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Adherents ofJudaismdo not believe thatJesusofNazarethwas theMessiahnor do they believe he was theSon of God.In the Jewish perspective, it is believed that the wayChristians see Jesusgoes againstmonotheism,a belief in theabsolute unity and singularity of God,which is central to Judaism;[1]Judaism sees the worship of a person as a form ofidolatry,which is forbidden.[2]Therefore, considering Jesusdivine,as “God the Son”,is forbidden. Judaism'srejection of Jesusas theMessiahis based onJewish eschatology,which holds that the coming of the trueMessiahwill be associated with events that have not yet occurred, such as building theThird Temple,aMessianic Ageof peace, and the ingathering of Jews to their homeland.[3][4]

Judaism does not accept any of the claimed fulfilments of prophecy thatChristianity attributes to Jesus.Israelis who endorse the belief that Jesus is theMessiahorChristare not considered Jews by theChief Rabbinate of Israelnor by theIsraeligovernment.[5][6]

Background

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Main article:Christianity and Judaism
Woodcut carved by Johann von Armssheim (1483). Portrays a disputation between Christian and Jewish scholars

The belief that Jesus isGod,theSon of God,or a person of theTrinity,is incompatible withJewish theology.Jews believeJesus did notfulfillmessianic propheciesthat establish the criteria for the coming of the messiah.[7]Judaism does not accept Jesus as a divine being, an intermediary between humans and God, a messiah, or holy. Belief in the Trinity is also held to be incompatible with Judaism, as are a number of othertenets of Christianity.

Jewish theology

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Oneness and indivisibility of God

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See also:God in Judaism,Godhead in Judaism,Shema Yisrael,andShituf

In Judaism, the idea of God as adualityor trinity isheretical— it is even considered by somepolytheistic.[8]According to Judaic beliefs, theTorahrules out a trinitarian God inDeuteronomy(6:4): "Hear Israel,the LORDis our God, the LORD is one. "

Judaism teaches that it is heretical for any man to claim to be God, part of God, or the literal son of God. TheJerusalem Talmudstates explicitly: "if a man claims to be God, he is a liar."[9]

Paul Johnson,in his bookA History of the Jews,describes theschism between Jews and Christianscaused by a divergence from this principle:

To the question, Was Jesus God or man?, the Christians therefore answered: both. After 70 AD, their answer was unanimous and increasingly emphatic. This made a complete breach with Judaism inevitable.[10]

In the 12th century, the preeminent Jewish scholarMaimonidescodified core principles of Modern Judaism, writing "[God], the Cause of all, is one. This does not mean one as in one of a pair, nor one like a species (which encompasses many individuals), nor one as in an object that is made up of many elements, nor as a single simple object that is infinitely divisible. Rather, God is a unity unlike any other possible unity."[11]Some Orthodox Jewish scholars note that the common poetic Jewish expression, "Our Father in Heaven", was used literally by Jesus to refer to God as "his Father in Heaven" (cf.Lord's Prayer).[12]

God is not corporeal

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Maimonides'13 principles of faithincludes the concept that God has no body and that physical concepts do not apply to him.[13]In the "Yigdal"prayer, found towards the beginning of the Jewish prayer books used in synagogues around the world, it states" He has no semblance of a body nor is He corporeal ". It is a central tenet of Judaism that God does not have any physical characteristics;[14]that God's essence cannot be fathomed.[15][16][17][18]

Jesus as the Jewish Messiah

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Main articles:MessiahandMessiah in Judaism

Judaism's idea of the messiah differs substantially from the Christian idea of the Messiah. InorthodoxRabbinic Judaismthe messiah's task is to bring in the Messianic Age, a one-time event, and apresumed messiahwho is killed before completing the task (i.e. compelling all of Israel to walk in the way of Torah, repairing the breaches in observance, fighting the wars of God, building the Temple in its place, gathering in the dispersed exiles of Israel) is not the messiah. Maimonides states,

But if he did not succeed in all this or was killed, he is definitely not the Moshiach promised in the Torah... and God only appointed him in order to test the masses.[19]

Jews believe that the messiah will fulfill the messianic prophecies of the prophetsIsaiahandEzekiel.[20][21][22][23]Judaism interprets Isaiah 11:1 ( "And there shall come forth a shoot out of the stock of Jesse, and a twig shall grow forth out of his roots." ) to mean that the messiah will be a patrilineal bloodline descendant of King David.[24]He is expected to return the Jews to their homeland andrebuild the Temple,reign as king, and usher in anera of peace[3]and understanding where "the knowledge ofGod"fills the earth,[4]leading the nations to "end up recognizing the wrongs they did Israel".[25]Ezekiel states the messiah will redeem the Jews.[26]

The Jewish view of Jesus is influenced by the fact that Jesus lived while theSecond Templewas standing, and not while the Jews were exiled. Beingconceived via the Holy Spirit(as espoused by orthodox Christian doctrine), it would be impossible for Jesus to be a patrilineal bloodline descendant of King David. He never reigned as king, and there was no subsequent era of peace or great knowledge. Jesus died without completing or even accomplishing part of any of the messianic tasks, which Christians say will occur at aSecond Coming.Rather than being redeemed, the Jews were subsequently exiled fromJudea,and the Temple was destroyed years later, not rebuilt. These discrepancies were noted by Jewish scholars who were contemporaries of Jesus, as later pointed out byNachmanides,who in 1263 observed that Jesus was rejected as the messiah by the rabbis of his time.[27]

Moreover, Judaism sees Christian claims that Jesus is the textual messiah of theHebrew Bibleas being based on mistranslations,[28][29]with the idea that Jesus did not fulfill any of theJewish Messiah qualifications.[30]

Prophecy and Jesus

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Main articles:ProphetandFalse prophet

According to theTorah(Deuteronomy 13:1–5and18:18–22), the criteria for a person to be considered aprophetor speak for God in Judaism are that he must follow theGod of Israel(and no other god); he must not describe God differently from how he is known to be fromScripture;he must not advocatechange to God's wordor state that God has changed his mind and wishes things that contradict his already-stated eternal word.[31]There is no concept of the Messiah "fulfilling the law" to free the Israelites from their duty to maintain themitzvotin Judaism, as is understood in much of Christianity or someMessianic Judaism.

Deuteronomy 13:1 says, "Be careful to observe only that which I enjoin upon you; neither add to it nor take away from it."[32][33][34]

Even if someone who appears to be a prophet can perform supernatural acts or signs, no prophet or dreamer can contradict the laws already stated in the Tanakh.[35][36]Thus, any divergence espoused by Jesus from the tenets of scriptural Judaism would disqualify him from being considered a prophet in Judaism. This was the view adopted by Jesus' contemporaries, as according to rabbinical tradition as stated in theTalmud(Sotah48b) "whenMalachidied the Prophecy departed from Israel. "As Malachi lived centuries before Jesus it is clear that the rabbis of Talmudic times did not view Jesus as a divinely inspired prophet. Furthermore, the Bible itself includes an example of a prophet who could speak directly with God and could work miracles but was" evil ",[37]in the form ofBalaam.

Jesus and salvation

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See also:Salvation

Judaism does not share theChristian concept of salvation,as it does not believe people are born in astate of sin.[38]Judaism holds instead that man is born to strive for perfection, and to follow the word of God.[citation needed] Sin is then divided into two categories; transgression against God (through a failure to fulfill ritual obligations, such as not sanctifying theSabbath), and transgression against man (through a failure to fulfill moral obligations, such as committinggossip). To gain absolution, a person can repent of that sin, regret the sin, and commit to never do the sin again. God will then forgive their transgression against Him. If a sin is committed against man, the person needs to gain forgiveness from the one he sinned against; it cannot be forgiven by God or another person.[39]

Jesus in rabbinical literature

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The Talmud

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See also:Jesus in the TalmudandYeshu

Various works of classical Jewishrabbinic literatureare thought to contain references to Jesus, including some uncensored manuscripts of theBabylonian Talmudand the classicalmidrashliterature written between 250 CE and 700 CE. There is a spectrum of scholarly views on how many of these references are actually to Jesus.[40]

Christian authorities in Europe were largely unaware of possible references to Jesus in the Talmud until 1236, when a convert from Judaism,Nicholas Donin,laid thirty-five formal charges against the Talmud beforePope Gregory IX,and these charges were brought upon rabbiYechiel of Paristo defend at theDisputation of Parisin 1240.[41]Yechiel's primary defence was that theYeshuin rabbinic literature was a disciple ofJoshua ben Perachiah,and not to be confused with Jesus (Vikkuah Rabbenu Yechiel mi-Paris). At the laterDisputation of Barcelona(1263) Nachmanides made the same point.[42]

Jacob ben Meir(11th century),[43]Jehiel ben Solomon Heilprin(17th century), andJacob Emden(18th century) support this view, but not all rabbis took this view.TheKuzaribyYehuda Halevi(c. 1075–1141),[44]understood these references in Talmud as referring to Jesus of Nazareth based on evidence that Jesus of Nazareth lived 130 years prior to the date that Christians believe he lived.[citation needed]Profiat Duran's anti-Christian polemicKelimmat ha-Goyim( "Shame of the Gentiles", 1397) makes it evident that Duran gave no credence to Yechiel's theory of two Jesuses.[45]

Modern scholarship on the Talmud has a spectrum[46]of views. FromJoseph Klausner,R. Travers HerfordandPeter Schäfer,[47]who see some traces of anhistorical Jesusin the Talmud, to the views ofJohann MaierandJacob Neusner,who consider that there are little or no historical traces and texts have been applied to Jesus in later editing, to others such asDaniel Boyarin(1999), who argue that Jesus in the Talmud is aliterary deviceused byPharisaicrabbis to comment on their relationship to and with early messianic Jews.[48]

The Vatican'spapal bullissued in 1554 censored the Talmud and other Jewish texts,[citation needed]resulting in the removal of references to Yeshu. No known manuscript of theJerusalem Talmudmakes mention of the name, although one translation (Herford) has added it toAvodah Zarah2:2to align it with similar text ofChullin 2:22in theTosefta.[citation needed]In the Munich (1342 CE), Paris, andJewish Theological Seminary of Americamanuscripts of the Talmud, the appellationHa-Notzriis added to the last mention of a Yeshu inSanhedrin107bandSotah 47aas well as to the occurrences inSanhedrin 43a,Sanhedrin 103a,Berachot17bandAvodah Zarah16b-17a.Student,[49]Zindler and McKinsey[50]Ha-Notzriis not found in other early pre-censorship partial manuscripts (the Florence, Hamburg and Karlsruhe) where these cover the passages in question.[citation needed]

AlthoughNotzridoes not appear in the Tosefta, by the time the Babylonian Talmud was produced,Notzrihad become the standardHebrewword for Christian and theYeshu Ha-Notzrifound in the Talmud has become the controversial rendition of "Jesus the Nazarene" in Hebrew. For example, by 1180 CE the termYeshu Ha-Notzrican be found in the Maimonides'Mishneh Torah(Hilchos Melachim11:4, uncensored version).

Toledot Yeshu

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In theToledot Yeshuthe name of Yeshu is taken to meanyimakh shemo.[51]In all cases of its use, the references to Yeshu are associated with acts or behaviour that are seen as leading Jews away from Judaism tominuth,a term usually translated as "heresy"or"apostasy".Historically, the portrayals of Jesus in the Talmud and Jewish literature were used to justify anti-Jewish sentiments.[52]

Maimonides

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Maimonides lamented the pains that Jews felt as a result of new faiths that attempted to supplant Judaism, specifically Christianity and Islam. Referring to Jesus, he wrote:

Concerning Jesus of Nazareth who imagined himself to become the Messiah and was put to death by the court, the Prophet Daniel said already: "also the rebellious sons of thy people will lift themselves up to establish the vision; but they will stumble." (Dan.11,14) And can there be a greater stumbling block than this: All the prophets affirmed that the Messiah would redeem Israel, save them, gather their dispersed and strengthen the commandments, but he caused Israel to be destroyed by the sword, their remnants to be dispersed, and humiliated, their changing the Torah, and misleading the world to serve gods besides the Lord.

Nonetheless, Maimonides continued, developing a thought earlier expressed inJudah Halevi'sKuzari,[53]

Yet no man can grasp the thoughts of the Creator of the world, for our ways are not His ways, and our thoughts are not His thoughts; And all these ways of Jesus of Nazareth and ofThis Ismaelitewho rose after him, were only to clear the way for Messiah the King. "...." when the Messiah will really arise and he will succeed and will reign supreme, at once they shall all return and will know that they inherited lies from their forefathers and that their prophets and forefathers have misled them. (Hilkhot Melakhim11:10–12.)

Epistle to Yemen

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Jesus is mentioned in Maimonides'Epistle to Yemen,written about 1172 to RabbiJacob ben Netan'el al-Fayyumi,head of theYemen Jewish community:

Ever since the time of Revelation, every despot or slave that has attained to power, be he violent or ignoble, has made it his first aim and his final purpose to destroy our law, and to vitiate our religion, by means of the sword, by violence, or by brute force, such asAmalek,Sisera,Sennacherib,Nebuchadnezzar,Titus,Hadrian,may their bones be ground to dust, and others like them. This is one of the two classes which attempt to foil the Divine will.

The second class consists of the most intelligent and educated among the nations, such as the Syrians, Persians, and Greeks. These also endeavor to demolish our law and to vitiate it by means of arguments which they invent, and by means of controversies which they institute....

After that there arose a new sect which combined the two methods, namely, conquest and controversy, into one, because it believed that this procedure would be more effective in wiping out every trace of the Jewish nation and religion. It, therefore, resolved to lay claim to prophecy and to found a new faith, contrary to our Divine religion, and to contend that it was equally God-given. Thereby it hoped to raise doubts and to create confusion, since one is opposed to the other and both supposedly emanate from a Divine source, which would lead to the destruction of both religions. For such is the remarkable plan contrived by a man who is envious and querulous. He will strive to kill his enemy and to save his own life, but when he finds it impossible to attain his objective, he will devise a scheme whereby they both will be slain.

The first one to have adopted this plan was Jesus the Nazarene, may his bones be ground to dust. He was a Jew because his mother was a Jewess although his father was a Gentile. For in accordance with the principles of our law, a child born of a Jewess and a Gentile, or of a Jewess and a slave, is legitimate. (Yebamot45a). Jesus is only figuratively termed an illegitimate child. He impelled people to believe that he was a prophet sent by God to clarify perplexities in the Torah, and that he was the Messiah that was predicted by each and every seer. He interpreted the Torah and its precepts in such a fashion as to lead to their total annulment, to the abolition of all its commandments and to the violation of its prohibitions. The sages, of blessed memory, having become aware of his plans before his reputation spread among our people, meted out fitting punishment to him.

Daniel had already alluded to him when he presaged the downfall of a wicked one and a heretic among the Jews who would endeavor to destroy the Law, claim prophecy for himself, make pretenses to miracles, and allege that he is the Messiah, as it is written, "Also the children of the impudent among thy people shall make bold to claim prophecy, but they shall fall." (Daniel11:14).[54]

In the context of refuting the claims of a contemporary in Yemen purporting to be the Messiah, Maimonides mentions Jesus again:

You know that the Christians falsely ascribe marvelous powers to Jesus the Nazarene, may his bones be ground to dust, such as the resurrection of the dead and other miracles. Even if we would grant them for the sake of argument, we should not be convinced by their reasoning that Jesus is the Messiah. For we can bring a thousand proofs or so from the Scripture that it is not so even from their point of view. Indeed, will anyone arrogate this rank to himself unless he wishes to make himself a laughing stock?[55]

In Karaite Judaism

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The historical view of Jesus withinKaraite Judaismis a complex one. While Karaites share Rabbanite views in rejecting Christian beliefs of Jesus' divinity and claims to messiahship, Karaites throughout history have held warmer opinions about him. Karaite scholarJacob Qirqisanistated that some Karaites of his day believed that:

Jesus was a good man and his was in the way ofZadok,Anan,and others; and that the Rabbanites conspired against him and killed him just as they sought to kill Anan, without success. This is their way with all who oppose them.[56]

Persian historian and Islamic theologianAl-Shahrastanireported that Karaites believed that Jesus was indeed a righteous man, but was not a prophet, and that the Gospels were not divinely revealed, but created and compiled by Jesus and his disciples.[56]HakhamAbraham Firkovichbelieved Jesus himself was actually a Karaite.[57]ControversialhakhamSeraya Shapshalsaid:

We call him Yeshua haTzadik, that is, the "Just". For us Christ did not modify the Old Testament. On the contrary, he affirmed it… Christ is for us a great prophet, but not the messiah.[58]

As a Nazarene

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Further information:Nazarene (sect)andNazarene (title)

In addition to being a place-name, Nazarenes were Jews who committed to certain extreme observances of religious practice, such as shaving their heads and abstaining from various activities, foods or practices, spending time in contemplation in the desert and so on. They continue being recognized as Jews, and believe Jesus lived around 130 or 140 CE and was conflated withNeoplatonicbeliefs into what became the New Testament. To them, he was not God or God's son.[citation needed]

Positive historical re-evaluations

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Considering thehistorical Jesus,some modern Jewish thinkers have come to hold a more positive view of Jesus, arguing that he himself did not abandon Judaism and/or that he benefited non-Jews. Among historic Orthodox rabbis holding these views areJacob Emden,[59][60]Eliyahu Soloveitchik,andElijah Benamozegh.[61]

Moses Mendelssohn,as well as some other religious thinkers of theJewish Enlightenment,also held more positive views.[62]Austrian-born philosopherMartin Buberalso held Jesus in great regard.[63]A positive view of Jesus is fairly represented among modern Jews[64]in the currents ofReform(Emil G. HirschandKaufmann Kohler),Conservative(Milton SteinbergandByron Sherwin,[65]), andJewish Renewal(Zalman Schachter-Shalomi).

Some modernOrthodoxrabbis, such asIrving GreenbergandJonathan Sacks,also hold positive views (Greenberg theorizes Jesus as "a messiah but not The Messiah" ).[66]

RabbiShmuley Boteachtakes this even further, following the research ofHyam Maccoby.[67]Boteach authoredKosher Jesusin 2012, in which he depicts Jesus as "a Jewish patriot murdered by Rome for his struggle on behalf of his people."[68]Opinions of the merits of the book differ, withIsraeli-AmericanRabbiYechiel Eckstein,President of theInternational Fellowship of Christians and Jews,praising it as "courageous and thought-provoking".[69]Boteach said that the book "traces the teachings of Jesus to their original sources: theTorah,theTalmudandrabbinic literature".[70]

See also

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References

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  1. ^"Devarim (Deuteronomy) 6:4".
  2. ^Schochet, Rabbi J. Emmanuel (29 July 1999)."Judaism has no place for those who betray their roots".The Canadian Jewish News. Archived fromthe originalon 20 March 2001.Retrieved11 March2015.
  3. ^abIsaiah 2:4
  4. ^abIsaiah 11:9
  5. ^"Why the history of messianic Judaism is so fraught and complicated".13 November 2018.
  6. ^"How many Israeli Jews believe in Jesus? New book sheds light".19 February 2022.
  7. ^RabbiShraga Simmons,"Why Jews Don't Believe in Jesus".Archived fromthe originalon 2006-03-16.Retrieved2006-03-14.,"Why Jews Don't Believe in Jesus",Ohr Samayach-Ask the Rabbi,accessed March 14, 2006;"Why don't Jews believe that Jesus was the messiah?"Archived2020-05-08 at theWayback Machine,AskMoses.com,accessed March 14, 2006.
  8. ^The concept of Trinity is incompatible with Judaism:
  9. ^Ta'anit2:1
  10. ^Johnson, Paul(1987).A History of the Jews.HarperCollins. pp.144.ISBN0-06-091533-1.
  11. ^Maimonides,Mishneh TorahMaddaYesodei ha-Torah1:5
  12. ^Kaplan, Aryeh(1985) [1976]. "From Messiah to Christ".The Real Messiah? A Jewish Response to Missionaries.New York:National Conference of Synagogue Youth.p. 33.ISBN1-879016-11-7.During his lifetime, Jesus often spoke of God as "my Father in Heaven." For the Jews, this was a common poetic expression, and one that is still used in Jewish prayers. For the pagan gentiles, however, it had a much more literal connotation.
  13. ^"Principal Beliefs of Judaism".ijs.org.au.Israel & Judaism Studies.Retrieved2016-12-08.[permanent dead link]
  14. ^"Anthropomorphism".jewishvirtuallibrary.org.Jewish Virtual Library.Retrieved2016-12-08.
  15. ^Deuteronomy.4:12.The Lord spoke to you out of the midst of the fire; you heard the sound of the words, but saw no image, just a voice.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location (link)
  16. ^Exodus.pp. 25:20.... for man shall not see Me and live.
  17. ^"Maimonides #3 - God's Incorporeality".aishcom.Retrieved2016-12-08.
  18. ^"Chapter 1: G-D Part 1".torah.org.2 May 2007.Retrieved2016-12-08.
  19. ^Maimonides,Hilchos Melachim11:4-5.
  20. ^Nachmanidesin his dispute withPablo Christianiin 1263 paragraph 49.
  21. ^Simmons, Rabbi Shraga,"Why Jews Don't Believe in Jesus"Archived2006-03-16 at theWayback Machine,accessed March 14, 2006.
  22. ^"Why Jews Don't Believe in Jesus",Ohr Samayach-Ask the Rabbi,accessed March 14, 2006.
  23. ^"Why don't Jews believe that Jesus was the messiah?"Archived2020-05-08 at theWayback Machine,AskMoses.com,accessed March 14, 2006.
  24. ^Isaiah 11:1
  25. ^Isaiah 52:13–53:5
  26. ^Ezekiel 16:55
  27. ^Nachmanides in theDisputation of BarcelonawithPablo Christianiin 1263 paragraph 103.
  28. ^Michoel Drazin (1990).Their Hollow Inheritance. A Comprehensive Refutation of Christian Missionaries.Gefen Publishing House, Ltd.ISBN965-229-070-X.
  29. ^Troki, Isaac."Faith Strengthened"Archived2007-09-29 at theWayback Machine.
  30. ^Simmons, Shraga(May 9, 2009)."Why Jews Don't Believe in Jesus".Aish HaTorah.Jews do not accept Jesus as the messiah because:
    1. Jesus did not fulfill the messianic prophecies.
    2. Jesus did not embody the personal qualifications of the Messiah.
    3. Biblical verses "referring" to Jesus are mistranslations.
    4. Jewish belief is based on national revelation.
  31. ^Mishneh TorahMadahYeshodai HaTorah 8:7-9
  32. ^Tanakh: A New Translation of the Holy Scriptures,©1985 by TheJewish Publication Society,1st edition, p. 296; in christian bibles this verse is Deuteronomy 12:32
  33. ^Frankel, Rabbi Pinchas,"Covenant of History",Orthodox Union of Jewish Congregations of America,accessed March 14, 2006.
  34. ^Edwards, Laurence,"Torat Hayim - Living Torah: No Rest(s) for the Wicked"Archived2005-12-21 at theWayback Machine,Union of American Hebrew Congregations,accessed March 14, 2006.
  35. ^Deuteronomy 13:1–5and18:18–22
  36. ^Buchwald, Rabbi Ephraim,"Parashat Re'eh 5764-2004: Identifying a True Prophet"Archived2017-04-11 at theWayback Machine,National Jewish Outreach Program, accessed March 14, 2006
  37. ^"Balaam the Prophet of Error".The Church of God International.
  38. ^Kolatch, Alfred (2000) [1985]. "Judaism and Christianity".The Second Jewish Book of Why.Middle Village,NY:Jonathan David Publishers, Inc. pp. 61–64.ISBN978-0-8246-0314-4.LCCN84-21477.Original sin, the virgin birth, the Trinity, and vicarious atonement are among the concepts that Christians embrace but Jews reject.…The doctrine of original sin is totally unacceptable to Jews (as it is to Fundamentalist Christian sects such as the Baptists and Assemblies of God). Jews believe that man enters the world free of sin, with a soul that is pure and innocent and untainted.
  39. ^Gerondi, Yonah(1981) [1505].שערי תשובה[The Gates of Repentance] (in Hebrew and English). translated byShraga Silverstein.Nanuet, New York:Feldheim Publishers.ISBN978-0-87306-252-7.
  40. ^Delbert Burkett.The Blackwell Companion to Jesus.2010. p. 220. "Accordingly, scholars' analyses range widely from minimalists (eg, Lauterbach 1951) – who recognize only relatively few passages that actually have Jesus in mind – to moderates (eg, Herford [1903] 2006), to maximalists (Klausner 1943, 17–54; especially Schäfer 2007)."
  41. ^Saadia R. EisenbergReading Medieval Religious Disputation: The 1240 "Debate" Between Rabbi Yechiel of Paris and Friar Nicholas Donin
  42. ^paragraph 22.Vikuach HaRambanfound inOtzar Havikuchimby J. D. Eisenstein, Hebrew Publishing Society, 1915 andKitvey HaRambanby Rabbi Charles D. Chavel, Mosad Horav Kook, 1963
  43. ^David R. CatchpoleThe trial of Jesus: a study in the Gospels and Jewish Historiography from 1770 to the Present Day,Leiden, 1971 Page 62 "(c) Rabbenu Tam (b.Shabb. 104b) declared: 'This was not Jesus of Nazareth.' But his view, from the 12th century, constitutes no evidence."
  44. ^Section 3 paragraph 65.
  45. ^Berger D.Jewish history and Jewish memory: essays in honor of Yosef Hayimp39 "This discussion makes it perfectly clear that Duran gave no credence to a theory of two Jesuses." etc.
  46. ^Robert E. Van VoorstJesus outside the New Testament: an introduction to the ancient evidence p108 "WhileHerfordwas somewhat critical of their accuracy, he seems almost never to have met a possible reference to Jesus that he did not like!70 On the other end of the spectrum,Johann Maierin his Jesus von Nazareth in der talmudischen... "2000
  47. ^Peter SchäferJesus in the Talmud
  48. ^BoyarinDying for God: martyrdom and the making of Christianity and Judaism1999
  49. ^"The Jesus Narrative In The Talmud".talmud.faithweb.com.
  50. ^"Ancient Hebrew (Talmud) account of Christ--McKinsey".www.skeptically.org.
  51. ^Apocryphal gospels: an introduction: Hans-Josef Klauck p213. "An unfriendly interpretation of the child's name is offered: 'But the name Yeshu means:" May his name be blotted out, and his memory too! "' (§ 58). The three letters of which the name Jesus in Hebrew consists, yod, sin and waw,"
  52. ^SchäferJesus in the Talmud2009 p4 "Whereas in the early modern period the" Jesus in the Talmud "paradigm served almost solely as an inexhaustible source for anti-Jewish sentiments, the subject gained more serious and critical recognition in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries."
  53. ^Jerald d. Gort, ed. (2006).Religions view religions: explorations in pursuit of understanding([Online-Ausg.]. ed.). Amsterdam [u.a.]: Rodopi. p. 102.ISBN9042018585.
  54. ^Halkin, Abraham S., ed., and Cohen, Boaz, trans.Moses Maimonides' Epistle to Yemen: The Arabic Original and the Three Hebrew Versions,American Academy for Jewish Research, 1952,pp. iii-iv.
  55. ^Halkin, Abraham S., ed., and Cohen, Boaz, trans.Moses Maimonides' Epistle to Yemen: The Arabic Original and the Three Hebrew Versions,American Academy for Jewish Research, 1952,p. xvii.
  56. ^abAstren, Fred (2004).Karaite Judaism and historical understanding.University of South Carolina Press. p. 119.ISBN9781570035180.
  57. ^Revel, Bernard (1913).The Karaite Halakah And Its Relation to Saduccean, Samaritan and Philonian Halakah. Part 1 · Volume 1.Press of Cahan printing Company. p. 88.ISBN9781548603533.
  58. ^Berger, David (2012).New Perspectives on Jewish-Christian Relations.Brill Publishing. p. 486.ISBN9789004221178.
  59. ^"Emden's letter about Jesus"Archived2013-01-15 at theWayback Machine,Journal of Ecumenical Studies,19:1, Winter 1982, pp. 105-111. "The Nazarene brought about a double kindness in the world. On the one hand, he strengthened the Torah of Moses majestically, as mentioned earlier, and not one of our Sages spoke out more emphatically concerning the immutability of the Torah. And on the other hand, he did much good for the Gentiles."
  60. ^Gregory A. Barker and Stephen E. Gregg.Jesus beyond Christianity: The Classic Texts,Oxford University Press, 2010,ISBN0-19-955345-9,p. 29-31.
  61. ^Elijah Benamozegh,Israel and Humanity,Paulist Press, 1995,ISBN0-8047-5371-7,p. 329. "Jesus was a good Jew who did not dream of founding a rival church".
  62. ^Matthew B. Hoffman, From rebel to rabbi: reclaiming Jesus and the making of modern Jewish culture, Stanford University Press, 2007,ISBN0-8047-5371-7,p. 22: "Mendelssohn depicts Jesus as a model rabbinical Jew... as a loyal rabbi"; p. 259: "Mendelssohn was not the first to make such claims. Jacob Emden (1696-1776), a leading figure of traditional Judaism in eighteenth-century Germany, also looked vary favorably on Jesus"; p. 50: "Elijah Benamozegh (1823-1901) showed the resemblance between parables and ethical imperatives in the gospels and the Talmud, concluding that 'when Jesus spoke these words he was in no way abandoning Judaism'"; p. 258: "Levinsohn avowed that Jesus was a law-abiding Jew"
  63. ^"Rehearing Buber's Jesus Deepens Jewish-Christian Dialogue / By Kramer, Kenneth P."Archived fromthe originalon 2016-03-04.Retrieved2015-12-23.
  64. ^Neusner, Jacob (2000).A rabbi talks with Jesus(Rev. ed.). Montreal [Que.]: McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 4.ISBN0773568395.For a long time Jews have praised Jesus as a rabbi, a Jew like us really;
  65. ^Magid, Shaul (2013).American Post-Judaism: Identity and Renewal in a Postethnic Society.Indiana University Press.ISBN978-0253008091.
  66. ^Feinstein, EveLevavi (19 June 2011)."JESUS FOR JEWS".The Jerusalem Post.Retrieved13 June2019.
  67. ^Zev Garber(ed.)The Jewish Jesus: Revelation, Reflection, Reclamation,Purdue University Press, 2011,ISBN1-55753-579-5,p. 361. "Both Greenberg and Sherwin use this model of a bifurcated messianic in different ways to suggest that Jews could, perhaps, accept Jesus as a" messiah "without agreeing with the Christian demands that he is the ultimate messiah."[clarification needed]
  68. ^Shmuley Boteach,Kosher Jesus(Gefen Publishing House, 2012,ISBN9652295787).
  69. ^Simon Rocker (January 26, 2012). "Seconds out: rabbis scrap over Jesus Christ",The Jewish Chronicle.
  70. ^Mayefsky, Chana (January 25, 2012)."Shmuley Boteach: Was Jesus Kosher?".Publishers Weekly.RetrievedSeptember 26,2012.
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