: "An intangible rhythmic momentum in jazz...Swing defies analysis; claims to its presence may inspire arguments." The dictionary does nonetheless provide the useful description of triple subdivisions of the beat contrasted with duple subdivisions:^[105]swing superimposes six subdivisions of the beat over a basic pulse structure or four subdivisions. This aspect of swing is far more prevalent in African-American music than in Afro-Caribbean music. One aspect of swing, which is heard in more rhythmically complex Diaspora musics, places strokes in-between the triple and duple-pulse "grids".^[106]

New Orleans brass bands are a lasting influence, contributing horn players to the world of professional jazz with the distinct sound of the city whilst helping black children escape poverty. The leader of New Orleans'Camelia Brass Band,D'Jalma Ganier, taught Louis Armstrong to play trumpet; Armstrong would then popularize the New Orleans style of trumpet playing, and then expand it. Like Jelly Roll Morton, Armstrong is also credited with the abandonment of ragtime's stiffness in favor of swung notes. Armstrong, perhaps more than any other musician, codified the rhythmic technique of swing in jazz and broadened the jazz solo vocabulary.^[107]

TheOriginal Dixieland Jass Bandmade the music's first recordings early in 1917, and their "Livery Stable Blues"became the earliest released jazz record.^[108]^[109]^[110]^[111]^[112]^[113]^[114]That year, numerous other bands made recordings featuring "jazz" in the title or band name, but most were ragtime or novelty records rather than jazz. In February 1918 during World War I, James Reese Europe's"Hellfighters" infantryband took ragtime to Europe,^[115]^[116]then on their return recorded Dixieland standards including "Darktown Strutters' Ball".^[81]

The Jazz Age

From 1920 to 1933,Prohibition in the United Statesbanned the sale of alcoholic drinks, resulting in illicit speakeasies which became lively venues of the "Jazz Age", hosting popular music, dance songs, novelty songs, and show tunes. Jazz began to get a reputation as immoral, and many members of the older generations saw it as a threat to the old cultural values by promoting the decadent values of the Roaring 20s.Henry van Dykeof Princeton University wrote, "... it is not music at all. It's merely an irritation of the nerves of hearing, a sensual teasing of the strings of physical passion."^[117]The New York Timesreported that Siberian villagers used jazz to scare away bears, but the villagers had used pots and pans; another story claimed that the fatal heart attack of a celebrated conductor was caused by jazz.^[117]

Jazz Me Blues

TheOriginal Dixieland Jass Bandperforming "Jazz Me Blues", an example of a jazz piece from 1921

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In 1919,Kid Ory's Original Creole Jazz Band of musicians from New Orleans began playing in San Francisco and Los Angeles, where in 1922 they became the first black jazz band of New Orleans origin to make recordings.^[118]^[119]During the same year,Bessie Smithmade her first recordings.^[120]Chicago was developing "Hot Jazz",andKing OliverjoinedBill Johnson.Bix Beiderbecke formed The Wolverines in 1924.

Despite its Southern black origins, there was a larger market for jazzy dance music played by white orchestras. In 1918,Paul Whitemanand his orchestra became a hit in San Francisco. He signed a contract withVictorand became the top bandleader of the 1920s, giving hot jazz a white component, hiring white musicians such asBix Beiderbecke,Jimmy Dorsey,Tommy Dorsey,Frankie Trumbauer,andJoe Venuti.In 1924, Whiteman commissionedGeorge Gershwin'sRhapsody in Blue,which was premiered by his orchestra. Jazz began to be recognized as a notable musical form.Olin Downes,reviewing the concert inThe New York Times,wrote, "This composition shows extraordinary talent, as it shows a young composer with aims that go far beyond those of his ilk, struggling with a form of which he is far from being master.... In spite of all this, he has expressed himself in a significant and, on the whole, highly original form.... His first theme... is no mere dance-tune... it is an idea, or several ideas, correlated and combined in varying and contrasting rhythms that immediately intrigue the listener."^[121]

After Whiteman's band successfully toured Europe, huge hot jazz orchestras in theater pits caught on with other whites, includingFred Waring,Jean Goldkette,andNathaniel Shilkret.According to Mario Dunkel, Whiteman's success was based on a "rhetoric of domestication" according to which he had elevated and rendered valuable (read "white" ) a previously inchoate (read "black" ) kind of music.^[122]

Whiteman's success caused black artists to follow suit, includingEarl Hines(who opened in The Grand Terrace Cafe in Chicago in 1928), Washington, D.C.-nativeDuke Ellington(who opened at theCotton Clubin Harlem in 1927),Lionel Hampton,Fletcher Henderson,Claude Hopkins,andDon Redman,with Henderson and Redman developing the "talking to one another" formula for "hot" swing music.^[123]

In 1924, Louis Armstrong joined the Fletcher Henderson dance band for a year, as featured soloist. By 1924, one ofArmstrong's favorite "Sweet Jazz"Big bandswas also formed in Canada byGuy Lombardo.His Royal Canadians Orchestra specialized in performances of "the Sweetest music this side of Heaven" which transcended racial boundaries.^[124]^[125]The original New Orleans style was polyphonic, with theme variation and simultaneous collective improvisation. Armstrong was a master of his hometown style, but by the time he joined Henderson's band, he was already a trailblazer in a new phase of jazz, with its emphasis on arrangements and soloists. Armstrong's solos went well beyond the theme-improvisation concept and extemporized on chords, rather than melodies. According to Schuller, by comparison, the solos by Armstrong's bandmates (including a youngColeman Hawkins), sounded "stiff, stodgy", with "jerky rhythms and a grey undistinguished tone quality".^[126]The following example shows a short excerpt of the straight melody of "Mandy, Make Up Your Mind" byGeorge W. Meyerand Arthur Johnston (top), compared with Armstrong's solo improvisations (below) (recorded 1924).^[127]Armstrong's solos were a significant factor in making jazz a true 20th-century language. After leaving Henderson's group, Armstrong formed hisHot Fiveband, where he popularizedscat singing.^[128]

Swing in the 1920s and 1930s

The 1930s belonged to popularswingbig bands, in which some virtuoso soloists became as famous as the band leaders. Key figures in developing the "big" jazz band included bandleaders and arrangersCount Basie,Cab Calloway,JimmyandTommy Dorsey,Duke Ellington,Benny Goodman,Fletcher Henderson,Earl Hines,Harry James,Jimmie Lunceford,Glenn MillerandArtie Shaw.Although it was a collective sound, swing also offered individual musicians a chance to "solo" and improvise melodic, thematic solos which could at times be complex "important" music.

Over time, social strictures regarding racial segregation began to relax in America: white bandleaders began to recruit black musicians and black bandleaders white ones. In the mid-1930s, Benny Goodman hired pianistTeddy Wilson,vibraphonistLionel Hamptonand guitaristCharlie Christianto join small groups. In the 1930s, Kansas City Jazz as exemplified by tenor saxophonistLester Youngmarked the transition from big bands to the bebop influence of the 1940s. An early 1940s style known as "jumping the blues" orjump bluesused small combos, uptempo music and blues chord progressions, drawing onboogie-woogiefrom the 1930s.

The influence of Duke Ellington

While swing was reaching the height of its popularity,Duke Ellingtonspent the late 1920s and 1930s in Washington, D.C's jazz scene, developing an innovative musical idiom for his orchestra. Abandoning the conventions of swing, he experimented with orchestral sounds, harmony, andmusical formwith complex compositions that still translated well for popular audiences; some of his tunes becamehits,and his own popularity spanned from the United States to Europe.^[129]

Ellington called his musicAmerican Music,rather thanjazz,and liked to describe those who impressed him as "beyond category".^[130]These included many musicians from his orchestra, some of whom are considered among the best in jazz in their own right, but it was Ellington who melded them into one of the most popular jazz orchestras in the history of jazz. He often composed for the style and skills of these individuals, such as "Jeep's Blues" forJohnny Hodges,"Concerto for Cootie" forCootie Williams(which later became "Do Nothing Till You Hear from Me"withBob Russell's lyrics), and "The Mooche" forTricky Sam NantonandBubber Miley.He also recorded compositions written by his bandsmen, such asJuan Tizol's "Caravan"and"Perdido",which brought the" Spanish Tinge "to big-band jazz. Several members of the orchestra remained with him for several decades. The band reached a creative peak in the early 1940s, when Ellington and a small hand-picked group of his composers and arrangers wrote for an orchestra of distinctive voices who displayed tremendous creativity.^[131]

Beginnings of European jazz

As only a limited number of American jazz records were released in Europe, European jazz traces many of its roots to American artists such as James Reese Europe, Paul Whiteman, andLonnie Johnson,who visited Europe during and after World War I. It was their live performances which inspired European audiences' interest in jazz, as well as the interest in all things American (and therefore exotic) which accompanied the economic and political woes of Europe during this time.^[132]The beginnings of a distinct European style of jazz began to emerge in this interwar period.

British jazz began with atour by the Original Dixieland Jazz Band in 1919.In 1926,Fred Elizaldeand His Cambridge Undergraduates began broadcasting on the BBC. Thereafter jazz became an important element in many leading dance orchestras, and jazz instrumentalists became numerous.^[133]

This style entered full swing in France with theQuintette du Hot Club de France,which began in 1934. Much of this French jazz was a combination of African-American jazz and the symphonic styles in which French musicians were well-trained; in this, it is easy to see the inspiration taken from Paul Whiteman since his style was also a fusion of the two.^[134]Belgian guitaristDjango Reinhardtpopularizedgypsy jazz,a mix of 1930s American swing, French dance hall "musette",and Eastern European folk with a languid, seductive feel; the main instruments were steel stringed guitar, violin, and double bass. Solos pass from one player to another as guitar and bass form the rhythm section. Some researchers believeEddie LangandJoe Venutipioneered the guitar-violin partnership characteristic of the genre,^[135]which was brought to France after they had been heard live or onOkeh Recordsin the late 1920s.^[136]

Post-war jazz

The outbreak ofWorld War IImarked a turning point for jazz. The swing-era jazz of the previous decade had challenged other popular music as being representative of the nation's culture, with big bands reaching the height of the style's success by the early 1940s; swing acts and big bands traveled with U.S. military overseas to Europe, where it also became popular.^[137]Stateside, however, the war presented difficulties for the big-band format: conscription shortened the number of musicians available; the military's need forshellac(commonly used for pressinggramophone records) limited record production; a shortage of rubber (also due to the war effort) discouraged bands from touring via road travel; and a demand by the musicians' union for a commercial recording ban limited music distribution between 1942 and 1944.^[138]

Many of the big bands who were deprived of experienced musicians because of the war effort began to enlist young players who were below the age for conscription, as was the case with saxophonistStan Getz's entry in a band as a teenager.^[139]This coincided with a nationwide resurgence in the Dixieland style of pre-swing jazz; performers such as clarinetistGeorge Lewis,cornetistBill Davison,and trombonistTurk Murphywere hailed by conservative jazz critics as more authentic than the big bands.^[138]Elsewhere, with the limitations on recording, small groups of young musicians developed a more uptempo, improvisational style of jazz,^[137]collaborating and experimenting with new ideas for melodic development, rhythmic language, andharmonic substitution,during informal, late-night jam sessions hosted in small clubs and apartments. Key figures in this development were largely based in New York and included pianistsThelonious MonkandBud Powell,drummersMax RoachandKenny Clarke,saxophonistCharlie Parker,and trumpeterDizzy Gillespie.^[138]This musical development became known asbebop.^[137]

Bebop and subsequent post-war jazz developments featureda wider set of notes,played in more complexpatternsand at faster tempos than previous jazz.^[139]According toClive James,bebop was "the post-war musical development which tried to ensure that jazz would no longer be the spontaneous sound of joy... Students of race relations in America are generally agreed that the exponents of post-war jazz were determined, with good reason, to present themselves as challenging artists rather than tame entertainers."^[140]The end of the war marked "a revival of the spirit of experimentation and musical pluralism under which it had been conceived", along with "the beginning of a decline in the popularity of jazz music in America", according to American academic Michael H. Burchett.^[137]

With the rise of bebop and the end of the swing era after the war, jazz lost its cachet aspop music.Vocalists of the famous big bands moved on to being marketed and performing as solo pop singers; these includedFrank Sinatra,Peggy Lee,Dick Haymes,andDoris Day.^[139]Older musicians who still performed their pre-war jazz, such as Armstrong and Ellington, were gradually viewed in the mainstream as passé. Other younger performers, such as singerBig Joe Turnerand saxophonistLouis Jordan,who were discouraged by bebop's increasing complexity, pursued more lucrative endeavors in rhythm and blues,jump blues,and eventuallyrock and roll.^[137]Some, including Gillespie, composed intricate yet danceable pieces for bebop musicians in an effort to make them more accessible, but bebop largely remained on the fringes of American audiences' purview. "The new direction of postwar jazz drew a wealth of critical acclaim, but it steadily declined in popularity as it developed a reputation as an academic genre that was largely inaccessible to mainstream audiences", Burchett said. "The quest to make jazz more relevant to popular audiences, while retaining its artistic integrity, is a constant and prevalent theme in the history of postwar jazz."^[137]During its swing period, jazz had been an uncomplicated musical scene; according toPaul Trynka,this changed in the post-war years:

Suddenly jazz was no longer straightforward. There was bebop and its variants, there was the last gasp of swing, there were strange new brews like theprogressive jazzofStan Kenton,and there was a completely new phenomenon called revivalism – the rediscovery of jazz from the past, either on old records or performed live by aging players brought out of retirement. From now on it was no good saying that you liked jazz, you had to specify what kind of jazz. And that is the way it has been ever since, only more so. Today, the word 'jazz' is virtually meaningless without further definition.^[139]

Bebop

In the early 1940s, bebop-style performers began to shift jazz from danceable popular music toward a more challenging "musician's music". The most influential bebop musicians included saxophonist Charlie Parker, pianistsBud PowellandThelonious Monk,trumpeters Dizzy Gillespie andClifford Brown,and drummerMax Roach.Divorcing itself from dance music, bebop established itself more as an art form, thus lessening its potential popular and commercial appeal.

ComposerGunther Schullerwrote: "In 1943 I heard the great Earl Hines band which had Bird in it and all those other great musicians. They were playing all the flatted fifth chords and all the modern harmonies and substitutions and Dizzy Gillespie runs in the trumpet section work. Two years later I read that that was 'bop' and the beginning of modern jazz... but the band never made recordings."^[141]

Dizzy Gillespie wrote: "People talk about the Hines band being 'the incubator of bop' and the leading exponents of that music ended up in the Hines band. But people also have the erroneous impression that the music was new. It was not. The music evolved from what went before. It was the same basic music. The difference was in how you got from here to here to here...naturally each age has got its own shit."^[142]

Since bebop was meant to be listened to, not danced to, it could use faster tempos. Drumming shifted to a more elusive and explosive style, in which theride cymbalwas used to keep time while the snare and bass drum were used for accents. This led to a highly syncopated music with a linear rhythmic complexity.^[143]

Bebop musicians employed several harmonic devices which were not previously typical in jazz, engaging in a more abstracted form of chord-based improvisation. Bebop scales are traditional scales with an added chromatic passing note;^[144]bebop also uses "passing" chords,substitute chords,andaltered chords.New forms ofchromaticismanddissonancewere introduced into jazz, and the dissonanttritone(or "flatted fifth" ) interval became the "most important interval of bebop"^[145]Chord progressions for bebop tunes were often taken directly from popular swing-era tunes and reused with a new and more complex melody or reharmonized with more complex chord progressions to form new compositions, a practice which was already well-established in earlier jazz, but came to be central to the bebop style. Bebop made use of several relatively common chord progressions, such as blues (at base, I–IV–V, but often infused with ii–V motion) and "rhythm changes"(I-vi-ii-V) – the chords to the 1930s pop standard"I Got Rhythm".Late bop also moved towards extended forms that represented a departure from pop and show tunes.

The harmonic development in bebop is often traced back to a moment experienced by Charlie Parker while performing "Cherokee" atClark Monroe's Uptown House,New York, in early 1942. "I'd been getting bored with the stereotyped changes that were being used...and I kept thinking there's bound to be something else. I could hear it sometimes. I couldn't play it...I was working over 'Cherokee,' and, as I did, I found that by using the higher intervals of a chord as a melody line and backing them with appropriately related changes, I could play the thing I'd been hearing. It came alive."^[146]Gerhard Kubikpostulates that harmonic development in bebop sprang from blues andAfrican-related tonal sensibilitiesrather than 20th-century Western classical music. "Auditory inclinations were the African legacy in [Parker's] life, reconfirmed by the experience of the blues tonal system, a sound world at odds with the Western diatonic chord categories. Bebop musicians eliminated Western-style functional harmony in their music while retaining the strong central tonality of the blues as a basis for drawing upon various African matrices."^[146]

Samuel Floyd states that blues was both the bedrock and propelling force of bebop, bringing about a new harmonic conception using extended chord structures that led to unprecedented harmonic and melodic variety, a developed and even more highly syncopated, linear rhythmic complexity and a melodic angularity in which the blue note of the fifth degree was established as an important melodic-harmonic device; and reestablishment of the blues as the primary organizing and functional principle.^[143]Kubik wrote:

While for an outside observer, the harmonic innovations in bebop would appear to be inspired by experiences in Western "serious" music, fromClaude DebussytoArnold Schoenberg,such a scheme cannot be sustained by the evidence from a cognitive approach. Claude Debussy did have some influence on jazz, for example, on Bix Beiderbecke's piano playing. And it is also true that Duke Ellington adopted and reinterpreted some harmonic devices in European contemporary music. West Coast jazz would run into such debts as would several forms of cool jazz, but bebop has hardly any such debts in the sense of direct borrowings. On the contrary, ideologically, bebop was a strong statement of rejection of any kind of eclecticism, propelled by a desire to activate something deeply buried in self. Bebop then revived tonal-harmonic ideas transmitted through the blues and reconstructed and expanded others in a basically non-Western harmonic approach. The ultimate significance of all this is that the experiments in jazz during the 1940s brought back toAfrican-American musicseveral structural principles and techniques rooted in African traditions.^[147]

These divergences from the jazz mainstream of the time met a divided, sometimes hostile response among fans and musicians, especially swing players who bristled at the new harmonic sounds. To hostile critics, bebop seemed filled with "racing, nervous phrases".^[148]But despite the friction, by the 1950s bebop had become an accepted part of the jazz vocabulary.

Afro-Cuban jazz (cu-bop)

Machito and Mario Bauza

The general consensus among musicians and musicologists is that the first original jazz piece to be overtly based in clave was "Tanga" (1943), composed by Cuban-bornMario Bauzaand recorded byMachitoand his Afro-Cubans in New York City. "Tanga" began as a spontaneousdescarga(Cuban jam session), with jazz solos superimposed on top.^[149]

This was the birth ofAfro-Cuban jazz.The use of clave brought the Africantimeline,orkey pattern,into jazz. Music organized around key patterns convey a two-celled (binary) structure, which is a complex level of Africancross-rhythm.^[150]Within the context of jazz, however, harmony is the primary referent, not rhythm. The harmonic progression can begin on either side of clave, and the harmonic "one" is always understood to be "one". If the progression begins on the "three-side" of clave, it is said to be in3–2 clave(shown below). If the progression begins on the "two-side", it is in2–3 clave.^[151]

$\new RhythmicStaff { \clef percussion \time 4/4 \repeat volta 2 { c8. c16 r8[ c] r[ c] c4 } }$

Dizzy Gillespie and Chano Pozo

Mario Bauzáintroduced bebop innovator Dizzy Gillespie to Cuban conga drummer and composerChano Pozo.Gillespie and Pozo's brief collaboration produced some of the most enduring Afro-Cuban jazz standards. "Manteca"(1947) is the first jazz standard to be rhythmically based on clave. According to Gillespie, Pozo composed the layered, contrapuntalguajeos(Afro-Cubanostinatos) of the A section and the introduction, while Gillespie wrote the bridge. Gillespie recounted: "If I'd let it go like [Chano] wanted it, it would have been strictly Afro-Cuban all the way. There wouldn't have been a bridge. I thought I was writing an eight-bar bridge, but... I had to keep going and ended up writing a sixteen-bar bridge."^[152]The bridge gave "Manteca" a typical jazz harmonic structure, setting the piece apart from Bauza's modal "Tanga" of a few years earlier.

Gillespie's collaboration with Pozo brought specific African-based rhythms into bebop. While pushing the boundaries of harmonic improvisation,cu-bopalso drew from African rhythm. Jazz arrangements with a Latin A section and a swung B section, with all choruses swung during solos, became common practice with many Latin tunes of the jazz standard repertoire. This approach can be heard on pre-1980 recordings of "Manteca", "A Night in Tunisia","Tin Tin Deo ", and"On Green Dolphin Street".

"Un Poco Loco"

Another jazz composition critical to the development of Afro-Cuban jazz was Bud Powell's "Un Poco Loco,"recorded withCurley Russellon bass and Max Roach on drums. Noted for its "frenetic energy" and "clanging cowbell and polyrhythmic accompaniment,"^[153]the composition combined Afro-Cuban rhythm with polytonality and preceded further use of modality and avant-garde harmony in Latin jazz.^[154]

African cross-rhythm

Cuban percussionistMongo Santamariafirst recorded his composition "Afro Blue"in 1959.^[155] "Afro Blue" was the first jazz standard built upon a typical African three-against-two (3:2)cross-rhythm,orhemiola.^[156]The piece begins with the bass repeatedly playing 6 cross-beats per each measure of¹²
₈,or 6 cross-beats per 4 main beats—6:4 (two cells of 3:2).

The following example shows the originalostinato"Afro Blue" bass line. The cross noteheads indicate the mainbeats(not bass notes).

$\new Staff << \new voice \relative c { \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"acoustic bass" \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 105 \time 12/8 \clef bass \stemUp \repeat volta 2 { d4 a'8~ a d4 d,4 a'8~ a d4 } } \new voice \relative c { \override NoteHead.style = #'cross \stemDown \repeat volta 2 { g4. g g g } } >>$

WhenJohn Coltranecovered "Afro Blue" in 1963, he inverted the metric hierarchy, interpreting the tune as a³
₄jazz waltz with duple cross-beats superimposed (2:3). Originally a B♭pentatonicblues, Coltrane expanded the harmonic structure of "Afro Blue".

Perhaps the most respectedAfro-cuban jazzcombo of the late 1950s was vibraphonistCal Tjader's band. Tjader hadMongo Santamaria,Armando Peraza,andWillie Boboon his early recording dates.

Dixieland revival

In the late 1940s, there was a revival ofDixieland,harking back to the contrapuntal New Orleans style. This was driven in large part by record company reissues of jazz classics by the Oliver, Morton, and Armstrong bands of the 1930s. There were two types of musicians involved in the revival: the first group was made up of those who had begun their careers playing in the traditional style and were returning to it (or continuing what they had been playing all along), such asBob Crosby's Bobcats,Max Kaminsky,Eddie Condon,andWild Bill Davison.^[157]Most of these players were originally Midwesterners, although there were a small number of New Orleans musicians involved. The second group of revivalists consisted of younger musicians, such as those in theLu Wattersband,Conrad Janis,andWard Kimballand hisFirehouse Five Plus TwoJazz Band. By the late 1940s, Louis Armstrong's Allstars band became a leading ensemble. Through the 1950s and 1960s, Dixieland was one of the most commercially popular jazz styles in the US, Europe, and Japan, although critics paid little attention to it.^[157]

Hard bop

Hard bop is an extension of bebop (or "bop" ) music that incorporates influences from blues, rhythm and blues, and gospel, especially in saxophone and piano playing. Hard bop was developed in the mid-1950s, coalescing in 1953 and 1954; it developed partly in response to the vogue for cool jazz in the early 1950s and paralleled the rise of rhythm and blues. It has been described as "funky" and can be considered a relative ofsoul jazz.^[158]Some elements of the genre were simplified from their bebop roots.^[159]

Miles Davis' 1954 performance of "Walkin'" at the firstNewport Jazz Festivalintroduced the style to the jazz world.^[160]Further leaders of hard bop's development included theClifford Brown/Max Roach Quintet, Art Blakey'sJazz Messengers,the Horace Silver Quintet, and trumpetersLee MorganandFreddie Hubbard.The late 1950s to early 1960s saw hard boppers form their own bands as a new generation of blues- and bebop-influenced musicians entered the jazz world, from pianistsWynton KellyandTommy Flanagan^[161]to saxophonistsJoe HendersonandHank Mobley.Coltrane,Johnny Griffin,Mobley, and Morgan all participated on the albumA Blowin' Session(1957), considered by Al Campbell to have been one of the high points of the hard bop era.^[162]

Hard bop was prevalent within jazz for about a decade spanning from 1955 to 1965,^[161]but has remained highly influential on mainstream^[159]or "straight-ahead" jazz. It went into decline in the late 1960s through the 1970s due to the emergence of other styles such as jazz fusion, but again became influential following the Young Lions Movement and the emergence ofneo-bop.^[159]

Modal jazz

Modal jazz is a development which began in the later 1950s which takes themode,or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation. Previously, a solo was meant to fit into a givenchord progression,but with modal jazz, the soloist creates a melody using one (or a small number of) modes. The emphasis is thus shifted from harmony to melody:^[163]"Historically, this caused a seismic shift among jazz musicians, away from thinking vertically (the chord), and towards a more horizontal approach (the scale)",^[164]explained pianistMark Levine.

The modal theory stems from a work byGeorge Russell.Miles Davis introduced the concept to the greater jazz world withKind of Blue(1959), an exploration of the possibilities of modal jazz which would become the best selling jazz album of all time. In contrast to Davis' earlier work with hard bop and its complex chord progression and improvisation,Kind of Bluewas composed as a series of modal sketches in which the musicians were given scales that defined the parameters of their improvisation and style.^[165]

"I didn't write out the music forKind of Blue,but brought in sketches for what everybody was supposed to play because I wanted a lot of spontaneity, "^[166]recalled Davis. The track "So What" has only two chords:D-7and E♭-7.^[167]

Other innovators in this style includeJackie McLean,^[168]and two of the musicians who had also played onKind of Blue:John Coltrane and Bill Evans.

Free jazz

Free jazz, and the related form ofavant-garde jazz,broke through into an open space of "free tonality" in which meter, beat, and formal symmetry all disappeared, and a range ofworld musicfrom India, Africa, and Arabia were melded into an intense, even religiously ecstatic or orgiastic style of playing.^[169]While loosely inspired by bebop, free jazz tunes gave players much more latitude; the loose harmony and tempo was deemed controversial when this approach was first developed. The bassistCharles Mingusis also frequently associated with the avant-garde in jazz, although his compositions draw from myriad styles and genres.

The first major stirrings came in the 1950s with the early work ofOrnette Coleman(whose 1960 albumFree Jazz: A Collective Improvisationcoined the term) andCecil Taylor.In the 1960s, exponents includedAlbert Ayler,Gato Barbieri,Carla Bley,Don Cherry,Larry Coryell,John Coltrane,Bill Dixon,Jimmy Giuffre,Steve Lacy,Michael Mantler,Sun Ra,Roswell Rudd,Pharoah Sanders,andJohn Tchicai.In developing his late style, Coltrane was especially influenced by the dissonance of Ayler's trio with bassistGary Peacockand drummerSunny Murray,a rhythm section honed withCecil Tayloras leader. In November 1961, Coltrane played a gig at the Village Vanguard, which resulted in the classicChasin' the 'Trane,whichDownBeatmagazine panned as "anti-jazz". On his 1961 tour of France, he was booed, but persevered, signing with the newImpulse! Recordsin 1960 and turning it into "the house that Trane built", while championing many younger free jazz musicians, notablyArchie Shepp,who often played with trumpeterBill Dixon,who organized the 4-day "October Revolution in Jazz"in Manhattan in 1964, the first free jazz festival.

A series of recordings with the Classic Quartet in the first half of 1965 show Coltrane's playing becoming increasingly abstract, with greater incorporation of devices likemultiphonics,utilization of overtones, and playing in thealtissimoregister, as well as a mutated return to Coltrane'ssheets of sound.In the studio, he all but abandoned his soprano to concentrate on the tenor saxophone. In addition, the quartet responded to the leader by playing with increasing freedom. The group's evolution can be traced through the recordingsThe John Coltrane Quartet Plays,Living SpaceandTransition(both June 1965),New Thing at Newport(July 1965),Sun Ship(August 1965), andFirst Meditations(September 1965).

In June 1965, Coltrane and 10 other musicians recordedAscension,a 40-minute-long piece without breaks that included adventurous solos by young avant-garde musicians as well as Coltrane, and was controversial primarily for the collective improvisation sections that separated the solos.Dave Liebmanlater called it "the torch that lit the free jazz thing". After recording with the quartet over the next few months, Coltrane invited Pharoah Sanders to join the band in September 1965. While Coltrane used over-blowing frequently as an emotional exclamation-point, Sanders would opt to overblow his entire solo, resulting in a constant screaming and screeching in the altissimo range of the instrument.

Free jazz in Europe

Peter Brötzmannis a key figure in European free jazz.

Free jazz was played in Europe in part because musicians such as Ayler, Taylor,Steve Lacy,andEric Dolphyspent extended periods of time there, and European musicians such asMichael MantlerandJohn Tchicaitraveled to the U.S. to experience American music firsthand. European contemporary jazz was shaped byPeter Brötzmann,John Surman,Krzysztof Komeda,Zbigniew Namysłowski,Tomasz Stanko,Lars Gullin,Joe Harriott,Albert Mangelsdorff,Kenny Wheeler,Graham Collier,Michael GarrickandMike Westbrook.They were eager to develop approaches to music that reflected their heritage.

Since the 1960s, creative centers of jazz in Europe have developed, such as the creative jazz scene in Amsterdam. Following the work of drummerHan Benninkand pianistMisha Mengelberg,musicians started to explore by improvising collectively until a form (melody, rhythm, a famous song) is found Jazz criticKevin Whiteheaddocumented the free jazz scene in Amsterdam and some of its main exponents such as the ICP (Instant Composers Pool) orchestra in his bookNew Dutch Swing.Since the 1990s Keith Jarrett has defended free jazz from criticism. British writerStuart Nicholsonhas argued European contemporary jazz has an identity different from American jazz and follows a different trajectory.^[170]

Latin jazz

Latin jazz is jazz that employs Latin American rhythms and is generally understood to have a more specific meaning than simply jazz from Latin America. A more precise term might beAfro-Latin jazz,as the jazz subgenre typically employs rhythms that either have a direct analog in Africa or exhibit an African rhythmic influence beyond what is ordinarily heard in other jazz. The two main categories of Latin jazz areAfro-Cuban jazzand Brazilian jazz.

In the 1960s and 1970s, many jazz musicians had only a basic understanding of Cuban and Brazilian music, and jazz compositions which used Cuban or Brazilian elements were often referred to as "Latin tunes", with no distinction between a Cubanson montunoand a Brazilianbossa nova.Even as late as 2000, in Mark Gridley'sJazz Styles: History and Analysis,a bossa nova bass line is referred to as a "Latin bass figure".^[171]It was not uncommon during the 1960s and 1970s to hear a conga playing a Cubantumbaowhile the drumset and bass played a Brazilian bossa nova pattern. Many jazz standards such as "Manteca", "On Green Dolphin Street" and "Song for My Father" have a "Latin" A section and a swung B section. Typically, the band would only play an even-eighth "Latin" feel in the A section of the head and swing throughout all of the solos. Latin jazz specialists likeCal Tjadertended to be the exception. For example, on a 1959 live Tjader recording of "A Night in Tunisia", pianistVince Guaraldisoloed through the entire form over an authenticmambo.^[172]

Afro-Cuban jazz renaissance

For most of its history, Afro-Cuban jazz had been a matter of superimposing jazz phrasing over Cuban rhythms. But by the end of the 1970s, a new generation of New York City musicians had emerged who were fluent in bothsalsadance music and jazz, leading to a new level of integration of jazz and Cuban rhythms. This era of creativity and vitality is best represented by the Gonzalez brothers Jerry (congas and trumpet) and Andy (bass).^[173]During 1974–1976, they were members of one ofEddie Palmieri's most experimental salsa groups: salsa was the medium, but Palmieri was stretching the form in new ways. He incorporated parallel fourths, with McCoy Tyner-type vamps. The innovations of Palmieri, the Gonzalez brothers and others led to an Afro-Cuban jazz renaissance in New York City.

This occurred in parallel with developments in Cuba^[174]The first Cuban band of this new wave wasIrakere.Their "Chékere-son" (1976) introduced a style of "Cubanized" bebop-flavored horn lines that departed from the more angular guajeo-based lines which were typical of Cuban popular music and Latin jazz up until that time. It was based on Charlie Parker's composition "Billie's Bounce", jumbled together in a way that fused clave and bebop horn lines.^[175]In spite of the ambivalence of some band members towards Irakere's Afro-Cuban folkloric / jazz fusion, their experiments forever changed Cuban jazz: their innovations are still heard in the high level of harmonic and rhythmic complexity in Cuban jazz and in the jazzy and complex contemporary form of popular dance music known astimba.

Afro-Brazilian jazz

Brazilian jazz, such asbossa nova,is derived fromsamba,with influences from jazz and other 20th-century classical and popular music styles. Bossa is generally moderately paced, with melodies sung in Portuguese or English, whilst the related jazz-samba is an adaptation of street samba into jazz.

The bossa nova style was pioneered by BraziliansJoão GilbertoandAntônio Carlos Jobimand was made popular byElizete Cardoso's recording of "Chega de Saudade"on theCanção do Amor DemaisLP. Gilberto's initial releases, and the 1959 filmBlack Orpheus,achieved significant popularity inLatin America;this spread to North America via visiting American jazz musicians. The resulting recordings byCharlie Byrdand Stan Getz cemented bossa nova's popularity and led to a worldwide boom, with 1963'sGetz/Gilberto,numerous recordings by famous jazz performers such asElla FitzgeraldandFrank Sinatra,and the eventual entrenchment of the bossa nova style as a lasting influence in world music.

Brazilian percussionists such asAirto MoreiraandNaná Vasconcelosalso influenced jazz internationally by introducing Afro-Brazilian folkloric instruments and rhythms into a wide variety of jazz styles, thus attracting a greater audience to them.^[176]^[177]^[178]

While bossa nova has been labeled as jazz by music critics, namely those from outside of Brazil, it has been rejected by many prominent bossa nova musicians such as Jobim, who once said "Bossa nova is not Brazilian jazz."^[179]^[180]

African-inspired

Rhythm

The firstjazz standardcomposed by a non-Latino to use an overt African¹²
₈cross-rhythm wasWayne Shorter's "Footprints"(1967).^[181]On the version recorded onMiles SmilesbyMiles Davis,the bass switches to a⁴
₄tresillofigure at 2:20. "Footprints" is not, however, aLatin jazztune: African rhythmic structures are accessed directly byRon Carter(bass) andTony Williams(drums) via the rhythmic sensibilities ofswing.Throughout the piece, the four beats, whether sounded or not, are maintained as the temporal referent. The following example shows the¹²
₈and⁴
₄forms of the bass line. The slashed noteheads indicate the mainbeats(not bass notes), where one ordinarily taps their foot to "keep time".

${ \relative c, << \new Staff << \new voice { \clef bass \time 12/8 \key c \minor \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 100 \stemDown \override NoteHead.style = #'cross \repeat volta 2 { es4. es es es } } \new voice { \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 100 \time 12/8 \stemUp \repeat volta 2 { c'4 g'8~ g c4 es4.~ es4 g,8 } \bar ":|." } >> \new Staff << \new voice { \clef bass \time 12/8 \key c \minor \set Staff.timeSignatureFraction = 4/4 \scaleDurations 3/2 { \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 8 = 100 \stemDown \override NoteHead.style = #'cross \repeat volta 2 { es,4 es es es } } } \new voice \relative c' { \time 12/8 \set Staff.timeSignatureFraction = 4/4 \scaleDurations 3/2 { \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 100 \stemUp \repeat volta 2 { c,8. g'16~ g8 c es4~ es8. g,16 } \bar ":|." } } >> >> }$

Pentatonic scales

The use ofpentatonic scaleswas another trend associated with Africa. The use of pentatonic scales in Africa probably goes back thousands of years.^[182]

McCoy Tynerperfected the use of the pentatonic scale in his solos,^[183]and also used parallel fifths and fourths, which are common harmonies in West Africa.^[184]

The minor pentatonic scale is often used in blues improvisation, and like a blues scale, a minor pentatonic scale can be played over all of the chords in a blues. The following pentatonic lick was played over blues changes byJoe HendersononHorace Silver's "African Queen" (1965).^[185]

Jazz pianist, theorist, and educatorMark Levinerefers to the scale generated by beginning on the fifth step of a pentatonic scale as theV pentatonic scale.^[186]

Levine points out that the V pentatonic scale works for all three chords of the standard II–V–I jazz progression.^[187]This is a very common progression, used in pieces such as Miles Davis' "Tune Up". The following example shows the V pentatonic scale over a II–V–I progression.^[188]

Accordingly, John Coltrane's "Giant Steps"(1960), with its 26 chords per 16 bars, can be played using only three pentatonic scales. Coltrane studiedNicolas Slonimsky'sThesaurus of Scales and Melodic Patterns,which contains material that is virtually identical to portions of "Giant Steps".^[189]The harmonic complexity of "Giant Steps" is on the level of the most advanced 20th-century art music. Superimposing the pentatonic scale over "Giant Steps" is not merely a matter of harmonic simplification, but also a sort of "Africanizing" of the piece, which provides an alternate approach for soloing. Mark Levine observes that when mixed in with more conventional "playing the changes", pentatonic scales provide "structure and a feeling of increased space".^[190]

Sacred and liturgical jazz

As noted above, jazz has incorporated from its inception aspects of African-American sacred music including spirituals and hymns. Secular jazz musicians often performed renditions of spirituals and hymns as part of their repertoire or isolated compositions such as "Come Sunday", part of "Black and Beige Suite" byDuke Ellington.Later many other jazz artists borrowed from blackgospel music.However, it was only after World War II that a few jazz musicians began to compose and perform extended works intended for religious settings or as religious expression. Since the 1950s, sacred and liturgical music has been performed and recorded by many prominent jazz composers and musicians.^[191]The "Abyssinian Mass" byWynton Marsalis(Blueengine Records, 2016) is a recent example.

Relatively little has been written about sacred and liturgical jazz. In a 2013 doctoral dissertation, Angelo Versace examined the development of sacred jazz in the 1950s using disciplines of musicology and history. He noted that the traditions of black gospel music and jazz were combined in the 1950s to produce a new genre, "sacred jazz".^[192]Versace maintained that the religious intent separates sacred from secular jazz. Most prominent in initiating the sacred jazz movement were pianist and composerMary Lou Williams,known for her jazz masses in the 1950s andDuke Ellington.Prior to his death in 1974 in response to contacts from Grace Cathedral in San Francisco,Duke Ellingtonwrote three Sacred Concerts: 1965 – A Concert of Sacred Music; 1968 – Second Sacred Concert; 1973 – Third Sacred Concert.

The most prominent form of sacred and liturgical jazz is the jazz mass. Although most often performed in a concert setting rather than church worship setting, this form has many examples. An eminent example of composers of the jazz mass wasMary Lou Williams.Williams converted to Catholicism in 1957, and proceeded to compose three masses in the jazz idiom.^[193]One was composed in 1968 to honor therecently assassinated Martin Luther King Jr.and the third was commissioned by a pontifical commission. It was performed once in 1975 in St Patrick's Cathedral in New York City. However theCatholic Churchhas not embraced jazz as appropriate for worship. In 1966 Joe Masters recorded "Jazz Mass" for Columbia Records. A jazz ensemble was joined by soloists and choir using the English text of the Roman Catholic Mass.^[194]Other examples include "Jazz Mass in Concert" byLalo Schiffrin(Aleph Records, 1998, UPC 0651702632725) and "Jazz Mass" byVince Guaraldi(Fantasy Records, 1965). In England, classical composerWill Toddrecorded his "Jazz Missa Brevis" with a jazz ensemble, soloists and the St Martin's Voices on a 2018 Signum Records release, "Passion Music/Jazz Missa Brevis" also released as "Mass in Blue", and jazz organist James Taylor composed "The Rochester Mass" (Cherry Red Records, 2015).^[195]In 2013, Versace put forth bassistIke Sturmand New York composer Deanna Witkowski as contemporary exemplars of sacred and liturgical jazz.^[192]

Jazz fusion

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the hybrid form of jazz-rockfusionwas developed by combining jazz improvisation with rock rhythms, electric instruments and the highly amplified stage sound of rock musicians such asJimi HendrixandFrank Zappa.Jazz fusion often uses mixed meters, odd time signatures, syncopation, complex chords, and harmonies.

According toAllMusic:

... until around 1967, the worlds of jazz and rock were nearly completely separate. [However,...] as rock became more creative and its musicianship improved, and as some in the jazz world became bored withhard bopand did not want to play strictlyavant-garde music,the two different idioms began to trade ideas and occasionally combine forces.^[196]

Miles Davis' new directions

In 1969, Davis fully embraced the electric instrument approach to jazz withIn a Silent Way,which can be considered his first fusion album. Composed of two side-long suites edited heavily by producerTeo Macero,this quiet, static album would be equally influential to the development ofambient music.

As Davis recalls:

The music I was really listening to in 1968 wasJames Brown,the great guitar playerJimi Hendrix,and a new group who had just come out with a hit record, "Dance to the Music",Sly and the Family Stone... I wanted to make it more like rock. When we recordedIn a Silent WayI just threw out all the chord sheets and told everyone to play off of that.^[197]

Two contributors toIn a Silent Wayalso joined organistLarry Youngto create one of the early acclaimed fusion albums:Emergency!(1969) byThe Tony Williams Lifetime.

Psychedelic-jazz

Weather Report

Weather Report's self-titled electronic and psychedelicWeather Reportdebut album caused a sensation in the jazz world on its arrival in 1971, thanks to the pedigree of the group's members (including percussionistAirto Moreira), and their unorthodox approach to music. The album featured a softer sound than would be the case in later years (predominantly using acoustic bass with Shorter exclusively playingsoprano saxophone,and with nosynthesizersinvolved), but is still considered a classic of early fusion. It built on the avant-garde experiments whichJoe Zawinuland Shorter had pioneered with Miles Davis onBitches Brew,including an avoidance of head-and-chorus composition in favor of continuous rhythm and movement – but took the music further. To emphasize the group's rejection of standard methodology, the album opened with the inscrutable avant-garde atmospheric piece "Milky Way", which featured by Shorter's extremely muted saxophone inducing vibrations in Zawinul's piano strings while the latter pedaled the instrument.DownBeatdescribed the album as "music beyond category", and awarded it Album of the Year in the magazine's polls that year.

Weather Report's subsequent releases were creative funk-jazz works.^[198]

Jazz-rock

Although some jazz purists protested against the blend of jazz and rock, many jazz innovators crossed over from the contemporary hard bop scene into fusion. As well as the electric instruments of rock (such as electric guitar, electric bass, electric piano and synthesizer keyboards), fusion also used the powerful amplification,"fuzz" pedals,wah-wah pedalsand other effects that were used by 1970s-era rock bands. Notable performers of jazz fusion included Miles Davis,Eddie Harris,keyboardistsJoe Zawinul,Chick Corea,and Herbie Hancock, vibraphonistGary Burton,drummerTony Williams,violinistJean-Luc Ponty,guitaristsLarry Coryell,Al Di Meola,John McLaughlin,Ryo Kawasaki,andFrank Zappa,saxophonist Wayne Shorter and bassistsJaco PastoriusandStanley Clarke.Jazz fusion was also popular in Japan, where the bandCasiopeareleased more than thirty fusion albums.

According to jazz writer Stuart Nicholson, "just as free jazz appeared on the verge of creating a whole new musical language in the 1960s... jazz-rock briefly suggested the promise of doing the same" with albums such as Williams'Emergency!(1970) and Davis'Agharta(1975), which Nicholson said "suggested the potential of evolving into something that might eventually define itself as a wholly independent genre quite apart from the sound and conventions of anything that had gone before." This development was stifled by commercialism, Nicholson said, as the genre "mutated into a peculiar species of jazz-inflected pop music that eventually took up residence on FM radio" at the end of the 1970s.^[199]

Electronic music

Although jazz-rock fusion reached the height of its popularity in the 1970s, the use of electronic instruments and rock-derived musical elements in jazz continued in the 1990s and 2000s. Musicians using this approach includePat Metheny,John Abercrombie,John Scofieldand the Swedish groupe.s.t.Since the beginning of the 1990s, electronic music had significant technical improvements that popularized and created new possibilities for the genre. Jazz elements such as improvisation, rhythmic complexities and harmonic textures were introduced to the genre and consequently had a big impact in new listeners and in some ways kept the versatility of jazz relatable to a newer generation that did not necessarily relate to what the traditionalists call real jazz (bebop, cool and modal jazz).^[200]Artists such asSquarepusher,Aphex Twin,Flying Lotusand sub genres likeIDM,drum 'n' bass,jungleandtechnoended up incorporating a lot of these elements.^[201]Squarepusher being cited as one big influence for jazz performers drummerMark Guilianaand pianistBrad Mehldau,showing the correlations between jazz and electronic music are a two-way street.^[202]

Jazz-funk

By the mid-1970s, the sound known as jazz-funk had developed, characterized by a strongback beat(groove), electrified sounds^[203]and, often, the presence of electronicanalog synthesizers.Jazz-funk also draws influences from traditional African music, Afro-Cuban rhythms and Jamaicanreggae,notably Kingston bandleaderSonny Bradshaw.Another feature is the shift of emphasis from improvisation to composition: arrangements, melody and overall writing became important. The integration offunk,soul,andR&Bmusic into jazz resulted in the creation of a genre whose spectrum is wide and ranges from strongjazz improvisationto soul, funk or disco with jazz arrangements, jazzriffsand jazz solos, and sometimes soul vocals.^[204]

Early examples are Herbie Hancock'sHeadhuntersband and Miles Davis'On the Corneralbum, which, in 1972, began Davis' foray into jazz-funk and was, he claimed, an attempt at reconnecting with the young black audience which had largely forsaken jazz forrockand funk. While there is a discernible rock and funk influence in thetimbresof the instruments employed, other tonal and rhythmic textures, such as the Indian tambora and tablas and Cuban congas and bongos, create a multi-layered soundscape. The album was a culmination of sorts of themusique concrèteapproach that Davis and producerTeo Macerohad begun to explore in the late 1960s.

Straight-ahead jazz

The 1980s saw something of a reaction against the fusion and free jazz that had dominated the 1970s. TrumpeterWynton Marsalisemerged early in the decade, and strove to create music within what he believed was the tradition, rejecting both fusion and free jazz and creating extensions of the small and large forms initially pioneered by artists such asLouis ArmstrongandDuke Ellington,as well as the hard bop of the 1950s. It is debatable whether Marsalis' critical and commercial success was a cause or a symptom of the reaction against Fusion and Free Jazz and the resurgence of interest in the kind of jazz pioneered in the 1960s (particularlymodal jazzandpost-bop); nonetheless there were many other manifestations of a resurgence of traditionalism, even if fusion and free jazz were by no means abandoned and continued to develop and evolve.

For example, several musicians who had been prominent in thefusiongenre during the 1970s began to record acoustic jazz once more, includingChick CoreaandHerbie Hancock.Other musicians who had experimented with electronic instruments in the previous decade had abandoned them by the 1980s; for example,Bill Evans,Joe Henderson,andStan Getz.Even the 1980s music ofMiles Davis,although certainly still fusion, adopted a far more accessible and recognizably jazz-oriented approach than his abstract work of the mid-1970s, such as a return to a theme-and-solos approach.

A similar reaction^[vague]took place against free jazz. According toTed Gioia:

the very leaders of the avant garde started to signal a retreat from the core principles of free jazz. Anthony Braxton began recording standards over familiar chord changes.Cecil Taylorplayed duets in concert withMary Lou Williams,and let her set out structured harmonies and familiar jazz vocabulary under his blistering keyboard attack. And the next generation of progressive players would be even more accommodating, moving inside and outside the changes without thinking twice. Musicians such as David Murray orDon Pullenmay have felt the call of free-form jazz, but they never forgot all the other ways one could play African-American music for fun and profit.^[205]

PianistKeith Jarrett—whose bands of the 1970s had played only original compositions with prominent free jazz elements—established his so-called 'Standards Trio' in 1983, which, although also occasionally exploring collective improvisation, has primarily performed and recorded jazz standards. Chick Corea similarly began exploring jazz standards in the 1980s, having neglected them for the 1970s.

In 1987, the United States House of Representatives and Senate passed a bill proposed by Democratic RepresentativeJohn Conyers Jr.to define jazz as a unique form of American music, stating "jazz is hereby designated as a rare and valuable national American treasure to which we should devote our attention, support and resources to make certain it is preserved, understood and promulgated." It passed in the House on September 23, 1987, and in the Senate on November 4, 1987.^[206]

In 2001,Ken Burns's documentaryJazzpremiered onPBS,featuring Wynton Marsalis and other experts reviewing the entire history of American jazz to that time. It received some criticism, however, for its failure to reflect the many distinctive non-American traditions and styles in jazz that had developed, and its limited representation of US developments in the last quarter of the 20th century.

Neo-bop

The emergence of young jazz talent beginning to perform in older, established musicians' groups further impacted the resurgence of traditionalism in the jazz community. In the 1970s, the groups ofBetty CarterandArt Blakey and the Jazz Messengersretained their conservative jazz approaches in the midst of fusion and jazz-rock, and in addition to difficulty booking their acts, struggled to find younger generations of personnel to authentically play traditional styles such ashard bopandbebop.In the late 1970s, however, a resurgence of younger jazz players in Blakey's band began to occur. This movement included musicians such asValery PonomarevandBobby Watson,Dennis IrwinandJames Williams.In the 1980s, in addition toWyntonandBranford Marsalis,the emergence of pianists in the Jazz Messengers such asDonald Brown,Mulgrew Miller,and later, Benny Green, bassists such asCharles Fambrough,Lonnie Plaxico(and later,Peter Washingtonand Essiet Essiet) horn players such asBill Pierce,Donald Harrisonand laterJavon JacksonandTerence Blanchardemerged as talented jazz musicians, all of whom made significant contributions in the 1990s and 2000s.

The young Jazz Messengers' contemporaries, includingRoy Hargrove,Marcus Roberts,Wallace RoneyandMark Whitfieldwere also influenced byWynton Marsalis's emphasis toward jazz tradition. These younger rising stars rejected avant-garde approaches and instead championed the acoustic jazz sound of Charlie Parker,Thelonious Monkand early recordings of the firstMiles Davisquintet. This group of "Young Lions" sought to reaffirm jazz as a high art tradition comparable to the discipline of classical music.^[207]

In addition,Betty Carter's rotation of young musicians in her group foreshadowed many of New York's preeminent traditional jazz players later in their careers. Among these musicians were Jazz Messenger alumniBenny Green,Branford MarsalisandRalph Peterson Jr.,as well asKenny Washington,Lewis Nash,Curtis Lundy,Cyrus Chestnut,Mark Shim,Craig Handy,Greg Hutchinson andMarc Cary,Taurus MateenandGeri Allen.O.T.B.ensemble included a rotation of young jazz musicians such asKenny Garrett,Steve Wilson,Kenny Davis,Renee Rosnes,Ralph Peterson Jr.,Billy Drummond,andRobert Hurst.^[208]

Starting in the 1990s, a number of players from largely straight-ahead or post-bop backgrounds emerged as a result of the rise of neo-traditionalist jazz, including pianistsJason MoranandVijay Iyer,guitaristKurt Rosenwinkel,vibraphonistStefon Harris,trumpetersRoy HargroveandTerence Blanchard,saxophonistsChris PotterandJoshua Redman,clarinetistKen Peplowskiand bassistChristian McBride.

Smooth jazz

In the early 1980s, a commercial form of jazz fusion called "pop fusion" or "smooth jazz" became successful, garnering significant radio airplay in "quiet storm"time slots at radio stations in urban markets across the U.S. This helped to establish or bolster the careers of vocalists includingAl Jarreau,Anita Baker,Chaka Khan,andSade,as well as saxophonists includingGrover Washington Jr.,Kenny G,Kirk Whalum,Boney James,andDavid Sanborn.In general, smooth jazz is downtempo (the most widely played tracks are of 90–105beats per minute), and has a lead melody-playing instrument (saxophone, especially soprano and tenor, andlegatoelectric guitar are popular).

In hisNewsweekarticle "The Problem With Jazz Criticism",^[209]Stanley Crouchconsiders Miles Davis' playing of fusion to be a turning point that led to smooth jazz. Critic Aaron J. West has countered the often negative perceptions of smooth jazz, stating:

I challenge the prevalent marginalization and malignment of smooth jazz in the standard jazz narrative. Furthermore, I question the assumption that smooth jazz is an unfortunate and unwelcomed evolutionary outcome of the jazz-fusion era. Instead, I argue that smooth jazz is a long-lived musical style that merits multi-disciplinary analyses of its origins, critical dialogues, performance practice, and reception.^[210]

Acid jazz, nu jazz, and jazz rap

Acid jazzdeveloped in the UK in the 1980s and 1990s, influenced byjazz-funkandelectronic dance music.Acid jazz often contains various types of electronic composition (sometimes includingsamplingor live DJ cutting andscratching), but it is just as likely to be played live by musicians, who often showcase jazz interpretation as part of their performance. Richard S. Ginell of AllMusic considersRoy Ayers"one of the prophets of acid jazz".^[211]

Nu jazzis influenced by jazz harmony and melodies, and there are usually no improvisational aspects. It can be very experimental in nature and can vary widely in sound and concept. It ranges from the combination of live instrumentation with the beats of jazzhouse(as exemplified bySt Germain,Jazzanova,andFila Brazillia) to more band-based improvised jazz with electronic elements (for example,The Cinematic Orchestra,Koboland the Norwegian "future jazz" style pioneered byBugge Wesseltoft,Jaga Jazzist,andNils Petter Molvær).

Jazz rapdeveloped in the late 1980s and early 1990s and incorporates jazz influences intohip hop.In 1988,Gang Starrreleased the debut single "Words I Manifest", which sampled Dizzy Gillespie's 1962 "Night in Tunisia", andStetsasonicreleased "Talkin' All That Jazz", which sampledLonnie Liston Smith.Gang Starr's debut LPNo More Mr. Nice Guy(1989) and their 1990 track "Jazz Thing" sampled Charlie Parker andRamsey Lewis.The groups which made up theNative Tongues Possetended toward jazzy releases: these include theJungle Brothers' debutStraight Out the Jungle(1988), andA Tribe Called Quest'sPeople's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm(1990) andThe Low End Theory(1991). Rap duoPete Rock & CL Smoothincorporated jazz influences on their 1992 debutMecca and the Soul Brother.RapperGuru'sJazzmatazzseries began in 1993 using jazz musicians during the studio recordings.

Although jazz rap had achieved little mainstream success, Miles Davis' final albumDoo-Bop(released posthumously in 1992) was based on hip hop beats and collaborations with producerEasy Mo Bee.Davis' ex-bandmateHerbie Hancockalso absorbed hip-hop influences in the mid-1990s, releasing the albumDis Is Da Drumin 1994.

The mid-2010s saw an increased influence of R&B, hip-hop, and pop music on jazz. In 2015,Kendrick Lamarreleased his third studio album,To Pimp a Butterfly.The album heavily featured prominent contemporary jazz artists such asThundercat^[212]and redefined jazz rap with a larger focus on improvisation and live soloing rather than simply sampling. In that same year, saxophonistKamasi Washingtonreleased his nearly three-hour long debut,The Epic.Its hip-hop inspired beats and R&B vocal interludes was not only acclaimed by critics for being innovative in keeping jazz relevant,^[213]but also sparked a small resurgence in jazz on the internet.

Punk jazz and jazzcore

The relaxation of orthodoxy which was concurrent withpost-punkin London and New York City led to a new appreciation of jazz. In London,the Pop Groupbegan to mix free jazz and dub reggae into their brand of punk rock.^[214]In New York,No Wavetook direct inspiration from both free jazz and punk. Examples of this style includeLydia Lunch'sQueen of Siam,^[215]Gray, the work ofJames Chance and the Contortions(who mixedSoulwith free jazz andpunk)^[215]and theLounge Lizards^[215](the first group to call themselves "punk jazz").

John Zorntook note of the emphasis on speed and dissonance that was becoming prevalent in punk rock, and incorporated this into free jazz with the release of theSpy vs. Spyalbum in 1986, a collection ofOrnette Colemantunes done in the contemporarythrashcorestyle.^[216]In the same year,Sonny Sharrock,Peter Brötzmann,Bill Laswell,andRonald Shannon Jacksonrecorded the first album under the nameLast Exit,a similarly aggressive blend of thrash and free jazz.^[217]These developments are the origins ofjazzcore,the fusion of free jazz withhardcore punk.

M-Base

TheM-Basemovement started in the 1980s, when a loose collective of young African-American musicians in New York which includedSteve Coleman,Greg Osby,andGary Thomasdeveloped a complex but grooving^[218]sound.

In the 1990s, most M-Base participants turned to more conventional music, but Coleman, the most active participant, continued developing his music in accordance with the M-Base concept.^[219]

Coleman's audience decreased, but his music and concepts influenced many musicians, according to pianist Vijay Iver and critic Ben Ratlifff ofThe New York Times.^[220]^[221]

M-Base changed from a movement of a loose collective of young musicians to a kind of informal Coleman "school",^[222]with a much advanced but already originally implied concept.^[223]Steve Coleman's music andM-Baseconcept gained recognition as "next logical step" after Charlie Parker, John Coltrane, and Ornette Coleman.^[224]

Jazz pluralism

Since the 1990s, jazz has been characterized by a pluralism in which no one style dominates, but rather a wide range of styles and genres are popular. Individual performers often play in a variety of styles, sometimes in the same performance. PianistBrad MehldauandThe Bad Plushave explored contemporary rock music within the context of the traditional jazz acoustic piano trio, recording instrumental jazz versions of songs by rock musicians. The Bad Plus have also incorporated elements of free jazz into their music. A firm avant-garde or free jazz stance has been maintained by some players, such as saxophonistsGreg OsbyandCharles Gayle,while others, such asJames Carter,have incorporated free jazz elements into a more traditional framework.

Harry Connick Jr.began his career playing stride piano and the Dixieland jazz of his home, New Orleans, beginning with his first recording when he was 10 years old.^[225]Some of his earliest lessons were at the home of pianistEllis Marsalis.^[226]Connick had success on the pop charts after recording the soundtrack to the movieWhen Harry Met Sally,which sold over two million copies.^[225]Crossover success has also been achieved byDiana Krall,Norah Jones,Cassandra Wilson,Kurt Elling,andJamie Cullum.

Additionally, the era saw the release of recordings and videos from the previous century, such as a Just Jazz tape broadcast by a band led byGene Ammons^[227]and studio archives such asJust Coolin'byArt Blakey and the Jazz Messengers.^[228]

Social media

An internet-aided trend of 2010's jazz was that of extremereharmonization,inspired by both virtuosic players known for their speed and rhythm such asArt Tatum,as well as players known for their ambitious voicings and chords such as Bill Evans. SupergroupSnarky Puppyadopted this trend, allowing players likeCory Henry^[229]to shape the grooves and harmonies of modern jazz soloing.YouTubephenomenonJacob Collieralso gained recognition for his ability to play an incredibly large number of instruments and his ability to usemicrotones,advanced polyrhythms, and blend a spectrum of genres in his largely homemade production process.^[230]^[231]

Other jazz musicians gained popularity through social media during the 2010s and 2020s. These includedJoan Chamorro,a bassist and bandleader based inBarcelonawhose big band and jazz combo videos have received tens of millions of views on YouTube,^[232]andEmmet Cohen,who broadcast a series of performances live from New York starting in March 2020.^[233]

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^Blumenfeld, Larry (June 11, 2010)."A Saxophonist's Reverberant Sound".The Wall Street Journal.RetrievedJanuary 14,2018.It's hard to overstate [Coleman's] influence. He's affected more than one generation, as much as anyone since John Coltrane... It's not just that you can connect the dots by playing seven or 11 beats. What sits behind his influence is this global perspective on music and life. He has a point of view of what he does and why he does it.
^Ratliff, Ben (June 14, 2010)."Undead Jazzfest Roams the West Village".The New York Times.RetrievedJanuary 14,2018.His recombinant ideas about rhythm and form and his eagerness to mentor musicians and build a new vernacular have had a profound effect on American jazz.
^Michael J. West (June 2, 2010)."Jazz Articles: Steve Coleman: Vital Information".JazzTimes.RetrievedJune 5,2011.
^"What Is M-Base?".M-base.com.RetrievedJune 5,2011.
^In 2014 drummer Billy Hart said that "Coleman has quietly influenced the whole jazz musical world", and is the "next logical step" after Charlie Parker, John Coltrane, and Ornette Coleman. (Source: Kristin E. Holmes,Genius grant saxman Steve Coleman redefining jazz,October 9, 2014,Philly.com,Philadelphia Media Network) Already in 2010 pianist Vijay Iyer (who was chosen as "Jazz Musician of the Year 2010" by the Jazz Journalists Association) said: "To me, Steve [Coleman] is as important as [John] Coltrane. He has contributed an equal amount to the history of the music. He deserves to be placed in the pantheon of pioneering artists." (Source: Larry Blumenfeld,A Saxophonist's Reverberant Sound,June 11, 2010,The Wall Street Journal) In September 2014, Coleman was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship (a.k.a. "Genius Grant" ) for "redefining the vocabulary and vernaculars of contemporary music". (Source: Kristin E. Holmes,Genius grant saxman Steve Coleman redefining jazz,October 9, 2014,Philly.com,Philadelphia Media Network).
^^a ^bBush, John."Harry Connick, Jr".AllMusic.RetrievedJanuary 14,2018.
^Gates Jr. (host), Henry Louis (July 17, 2010). "Branford Marsalis and Harry Connick Jr.".Finding Your Roots(DVD). Season 1. Episode 1. PBS.
^"Dan Morgenstern: Producer".media.music.txst.edu.February 18, 2022.RetrievedJuly 9,2023.
^Whiteis, David (July 22, 2020)."Art Blakey & the Jazz Messengers: Just Coolin' (Blue Note)".JazzTimes.RetrievedJuly 9,2023.
^David Hochman (May 15, 2018)."Grammy-Winning Keyboardist Cory Henry On Inspiration And Funky Improvisation".Forbes.RetrievedMay 16,2018.
^"UNESCO World Jazz Day Present | TeRra Magazine".April 8, 2019. Archived fromthe originalon March 5, 2021.RetrievedMarch 6,2021.
^Michael Bailey (May 1, 2018)."Jacob Collier review: Youtuber gets Gen Y into jazz".The Australian Financial Review.RetrievedMay 16,2018.
^"The Sant Andreu Jazz Band: Our Newest Jazz Stars Are From—Barcelona? – The Syncopated Times".October 31, 2021.RetrievedMarch 11,2023.
^Morrison, Allen (July 18, 2022)."Live From Emmet's Place: inside New York's most exclusive jazz concert".The Guardian.ISSN 0261-3077.RetrievedMarch 11,2023.

General and cited references

Cooke, Mervyn (1999).Jazz.London: Thames and Hudson.ISBN 978-0-500-20318-7..
Collier, James Lincoln(1978).The Making of Jazz: A Comprehensive History.Dell Publishing.
Dance, Stanley(1983).The World of Earl Hines.Da Capo Press.ISBN 0-306-80182-5.Includes a 120-page interview with Hines plus many photos.
Elsdon, Peter (2003)."Review:The Cambridge Companion to Jazz,edited by Mervyn Cooke and David Horn ".Zeitschrift für Musikwissenschaft(6): 159–175. Archived fromthe originalon November 1, 2013.RetrievedApril 30,2013.
Giddins, Gary(1998).Visions of Jazz: The First Century.New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN 0-19-507675-3.
Kubik, Gerhard(1999).Africa and the Blues.Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi.
Kubik, Gerhard (March 22, 2005). "Bebop: A Case in Point. The African Matrix in Jazz Harmonic Practices".Black Music Research Journal.
Levine, Mark(1995).The Jazz theory book.Petaluma, California: Sher Music.ISBN 978-1-883217-04-4.
Litweiler, John (1984).The Freedom Principle: Jazz After 1958.Da Capo.ISBN 978-0-306-80377-2.
Peñalosa, David (2010).The Clave Matrix; Afro-Cuban Rhythm: Its Principles and African Origins.Redway, CA: Bembe Inc.ISBN 978-1-886502-80-2.
Schuller, Gunther(1968).Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development.New York: Oxford University Press.New printing 1986.
Tucker, Mark,ed. (1995) [1991].Ellington: The Early Years(reprint ed.). Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press.ISBN 978-0-252-06509-5.
Ward, Geoffrey C.;Burns, Ken(2000).Jazz: A History of America's Music(1st ed.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf.ISBN 978-0-679-76539-4.Also:Jazz(2001 miniseries).

External links

Library resourcesabout
Jazz

[1] "Jazz".Encyclopædia Britannica.RetrievedSeptember 2,2022.

[2] "Jazz Origins in New Orleans – New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park".National Park Service.RetrievedMarch 19,2017.

[3] Germuska, Joe."'The Jazz Book': A Map of Jazz Styles ".WNUR-FM, Northwestern University.RetrievedMarch 19,2017– viaUniversity of Salzburg.

[:0-4] Roth, Russell (1952). "On the Instrumental Origins of Jazz".American Quarterly.4(4): 305–16.doi:10.2307/3031415.ISSN 0003-0678.JSTOR 3031415.

[5] Ferris, Jean (1993).America's Musical Landscape.Brown and Benchmark.ISBN 0-697-12516-5.pp. 228, 233.

[6] Starr, Larry, and Christopher Waterman."Popular Jazz and Swing: America's Original Art Form"(ArchivedFebruary 3, 2017, at theWayback Machine). IIP Digital. Oxford University Press, 26 July 2008.

[Hennessey-7] Hennessey, Thomas (1973).From Jazz to Swing: Black Jazz Musicians and Their Music, 1917–1935(Ph.D. dissertation).Northwestern University.p. 470.

[8] Ventura, David (May 22, 2018).WJEC & EDUQAS GCSE Music Revision Guide.Rhinegold Education.ISBN 978-1-78759-098-4.

[baseball-9] Wilton, Dave (April 6, 2015)."The Baseball Origin of 'Jazz'".OxfordDictionaries.com.Oxford University Press. Archived fromthe originalon April 7, 2015.RetrievedJune 20,2016.

[:2-10] "Where Did 'Jazz,' the Word, Come From? Follow a Trail of Clues, in Deep Dive with Lewis Porter".WBGO.February 26, 2018.RetrievedFebruary 9,2024.

[CDT-11] Seagrove, Gordon (July 11, 1915)."Blues is Jazz and Jazz Is Blues"(PDF).Chicago Daily Tribune.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on January 30, 2012.RetrievedNovember 4,2011– viaParis-Sorbonne University.Archived at Observatoire Musical Français,Paris-Sorbonne University.

[12] Benjamin Zimmer(June 8, 2009).""Jazz": A Tale of Three Cities ".Word Routes.The Visual Thesaurus.RetrievedJune 8,2009.

[Vitale-13] Vitale, Tom (March 19, 2016)."The Musical That Ushered In The Jazz Age Gets Its Own Musical".NPR.RetrievedJanuary 2,2019.

[century-14] "1999 Words of the Year, Word of the 1990s, Word of the 20th Century, Word of the Millennium".American Dialect Society.January 13, 2000.RetrievedJanuary 2,2019.

[Joachim_E._Berendt_1981._Page_371-15] Joachim E. Berendt.The Jazz Book: From Ragtime to Fusion and Beyond.Translated by H. and B. Bredigkeit with Dan Morgenstern. 1981. Lawrence Hill Books, p. 371.

[Berendt1964-16] Berendt, Joachim Ernst (1964).The New Jazz Book.P. Owen. p. 278.RetrievedAugust 4,2013.

[Elsdon-17] Elsdon 2003

[18] Cooke, Mervyn; Horn, David G. (2002).The Cambridge Companion to Jazz.New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1, 6.ISBN 978-0-521-66388-5.

[19] Luebbers, Johannes (September 8, 2008). "It's All Music".Resonate.

[FOOTNOTEGiddins199870-20] Giddins 1998,p. 70.

[FOOTNOTEGiddins199889-21] Giddins 1998,p. 89.

[22] Jazz Drum Lessons ArchivedOctober 27, 2010, at theWayback Machine– Drumbook.org

[Baraka-23] Baraka, Amiri (1999).Blues People: Negro Music in White America.Harper Perennial.ISBN 978-0688184742.

[Davis-24] Davis, Miles & Troupe, Quincy (1990).Miles: The Autobiography.Simon & Schuster.ISBN 0-671-63504-2.

[gilbert-25] "Jazz Inc.: The bottom line threatens the creative line in corporate America's approach to music".Archived fromthe originalon July 20, 2001.RetrievedJuly 20,2001.by Andrew Gilbert,Metro Times,December 23, 1998.

[26] "African American Musicians Reflect On 'What Is This Thing Called Jazz?' In New Book By UC Professor".Oakland Post.Vol. 38, no. 79. March 20, 2002. p. 7.ProQuest 367372060.

[BarakaReader-27] Baraka, Amiri (2000).The LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka reader(2nd ed.). Thunder's Mouth Press. p. 42.ISBN 978-1-56025-238-2.

[Yurochko-28] Yurochko, Bob (1993).A Short History of Jazz.Rowman & Littlefield. p. 10.ISBN 978-0-8304-1595-3.He is known as the 'Father of White Jazz'

[Larkin-29] Larkin, Philip (2004).Jazz Writings.Continuum. p.94.ISBN 978-0-8264-7699-9.

[midwest-30] Cayton, Andrew R.L.; Sisson, Richard; Zacher, Chris, eds. (2006).The American Midwest: An Interpretive Encyclopedia.Indiana University Press. p. 569.ISBN 978-0-253-00349-2.

[HowHentoff-31] Hentoff, Nat (January 15, 2009). "How Jazz Helped Hasten the Civil Rights Movement".The Wall Street Journal.

[Murph-32] Murph, John."NPR's Jazz Profiles: Women In Jazz, Part 1".NPR.RetrievedJune 16,2021.

[Placksin-33] Placksin, Sally (1985).Jazzwomen.London:Pluto Press.

[34] Oliver, Myrna (April 28, 1999)."Melba Liston; Jazz Trombonist, Composer".Los Angeles Times.

[35] Beckett, S. (April 2019)."The First Woman Trombonist in Big Bands – Melba Liston, 1926–1999".Cocosse Journal.

[36] "Nine Jews Who Changed the Sound of Jazz".Haaretz.Archivedfrom the original on November 13, 2021.RetrievedNovember 13,2021.

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[38] "'Body and Soul' doc explores links between jazz and Jews ".Chicago Tribune.February 6, 2018.Archivedfrom the original on November 13, 2021.RetrievedNovember 13,2021.

[39] The jazz singer.,ISBN 978-1-78543-944-5,OCLC 970692281

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[41] The Telegraph, Feb. 24, 1981 p. 9 Shep Field Obituary on Google

[The_Big_Bands_-_4th_Edition-42] The Big Bands - 4th EditionGeorge T. Simon. Schirmer Trade Books, London, 2012ISBN 978-0-85712-812-6"Shep Fields Biography" on Books.google.com

[nyt1-43] "SHEP FIELDS, LEADER OF BIG BAND KNOWEN FOR RIPPLING RYTHEM (Published 1981)".The New York Times.February 24, 1981.RetrievedOctober 28,2020.

[encyclopedia-44] Tammy L. Kernodle; Horace Maxile; Emmett G. Price III (2010).Encyclopedia of African American Music.Greenwood. p. 426.

[listverse-45] "15 Most Influential Jazz Artists".Listverse. February 27, 2010.RetrievedJuly 27,2014.

[definejazz-46] Criswell, Chad."What Is a Jazz Band?".Archived fromthe originalon July 28, 2014.RetrievedJuly 25,2014.

[47] "Jazz Origins in New Orleans".New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park.U.S. National Park Service. April 14, 2015.

[48] Gates, Henry Louis Jr.(January 2, 2013)."How Many Slaves Landed in the U.S.?".The African Americans: Many Rivers to Cross.PBS.Archivedfrom the original on September 21, 2015.

[FOOTNOTECooke19997–9-49] Cooke 1999,pp. 7–9.

[50] DeVeaux, Scott (1991). "Constructing the Jazz Tradition: Jazz Historiography".Black American Literature Forum.25(3): 525–560.doi:10.2307/3041812.JSTOR 3041812.

[Hearn2017-51] Hearn, Lafcadio (August 3, 2017).Delphi Complete Works of Lafcadio Hearn.Delphi Classics. pp. 4079–.ISBN 978-1-78656-090-2.RetrievedJanuary 2,2019.

[52] "The primary instrument for a cultural music expression was a long narrow African drum. It came in various sized from three to eight feet long and had previously been banned in the South by whites. Other instruments used were the triangle, a jawbone, and early ancestors to the banjo. Many types of dances were performed in Congo Square, including the 'flat-footed-shuffle' and the 'Bamboula.'"African American Registry.ArchivedDecember 2, 2014, at theWayback Machine

[PalmerDeep-53] Palmer, Robert (1981).Deep Blues.New York: Viking. p.37.ISBN 978-0-670-49511-5.

[FOOTNOTECooke199914–17,_27–28-54] Cooke 1999,pp. 14–17, 27–28.

[FOOTNOTEKubik1999112-55] Kubik 1999,p. 112.

[palmer39-56] Palmer 1981,p. 39.

[57] Borneman, Ernest (1969: 104). "Jazz and the Creole Tradition."Jazz ResearchI: 99–112.

[Sublette-58] Sublette, Ned (2008).The World That Made New Orleans: From Spanish Silver to Congo Square.Chicago: Chicago Review Press. pp. 124, 287.ISBN 978-1-55652-958-0.

[FOOTNOTEPeñalosa201038–46-59] Peñalosa 2010,pp. 38–46.

[60] Wynton Marsalis states thattresillois the New Orleans "clave"."Wynton Marsalis part 2. "60 Minutes.CBS News (June 26, 2011).

[FOOTNOTESchuller196819-61] Schuller 1968,p. 19.

[FOOTNOTEKubik199952-62] Kubik 1999,p. 52.

[63] "[Afro]-Latin rhythms have been absorbed into black American styles far more consistently than into white popular music, despite Latin music's popularity among whites" (Roberts 1979: 41).

[JSRoberts-64] Roberts, John Storm (1999).Latin Jazz.New York: Schirmer Books. pp.12,16.ISBN 978-0-02-864681-7.

[Manuel-65] Manuel, Peter (2000).Creolizing Contradance in the Caribbean.Philadelphia: Temple University Press. pp. 67, 69.

[Acosta-66] Acosta, Leonardo (2003).Cubano Be Cubano Bop: One Hundred Years of Jazz in Cuba.Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Books. p. 5.

[Salsa-67] Mauleon (1999).Salsa guidebook: For Piano and Ensemble.Petaluma, California: Sher Music. p. 4.ISBN 0-9614701-9-4.

[FOOTNOTEPeñalosa201042-68] Peñalosa 2010,p. 42.

[SubletteCuba-69] Sublette, Ned (2008).Cuba and Its Music: From the First Drums to the Mambo.Chicago: Chicago Review Press. p. 125.

[70] "Wynton Marsalis part 2."60 Minutes.CBS News (June 26, 2011).

[ReferenceB-71] Morton, Jelly Roll (1938: Library of Congress Recording)The Complete Recordings By Alan Lomax.

[FOOTNOTECooke199928,_47-72] Cooke 1999,pp. 28, 47.

[73] Catherine Schmidt-Jones (2006)."Ragtime".Connexions.RetrievedOctober 18,2007.

[FOOTNOTECooke199928–29-74] Cooke 1999,pp. 28–29.

[75] "The First Ragtime Records (1897–1903)".Archived fromthe originalon December 1, 2010.RetrievedOctober 18,2007.

[TMG-76] Tanner, Paul; Megill, David W.; Gerow, Maurice (2009).Jazz(11 ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. pp. 328–331.

[ReferenceA-77] Manuel, Peter (2009: 69).Creolizing Contradance in the Caribbean.Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

[78] Matthiesen, Bill (2008: 8).Habaneras, Maxixies & Tangos The Syncopated Piano Music of Latin America.Mel Bay.ISBN 0-7866-7635-3.

[79] Sublette, Ned (2008:155).Cuba and its Music; From the First Drums to the Mambo.Chicago: Chicago Review Press.

[80] Roberts, John Storm (1999: 40).The Latin Tinge.Oxford University Press.

[hellfighters-81] Floyd Levin (1911)."Jim Europe's 369th Infantry" Hellfighters "Band".The Red Hot Archive. Archived fromthe originalon August 18, 2016.RetrievedOctober 24,2007.

[FOOTNOTECooke199978-82] Cooke 1999,p. 78.

[FOOTNOTECooke199941–42-83] Cooke 1999,pp. 41–42.

[84] Palmer (1968: 67).

[85] Kunzler'sDictionary of Jazzprovides two separate entries: blues, an originally African-American genre (p. 128), and the blues form, a widespread musical form (p. 131).

[The_Evolution_of_Differing_Blues_Styles-86] "The Evolution of Differing Blues Styles".How To Play Blues Guitar. Archived fromthe originalon July 19, 2010.RetrievedAugust 11,2008.

[FOOTNOTECooke199911–14-87] Cooke 1999,pp. 11–14.

[FOOTNOTEKubik199996-88] Kubik 1999,p. 96.

[89] Palmer (1981: 46).

[Handy,_Father_1941,_p._99-90] Handy, Father (1941), p. 99.

[FOOTNOTESchuller196866,_145n-91] Schuller 1968,66, 145n.

[autogenerated2-92] W. C. Handy,Father of the Blues: An Autobiography,edited byArna Bontemps:foreword by Abbe Niles. Macmillan Company, New York; (1941), pp. 99, 100 (no ISBN in this first printing).

[93] "Birthplace of Jazz".www.neworleansonline.com.RetrievedDecember 14,2017.

[FOOTNOTECooke199947,_50-94] Cooke 1999,pp. 47, 50.

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[97] "Jazz Neighborhoods".

[98] "The characters".Archived fromthe originalon January 4, 2022.RetrievedJanuary 13,2016.

[web.archive.org-99] "The Legend of Storyville".May 6, 2014. Archived from the original on May 6, 2014.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)

[100] "Marsalis, Wynton (2000: DVD n.1).Jazz.PBS ".Pbs.org.RetrievedOctober 2,2013.

[FOOTNOTECooke199938,_56-101] Cooke 1999,pp. 38, 56.

[102] Roberts, John Storm 1979.The Latin Tinge: The impact of Latin American music on the United States.Oxford.

[103] Gridley, Mark C. (2000: 61).Jazz Styles: History and Analysis,7th edn.

[FOOTNOTESchuller19686-104] Schuller 1968,p. 6.

[105] The New Harvard Dictionary of Music(1986: 818).

[106] Peñalosa, David; Peter Greenwood (2009).The Clave Matrix: Afro-Cuban Rhythm: Its Principles and African Origins.Redway, CA: Bembe Books. p. 229.ISBN 978-1-886502-80-2.

[107] Gridley, Mark C. (2000).Jazz Styles: History & Analysis(7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. pp. 72–73.ISBN 978-0-13-021227-6.

[108] Schoenherr, Steven."Recording Technology History".history.sandiego.edu.Archived fromthe originalon March 12, 2010.RetrievedDecember 24,2008.

[109] Thomas, Bob (1994)."The Origins of Big Band Music".redhotjazz.com.Archived fromthe originalon December 28, 2008.RetrievedDecember 24,2008.

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[111] "Jazz Milestones".apassion4jazz.net.RetrievedDecember 24,2008.

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[115] Scott, Emmett J.(1919)."Chapter XXI: Negro Music That Stirred France".Scott's Official History of the American Negro in the World War.Chicago: Homewood Press.ISBN 978-0-243-62721-9.RetrievedJune 19,2017.

[FOOTNOTECooke199944-116] Cooke 1999,p. 44.

[ward-117] Ward & Burns 2000,p.^{[page needed]}

[FOOTNOTECooke199954-118] Cooke 1999,p. 54.

[ory-119] "Kid Ory".The Red Hot Archive. Archived fromthe originalon August 27, 2013.RetrievedOctober 29,2007.

[120] "Bessie Smith".The Red Hot Archive. Archived fromthe originalon October 16, 2007.RetrievedOctober 29,2007.

[Downes-121] Downes, Olin (February 13, 1924). "A Concert of Jazz".The New York Times.p. 16.

[Dunkel-122] Dunkel, Mario (2015)."W. C. Handy, Abbe Niles, and (Auto)biographical Positioning in the Whiteman Era".Popular Music and Society.38(2): 122–139.doi:10.1080/03007766.2014.994320.S2CID 191480580.

[FOOTNOTECooke199982–83,_100–103-123] Cooke 1999,pp. 82–83, 100–103.

[124] Encyclopedia of music in the 20th Century. Stacey, Lee. Henderson, Lol Editors. Routledge Taylor and Francis Group London 2014 p. 379 Guy Lombardo Biography on Google Books

[125] Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World Volume 8- Genres North America. Horn, David. Shephard, John Editors. Bloombury Publishing 2012 p. 472 "Armstrong and Lombardo did not view their worlds as diametrically opposed, nor did many other contemporary musicians of the 1930s....Lombardo himself always took great pride in the number of black orchestras that imitated his style." Guy lombardo band popularity on Google Books

[FOOTNOTESchuller196891-126] Schuller 1968,p. 91.

[FOOTNOTESchuller196893-127] Schuller 1968,p. 93.

[FOOTNOTECooke199956–59,_78–79,_66–70-128] Cooke 1999,pp. 56–59, 78–79, 66–70.

[129] Van de Leur, Walter (2015). "12" Seldom seen, but always heard ": Billy Strayhorn and Duke Ellington". In Green, Edward (ed.).The Cambridge Companion to Duke Ellington.Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-1-316-19413-3.

[130] Tucker 1995,p. 6 writes "He tried to avoid the word 'jazz' preferring 'Negro' or 'American' music. He claimed there were only two types of music, 'good' and 'bad'... And he embraced a phrase coined by his colleagueBilly Strayhorn– 'beyond category' – as a liberating principle. "

[131] "Jazz Musicians – Duke Ellington".Theory Jazz. Archived fromthe originalon September 3, 2015.RetrievedJuly 14,2009.

[132] Wynn, Neil A., ed. (2007).Cross the Water Blues: African American music in Europe(1 ed.). Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi. p.67.ISBN 978-1-60473-546-8.

[Godolt-133] Godbolt, Jim (2010).A History of Jazz in Britain 1919–1950(4th ed.). London: Northway.ISBN 978-0-9557888-1-9.

[134] Jackson, Jeffrey (2002). "Making Jazz French: The Reception of Jazz Music in Paris, 1927–1934".French Historical Studies.25(1): 149–170.doi:10.1215/00161071-25-1-149.S2CID 161520728.

[135] "Ed Lang and his Orchestra".redhotjazz.com.Archived fromthe originalon April 10, 2008.RetrievedMarch 28,2008.

[136] Crow, Bill (1990).Jazz Anecdotes.New York: Oxford University Press.

[Burchett-137] Burchett, Michael H. (2015). "Jazz". In Ciment, James (ed.).Postwar America: An Encyclopedia of Social, Political, Cultural, and Economic History.Routledge. p. 730.ISBN 978-1-317-46235-4.

[grove-138] Tucker, Mark; Jackson, Travis (2015). "7. Traditional and Modern Jazz in the 1940s".Jazz: Grove Music Essentials.Oxford University Press.ISBN 978-0-19-026871-8.

[Trynka-139] Trynka, Paul(2003).The Sax & Brass Book.Hal Leonard Corporation.pp.45, 48–49.ISBN 0-87930-737-4.

[140] James, Clive(2007).Cultural Amnesia: Necessary Memories from History and the Arts.W.W. Norton & Company.p.163.ISBN 978-0-393-06116-1.

[141] Gunther Schuller,November 14, 1972.Dance 1983,p. 290.

[FOOTNOTEDance1983260-142] Dance 1983,p. 260.

[Floyd,_Samuel_A._1995-143] Floyd, Samuel A., Jr. (1995).The Power of Black Music: Interpreting its history from Africa to the United States.New York: Oxford University Press.

[FOOTNOTELevine1995171-144] Levine 1995,p. 171.

[145] Joachim Berendt.The Jazz Book,1981, p. 15.

[Kubik-146] Kubik 2005

[FOOTNOTEKubik2005-147] Kubik 2005.

[148] Joachim Berendt.The Jazz Book.1981, p. 16.

[149] In 1992 Bauza recorded "Tanga" in the expanded form of an Afro-Cuban suite, consisting of five movements.Mario Bauza and his Afro-Cuban Orchestra.Messidor CD (1992).

[FOOTNOTEPeñalosa201056-150] Peñalosa 2010,p. 56.

[FOOTNOTEPeñalosa2010131–136-151] Peñalosa 2010,pp. 131–136.

[152] Gillespie, Dizzy; Fraser, Al (1985).To Be or Not to Bop: Memoirs of Dizzy Gillespie.New York: Da Capo Press. p. 77.ISBN 978-0-306-80236-2.

[153] Perry, Russell (September 1, 2017)."Jazz at 100 Hour 27: Un Poco Loco - The Intensity of Bud Powell (1946 - 1953)".WTJU 91.1 FM.RetrievedNovember 23,2023.

[154] DeMotta, David J. (2015) The contributions of Earl "Bud" Powell to the modern jazz style. Doctoral dissertation, The City University of New York.

[155] "Afro Blue",Afro Roots(Mongo Santamaria) Prestige CD 24018-2 (1959).

[FOOTNOTEPeñalosa201026-156] Peñalosa 2010,p. 26.

[Collier,_1978-157] Collier 1978

[gridley-158] Gridley, Mark C. (1994),Ron Wynn(ed.),All Music Guide to Jazz,M. Erlewine, V. Bogdanov, San Francisco: Miller Freeman, pp.11–12,ISBN 0-87930-308-5

[:1-159] "hardbopz".www.scottyanow.com.RetrievedApril 30,2022.

[160] Natambu, Kofi (2014). "Miles Davis: A New Revolution in Sound".Black Renaissance/Renaissance Noire.2:39.

[:02-161] Rosenthal, David H. (1988). "Hard Bop and Its Critics".The Black Perspective in Music.16(1): 21–29.doi:10.2307/1215124.ISSN 0090-7790.JSTOR 1215124.

[162] A Blowin' Session – Johnny Griffin | Songs, Reviews, Credits | AllMusic,retrievedApril 30,2022

[FOOTNOTELitweiler1984110–111-163] Litweiler 1984,pp. 110–111.

[FOOTNOTELevine199530-164] Levine 1995,p. 30.

[165] Yudkin, Jeremy (2012). "The Naming of Names:" Flamenco Sketches "or" All Blues "? Identifying the Last Two Tracks on Miles Davis's Classic Album Kind of Blue".The Musical Quarterly.95(1): 15–35.doi:10.1093/musqtl/gds006.

[166] Davis, Miles (1989: 234).The Autobiography.New York: Touchstone.

[FOOTNOTELevine199529-167] Levine 1995,p. 29.

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