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Abrahamic religions

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From top to bottom: thestar and crescent(Islam), thecross(Christianity), and theStar of David(Judaism) are the symbols commonly used to represent the three largest Abrahamic religions.

TheAbrahamic religionsare a grouping of three of themajor religions(Judaism,Christianity,andIslam) together due to their historical coexistence and competition;[1][2]it refers toAbraham,a figure mentioned in theHebrew Bible,theChristian Bible,and theQuranrespectively, and is used to show similarities between these religions and put them in contrast toIndian religions,Iranian religions,and theEast Asian religions(though other religions and belief systems may refer toAbrahamas well).[3][4]Furthermore, some religions categorized as "Abrahamic" also share elements from other categories, such as Indian religions, or for example, Islam withEastern religions.[5]

Abrahamic religions make up the largest major division inthe study of comparative religion.[6]By total number of adherents, Christianity and Islam comprise the largest and second-largest religious movements in the world, respectively.[7][page needed]Judaism is the smallest of the three major Abrahamic religions, andSamaritanismis the smallest Abrahamic religion.Bábism,andDruzismare offshoots of Abrahamic religions.[8]

Usage

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The termAbrahamic religions(and its variations) is a collective religious descriptor for elements shared byJudaism,Christianity,andIslam.[9]It features prominently ininterfaith dialogueand political discourse but also has enteredacademic discourse.[10][11]However, the term has also been criticized for being uncritically adopted.[10]

Although historically the termAbrahamic religionswas limited to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam,[12]restricting the category to these three religions has come under criticism.[13][14]The late-19th-centuryBaháʼí Faithhas been listed asAbrahamicby scholarly sources in various fields[15][16]since it is a monotheistic religion that recognizes Abraham.[17][18]

Theological discourse

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The figure ofAbrahamis suggested as a common ground for Judaism, Christianity, Islam and a hypothesized eschatological reconciliation of the three.[19][20]Commonalities may includecreation,revelation,andredemption,but such shared concepts vary significantly between and within the Abrahamic religions themselves.[20]Proponents of the term argue that all three religions are united through thedeityworshipped by Abraham.[19]

TheCatholicscholar of IslamLouis Massignonstated that the phrase "Abrahamic religion" means that all these religions come from one spiritual source.[21]The modern term comes from the plural form of a Quranic reference todīn Ibrāhīm( "religion of Ibrahim" ), the Arabic form of Abraham's name.[22]

In Christianity,Paul the Apostle,inRomans 4:11–12,refers to Abraham as "father of all", including those "who have faith,circumcisedor uncircumcised. "From its founding, Islam likewise conceived of itself as the religion of Abraham.[23]TheBahá’í scripturesstate that the religion's founder,Baháʼu’lláh,descended from Abraham through his wifeKeturah's sons.[24][25][26]

Criticism

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The appropriateness of grouping Judaism, Christianity, and Islam as "Abrahamic religions" and related terms has been challenged.[27]Adam Dodds argues that the term "Abrahamic faiths", while helpful, can be misleading, as it conveys an unspecified historical andtheologicalcommonality that is problematic on closer examination. While there is a commonality among the religions, their shared ancestry is mainly peripheral to their respective foundational beliefs and thus conceals crucial differences.[28]Alan L. Berger,professor ofJudaic StudiesatFlorida Atlantic University,wrote that "while Judaism birthed both Christianity and Islam, the three monotheistic faiths went their separate ways" and "each tradition views the patriarchal figure differently as seen in the theological claims they make about him."[29]Aaron W. Hughes,meanwhile, describes the term as "imprecise" and "largely a theologicalneologism."[30]

The common Christian doctrines of Jesus'sIncarnation,theTrinity,and theresurrection of Jesus,for example, are accepted in neither Judaism nor Islam. There are fundamental beliefs in both Islam and Judaism that are likewise denied by most of Christianity (e.g., therestrictions on pork consumptionfound inJewishandIslamicdietary law), and key beliefs of Islam, Christianity, and the Baháʼí Faith not shared by Judaism (e.g., thepropheticandMessianicposition ofJesus).[31]

Religions

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Judaism

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Main article:Jewish history
The Torah forms the basis and foundation of Judaism and corresponds to the first five books of the Bible.

Jewish tradition claims that theTwelve Tribes of Israelare descended from Abraham through his sonIsaacand grandsonJacob,whose sons formed the nation of theIsraelitesinCanaan;Islamic tradition claims that twelve Arab tribes known as theIshmaelitesare descended from Abraham through his sonIshmaelin the Arabian Peninsula.[32]

In its early stages, the Israelite religion shares traits with theCanaanite religionsof theBronze Age;by theIron Age,it had become distinct from other Canaanite religions as it shed polytheism formonolatry.They understood their relationship with their god,Yahweh,as a covenant and that the deity promised Abraham a permanent homeland.[33]

While theBook of Genesisspeaks ofmultiple gods(ʾĔlōhīm), comparable to theEnūma Elišspeaking of various gods of the Canaanite pantheon to create the earth, at the time of theBabylonian captivity,Jewish theologians attributed the six-day narrative all toYahweh,reflecting an early conception of Yahweh as a universal deity.[34]The monolatrist nature ofYahwismwas further developed in the period following theBabylonian captivity,eventually emerging as a firm religious movement of monotheism.[35][36][37]With theFall of Babylon,Judaism emphasised concepts such as messianism, belief in free will and judgement after death, conception of heaven and hell, angels and demons, among others, into their belief-system.[38][39][40]

Christianity

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Main article:History of Christianity
A Bible handwritten inLatin,on display inMalmesbury Abbey,Wiltshire, England. This Bible was transcribed in Belgium in 1407 for reading aloud in a monastery.

Christianitytraces back their origin to the 1st century as a sect within Judaism initially led byJesus.His followers viewed him as theMessiah,as in theConfession of Peter;after hiscrucifixionand death they came to view him asGod incarnate,[41]who wasresurrectedand willreturnat the end of time tojudge the living and the deadand create an eternalKingdom of God.

In the 1st century AD, under theApostlesofJesus of Nazareth;[24]Christianityspread widely after it was adopted by theRoman Empireas a state religion in the 4th century AD.Paul the Apostleinterpreted the role of Abraham differently than the Jews of his time.[42]While for the Jews, Abraham was considered a loyal monotheist in a polytheistic environment, Paul celebrates Abraham as a man who found faith in God before adhering toreligiouslaw. In contrast to Judaism, adherence to religious law becomes associated with idolatry.[43]

While Christians fashioned their religion aroundJesus of Nazareth,thesiege of Jerusalem(70 CE), forced Jews to reconcile their belief-system with the destruction of theSecond Templeand associated rituals.[44]At this time, both Judaism and Christianity had to systematize their scriptures and beliefs, resulting in competing theologies both claiming Abrahamic heritage.[45]Christians could hardly dismiss the Hebrew scriptures as Jesus himself refers to them according to Christian reports, and parallels between Jesus and the Biblical stories ofcreationandredemptionstarting with Abraham in theBook of Genesis.[46]The distant God asserted by Jesus according to the Christians, created a form of dualism between Creator and creation and the doctrine ofCreatio ex nihilo,which later heavily influenced Jewish and Islamic theology.[47]By that, Christians established their own identity, distinct from both Greeks and Jews, as those who venerate the deity of Jesus.[48]

After several periods of alternatingpersecutionand relative peacevis-à-visthe Roman authorities under different administrations, Christianity became thestate church of the Roman Empirein 380, but has beensplit into various churches from its beginning.An attempt was made by theByzantine Empireto unifyChristendom,but this formally failed with theEast–West Schismof 1054. In the 16th century, the birth and growth ofProtestantismduring theReformationfurther split Christianity into manydenominations. Christianity remainsculturally diversein itsWesternandEastern branches,Christianity played a prominent role in thedevelopment of Western civilization.[49]

Islam

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Main article:History of Islam
The Quran is the holy book of Islam revealed to prophet Muhammad

Islamis based on the teachings of theQuran.Although it considersMuhammadto be theSeal of the prophets,Islam teaches that everyprophetpreached Islam, as the wordIslamliterally means submission, the main concept preached by all prophets. Although theQuranis the centralreligious textof Islam, whichMuslimsbelieve to be arevelationfrom God,[50]other Islamic books considered to be revealed by God before the Quran, mentioned by name in the Quran are theTawrat(Torah) revealed to theprophets and messengersamongst theChildren of Israel(Bani Israil), theZabur(Psalms) revealed toDawud(David) and theInjil(theGospel) revealed toIsa(Jesus). The Quran also mentions God having revealed theScrolls of Abrahamand theScrolls of Moses.

The relationship between Islamic and Hebrew scriptures and New Testament differs significantly from the relationship between the New Testament and theHebrew Bible.[51]Whereas the New Testament draws heavily on the Hebrew Bible and interprets its text in light of the foundations of the new religion, the Quran only alludes to various stories of Biblical writings, but remains independent of both, focusing on establishing a monotheistic message by utilizing the stories of the prophets in a religious decentralized environment.[51]

In the 7th century AD, Islam was founded byMuhammadin the Arabian Peninsula; it spread widely through theearly Muslim conquests,shortly after his death.[24]Islam understands its form of "Abrahamic monotheism" as preceding both Judaism and Christianity, and in contrast with ArabianHenotheism.[52]

The teachings of the Quran are believed by Muslims to be the direct and final revelation and words ofGod.Islam, like Christianity, is auniversal religion(i.e. membership is open to anyone). Like Judaism, it has a strictly unitary conception of God, calledtawhidor "strict monotheism".[53]The story of the creation of the world in the Quran is elaborated less extensively than in the Hebrew scripture, emphasizing the transcendence and universality of God, instead. According to the Quran, God sayskun fa-yakūnu.[54]The Quran describes God as the creator of "heavens and earth", to emphasize that it is a universal God and not a local Arabian deity here.[54]

Others

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While many sources limit the list of Abrahamic religions to only include Judaism, Christianity and Islam, some sources include other religions as well.

Samaritanismdiverged from Judaism in the 6th to 3rd centuries BCE; although sometimes considered a branch of Judaism, most consider it to be an independent Abrahamic religion.

Some sources considerMandaeismto be an Abrahamic religion – however, that classification is controversial, given Mandaeism does not accept Abraham as a prophet, despite revering as prophets several other figures from the Jewish scriptures – on the contrary, they believe that Abraham was originally a priest of their religion, but became an apostate from it.

Druzeis another religion which emerged out of Islam in the 11th century, and hence is sometimes also considered an Abrahamic religion. Yarsanismis a Kurdish religion which combines elements of Shi'a Islam with pre-Islamic Kurdish beliefs; it has been classified as Abrahamic due to its monotheism, incorporation of Islamic doctrines, and reverence for Islamic figures, especiallyAli ibn Abi Talib,the fourthcaliphand firstimamofShia Islam.

Modern era

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A number of sources include theBaháʼí Faithestablished in the 19th century,[15][16]since it historically emerged in an Islamic milieu, and shares several beliefs with the Abrahamic faiths, including monotheism and recognising Jewish, Christian and Islamic figures as prophets.[17][18] Some also includeBábism,another 19th century movement which was a precursor to the Baháʼí Faith – but while most followers of Bábism became Baháʼís, a minority did not, and Bábism survives today as an independent religion, albeit only with a few thousand remaining followers.

Rastafari,an Afrocentric religion which emerged out of Christianity in 1930s Jamaica, is also sometimes classified as Abrahamic, in particular due to its monotheism and use of the Bible as scripture. Chrislam,a group of related Nigerian religious movements which seek to syncretise Christianity and Islam, is sometimes also considered a minor Abrahamic religion.

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Other African diaspora religions, such asHaitian VodouandCandomblé,are not classified as Abrahamic, despite originating in syncretism between Christianity and African traditional religions, since they are not monotheistic, and Abraham plays no role in them.

Scholarly sources do not classifySikhismas an Abrahamic religion, but it is sometimes popularly misconceived as being one, in particular due to the theory that it is a syncretism of Hinduism and Islam, which was popular in older accounts but has been rejected as inaccurate by contemporary scholarship.

Zoroastrianismis not considered an Abrahamic religion, since Abraham is not part of Zoroastrian religious traditions.

Common aspects

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All Abrahamic religions accept the tradition thatGodrevealed himself to the patriarch Abraham.[55][page needed]All of them aremonotheistic,and all of them conceive God to be atranscendentcreatorand the source ofmoral law.[56]Theirreligious textsfeature many of the same figures, histories, and places, although they often present them with different roles, perspectives, and meanings.[57]Believers who agree on these similarities and the common Abrahamic origin tend to also be more positive towards other Abrahamic groups.[58]

In the three main Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity and Islam), the individual, God, and the universe are highly separate from each other. The Abrahamic religions believe in a judging, paternal, fully external god to which the individual and nature are both subordinate. One seekssalvationor transcendence not by contemplating the natural world or via philosophical speculation, but by seeking to please God (such as obedience with God's wishes or his law) and seedivine revelationas outside of self, nature, and custom.

Monotheism

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Main article:God in Abrahamic religions

All Abrahamic religions claim to be monotheistic, worshiping an exclusive God, although one who is known by different names.[55][page needed]Each of these religions preaches that God creates, is one, rules, reveals, loves, judges, punishes, and forgives.[28]However, although Christianity does not profess to believe in three gods—but rather in threepersons,or hypostases, united in oneessence—theTrinitarian doctrine,a fundamental of faith for the vast majority of Christian denominations,[59][60]conflicts with Jewish and Muslim concepts of monotheism. Since the conception of a divine Trinity is not amenable totawhid,the Islamic doctrine of monotheism, Islam regards Christianity as variouslypolytheistic.[61]

Christianity and Islam both revere Jesus (Arabic:IsaorYasuamong Muslims andArab Christiansrespectively) but with vastly differing conceptions:

However, the worship of Jesus, or the ascribing of partners to God (known asshirkin Islam and asshitufin Judaism), is typically viewed as theheresyofidolatryby Islam and Judaism.[citation needed]

Importance of Jerusalem

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Main article:Religious significance of Jerusalem
Further information:Jerusalem in Judaism,Jerusalem in Christianity,andJerusalem in Islam

Jerusalemis considered Judaism's holiest city. Its origins can be dated to 1004 BCE,[63]when according to Biblical traditionDavidestablished it as the capital of the United Kingdom of Israel, and his sonSolomonbuilt theFirst TempleonMount Moriah.[64]Since theHebrew Biblerelates thatIsaac's sacrificetook place there, Mount Moriah's importance for Jews predates even these prominent events. Jews thrice daily pray in its direction, including in their prayers pleas for the restoration and the rebuilding of theHoly Temple(theThird Temple) on mount Moriah, close the Passover service with the wistful statement "Next year in built Jerusalem," and recall the city in the blessing at the end of each meal. Jerusalem has served as the only capital for the five Jewish states that have existed in Israel since 1400 BCE (theUnited Kingdom of Israel,theKingdom of Judah,Yehud Medinata,theHasmonean Kingdom,and modern Israel). It has been majority Jewish since about 1852 and continues through today.[65][66]

Jerusalem was an early center of Christianity.There has been a continuous Christian presence there since.[67]William R. Kenan, Jr., professor of the history of Christianity at theUniversity of Virginia,Charlottesville, writes that from the middle of the 4th century to theIslamic conquestin the middle of the 7th century, theRoman province of Syria Palaestinawas a Christian nation with Jerusalem its principal city.[67]According to theNew Testament,Jerusalem was the city Jesus was brought to as a child to be presented at the temple[68]and for the feast of thePassover.[69]He preached and healed in Jerusalem, unceremoniously drove themoney changersin disarray from the temple there, held theLast Supperin an "upper room" (traditionally theCenacle) there the night before he was crucified on the cross and was arrested inGethsemane.The six parts to Jesus' trial—three stages in a religious court and three stages before a Roman court—were all held in Jerusalem. HiscrucifixionatGolgotha,his burial nearby (traditionally theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre), and his resurrection and ascension andprophecy to returnall are said to have occurred or will occur there.

Jerusalem became holy to Muslims, third afterMeccaandMedina.TheAl-Aqsa,which translates to "farthest mosque" insuraAl-Israin the Quran and its surroundings are addressed in the Quran as "the holy land". Muslim tradition as recorded in theahadithidentifies al-Aqsa with a mosque in Jerusalem. The first Muslims did not pray towardKaaba,but toward Jerusalem. The qibla was switched to Kaaba later on to fulfill the order of Allah of praying in the direction of Kaaba (Quran, Al-Baqarah 2:144–150). Another reason for its significance is its connection with theMiʿrāj,[70]where, according to traditional Muslim belief, Muhammad ascended through theSeven heavenson a horse like winged beast namedBuraq,guided by theArchangel Gabriel,beginning from theFoundation Stoneon theTemple Mount,in modern times under theDome of the Rock.[71][72]

Significance of Abraham

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Main articles:Covenant of the pieces,Abraham § Christianity,andAbraham in Islam

Even though members of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam do not all claim Abraham as an ancestor, some members of these religions have tried to claim him as exclusively theirs.[15]

ForJews,Abraham is the foundingpatriarchof the children of Israel. God promised Abraham: "I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you."[73]With Abraham, God entered into "an everlasting covenant throughout the ages to be God to you and to your offspring to come".[74]It is this covenant that makes Abraham and his descendants children of the covenant. Similarly, converts, who join the covenant, are all identified as sons and daughters of Abraham.[75]

Abraham is primarily a revered ancestor orpatriarch(referred to asAvraham Avinu(אברהם אבינו inHebrew) "Abraham our father" ) to whom God made several promises: chiefly, that he would have numberless descendants, who would receive the land of Canaan (the "Promised Land"). According to Jewish tradition, Abraham was the first post-Floodprophet to rejectidolatrythrough rational analysis, althoughShemandEbercarried on the tradition fromNoah.[76][77]

Christians view Abrahamas an important exemplar offaith,and a spiritual, as well as physical, ancestor of Jesus. For Christians, Abraham is a spiritual forebear as well as/rather than a direct ancestor depending on theindividual's interpretation of Paul the Apostle,[78]with theAbrahamic covenant"reinterpreted so as to be defined by faith in Christ rather than biological descent" or both by faith as well as a direct ancestor; in any case, the emphasis is placed on faith being the only requirement for the Abrahamic Covenant to apply[79](see alsoNew Covenantandsupersessionism). In Christian belief, Abraham is arole modelof faith,[80][non-primary source needed]and his obedience to God byoffering Isaacis seen as aforeshadowingof God's offering of his son Jesus.[81][82]

Christian commentators have a tendency to interpret God's promises to Abraham as applying to Christianity subsequent to, and sometimes rather than (as in supersessionism), being applied to Judaism, whose adherentsrejected Jesus.[neutralityisdisputed]They argue this on the basis that just as Abraham as aGentile(before he wascircumcised) "believed God and it was credited to him as righteousness"[83](cf. Rom. 4:3, James 2:23), "those who have faith are children of Abraham"[84](see also John 8:39). This is most fully developed inPaul's theologywhere all who believe in God are spiritual descendants of Abraham.[85][a]However, with regards to Rom. 4:20[86]and Gal. 4:9,[87]in both cases he refers to these spiritual descendants as the "sons of God"[88]rather than "children of Abraham".[89]

For Muslims, Abraham is aprophet,the "messengerof God "who stands in the line from Adam to Muhammad, to whom God gave revelations,[Quran%3Averse%3D163 4:163],who "raised the foundations of the House" (i.e., theKaaba)[Quran%3Averse%3D127 2:127]with his first son,Isma'il,a symbol of which is every mosque.[90]Ibrahim (Abraham) is the first in agenealogyfor Muhammad. Islam considers Abraham to be "one of the first Muslims" (Surah 3)—the first monotheist in a world where monotheism was lost, and the community of those faithful to God,[91]thus being referred to as ابونا ابراهيم or "Our Father Abraham", as well asIbrahimal-Hanifor "Abraham the Monotheist". Also, the same as Judaism, Islam believes that Abraham rejected idolatry through logical reasoning. Abraham is also recalled in certain details of the annualHajjpilgrimage.[92]

Differences

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God

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Main articles:God in Abrahamic religions,God in Judaism,God in Christianity,God in Islam,andGod in the Baháʼí Faith
Further information:Yahweh,Tetragrammaton,El (deity),Elohim,Names of God in Judaism,Names of God in Christianity,andNames of God in Islam

Theconception of Godas universal remains a common feature of all Abrahamic religions.[93]The Abrahamic God is conceived of aseternal,omnipotent,omniscientand as thecreator of the universe.[93]God is further held to have the properties of holiness, justice,omnibenevolence,andomnipresence.[93]Proponents of Abrahamic faiths believe that God is alsotranscendent,but at the same timepersonaland involved, listening toprayerand reacting to the actions of his creatures.

TheStar of David(orMagen David) is a generally recognized symbol of modern Jewish identity and Judaism.

Jewish theologyis unitarian. God is an absolute one, indivisible and incomparablebeingwho is the ultimate cause of all existence. Jewish tradition teaches that the true aspect of God is incomprehensible and unknowable and that it is only God's revealed aspect that brought the universe into existence, and interacts with mankind and the world. In Judaism, the one God of Israel is the God of Abraham,Isaac,andJacob,who is the guide of the world, deliveredIsraelfromslavery in Egypt,and gave them the613 MitzvotatMount Sinaias described in theTorah.

Thenational godof theIsraeliteshas aproper name,writtenY-H-W-H(Hebrew:יהוה) in theHebrew Bible.The etymology of the name is unknown.[94]An explanation of the name is given to Moses when YHWH calls himself "I Am that I Am",(Hebrew:אהיה אשר אהיה’ehye ’ăšer ’ehye), seemingly connecting it to the verbhayah(הָיָה), meaning 'to be', but this is likely not a genuine etymology. Jewish tradition accords many names to God, includingElohim,Shaddai,andSabaoth.

TheChristian cross(or crux) is the best-known religious symbol of Christianity; this version is known as a Latin Cross.

InChristian theology,God is theeternal beingwhocreatedandpreservesthe world. Christians believe God to be both transcendent andimmanent(involved in the world).[95][96]Early Christianviews of God were expressed in thePauline Epistlesand the early[b]creeds,which proclaimed one God and thedivinity of Jesus.

Around the year 200,Tertullianformulated a version of the doctrine of theTrinitywhich clearly affirmed the divinity of Jesus and came close to the later definitive form produced by theEcumenical Council of 381.[97][98]Trinitarians, who form the large majority ofChristians,hold it as a core tenet of their faith.[99][100]Nontrinitariandenominations define the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit in a number of different ways.[101]

The theology of theattributes and nature of Godhas been discussed since the earliest days of Christianity, withIrenaeuswriting in the 2nd century: "His greatness lacks nothing, but contains all things."[102]In the 8th century,John of Damascuslisted eighteen attributes which remain widely accepted.[103]As time passed, theologians developed systematic lists of these attributes, some based on statements in the Bible (e.g., theLord's Prayer,stating that theFatheris inHeaven), others based on theological reasoning.[104][105]

The wordGodwritten inArabic

InIslamic theology,God (Arabic:اللهAllāh) is theall-powerfulandall-knowingcreator, sustainer, ordainer and judge of everything in existence.[106]In contrast to the Jewish and Christian traditions, which depict God usually as anthropomorph, the Islamic conception of God is less personal, but rather of a conscious force behind all aspects of the universe only known through signs of nature, metaphorical stories, and revelation by the prophets and angels.[107]Islam emphasizes that God is singular (tawḥīd)[108]unique (wāḥid) and inherently One (aḥad), all-merciful and omnipotent.[109]According to Islamic teachings, God exists without place[110]and according to the Quran, "No vision can grasp him, but His grasp is over all vision: He is above all comprehension, yet is acquainted with all things."[111]God, as referenced in the Quran, is the only God.[112][113]Islamic tradition also describes the99 names of God.These 99 names describe attributes of God, including Most Merciful, The Just, The Peace and Blessing, and the Guardian.

A distinct feature between the concept of God in Islam compared to Christianity is that God has no progeny. This belief is summed up inchapter112 of the Quran titledAl-Ikhlas,which states "Say, he is Allah (who is) one, Allah is the Eternal, the Absolute. He does not beget nor was he begotten. Nor is there to Him any equivalent."[Quran%3Averse%3D1 112:1]

Salvation

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Christianity teachesOriginal Sin,the doctrine that humanity is inherently sinful since thefall of Adam.[114]Accordingly,salvation from death, suffering, and evil, the consequence of mankind's sinful nature,can only be brought byDeathandResurrection of Jesus[115]

Since humans obeyed the Devil by committing sin, according to Christian teachings of salvation, theDevilhas authority over humans.[116]Only the crucifixion of Jesus could save humans from the grasps of the Devil. Accordingly, Christianity rejects that actions and repentance alone could achieve salvation. The notion that only through the sacrifice of Jesus, salvation could be achieved is emphasized in the Bible:

"I am the way, and the truth, and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me." (John 14:6).[117]

Salvation is thus, a grace bestowed by God, not an individual's work, and passages from the Bible are used in Christian theology to underline that message:

"surely God is my salvation; I will trust and not be afraid"[117](Isaiah 12:2)

Christianity understands acceptance of Jesus' sacrifice as a transformation of the individual, by that the person sheds off its former sinful nature and dissolves in the will of Jesus, an idea attributed to Paul in the Bible:

"If anyone is in Christ, he is a new cre-ation: the old has gone; the new has come."[117]

In Christianity, repentance is an external process; attained through faith.

Islam does neither acknowledge nor aspire salvation from evil in the world.[118]Instead, Islam teaches individual salvation from earthly and otherworldly sufferings through repentance (tawbah).[117]

There is no concept of original sin in Islam. The Fall ofAdamis interpreted as anallegoryfor mankind's behavior; they sin, become aware of their sin, then repent.[119]Accordingly, Islam neither acknowledges nor aspires salvation from evil in the world.[118]Salvation is achieved by purifying one's soul, to go to paradise after death.[117]The importance of repentance is highlighted throughout Islamic scripture:

"Indeed, Allah loves those who are constantly repentant and loves those who purify themselves" (Surah 2:22)

Sometimes compared to the concept of original sin, the devils (shayāṭīn) are said to "touch" humans at the moment of birth and a devil is said to move through humans like blood in the veins, causing an urge to sin.[120]Thus, humans are expected to have a sinful nature, but it could be overcome through repentance:[117]

"Every son of Adam commits sin and the best for those who commit sin are those who repent." (Sunan Ibn Ma-jah)[117]

The devils as conceptualized in the New Testament are in odds with the Islamic idea of monotheism, thus closer to the Jewish understanding of Satan; not as an accuser, but a tempter.[121]According to Islamic monotheism, the devils are dependent on God.[121]According to Islamic teachings, evil is not traced back to devils, but to God, precisely to God's will:

"For indeed, Allāh sends astray whom He wills and guides whom He wills." (Surah 35:8).[122][121]

The origin of good and evil do not depend on a person's will, the devils, or universal laws, but solely on God's judgement.[121]

Circumcision

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See also:Religious male circumcision,Brit milah,Khitan (circumcision),Circumcision controversy in early Christianity,andHistory of circumcision
Preparing for a Jewishritual circumcision.

Judaism andSamaritanismcommands thatmales be circumcisedwhen they are eight days old,[123]as does theSunnahinIslam.Despite its common practice in Muslim-majority nations, circumcision is considered to besunnah(tradition) and not required for a life directed by Allah.[124]Although there is some debate within Islam over whether it is a religious requirement or mere recommendation, circumcision (calledkhitan) is practiced nearly universally by Muslim males.

Today, manyChristian denominationsare neutral about ritual male circumcision, not requiring it for religious observance, but neither forbidding it for cultural or other reasons.[125]Western Christianityreplaced the custom of male circumcision with the ritual ofbaptism,[126]a ceremony which varies according to the doctrine of the denomination, but it generally includesimmersion,aspersion,oranointmentwith water. TheEarly Church(Acts 15, theCouncil of Jerusalem) decided thatGentile Christiansare not required to undergo circumcision. TheCouncil of Florencein the 15th century[127]prohibited it. Paragraph #2297 of the Catholic Catechism calls non-medical amputation or mutilation immoral.[128][129]By the 21st century, the Catholic Church had adopted a neutral position on the practice, as long as it is not practised as an initiation ritual. Catholic scholars make various arguments in support of the idea that this policy is not in contradiction with the previous edicts.[130][131][132]TheNew TestamentchapterActs 15records that Christianity did not require circumcision. TheCatholic Churchcurrently maintains a neutral position on the practice of non-religious circumcision,[133]and in 1442 it banned the practice of religious circumcision in the 11thCouncil of Florence.[134]Coptic Christianspractice circumcision as a rite of passage.[135]TheEritrean Orthodox Churchand theEthiopian Orthodox Churchcalls for circumcision, with near-universal prevalence among Orthodox men in Ethiopia.[136]

CopticChildren wearing traditional circumcision costumes

Many countries with majorities of Christian adherents inEuropeandLatin Americahave low circumcision rates, while both religious and non-religious circumcision is widely practiced in many predominantly Christian countries and amongChristian communitiesin theAnglosphere countries,Oceania,South Korea,thePhilippines,theMiddle EastandAfrica.[137][138]Countries such as theUnited States,[139]thePhilippines,Australia(albeit primarily in the older generations),[140]Canada,Cameroon,Democratic Republic of the Congo,Ethiopia,Equatorial Guinea,Ghana,Nigeria,Kenya,and many other African Christian countries have high circumcision rates.[141][142][143]Circumcision is near universal in the Christian countries ofOceania.[138]In someAfricanandEastern Christian denominationsmale circumcision is an integral or established practice, and require that their male members undergo circumcision.[144]Coptic ChristianityandEthiopian OrthodoxyandEritrean Orthodoxystill observe male circumcision and practice circumcision as arite of passage.[135][145]Male circumcision is also widely practiced amongChristiansfromEgypt,Syria,Lebanon,Jordan,Palestine,Israel,andNorth Africa.(See alsoaposthia.)

Male circumcision is among the rites of Islam and is part of thefitrah,or the innate disposition and natural character and instinct of the human creation.[146]

Circumcision is widely practiced by theDruze,the procedure is practiced as a cultural tradition,[147]and has no religious significance in theDruzefaith.[148][149]Some Druses do not circumcise their male children, and refuse to observe this "common Muslim practice".[150]

Circumcision is not a religious practice of the Bahá'í Faith, and leaves that decision up to the parents.[151]

Proselytism

[edit]
See also:ChristianizationandIslamization

Judaism accepts converts, but has had no explicitmissionariessince the end of theSecond Temple era.Judaism states that non-Jews can achieve righteousness by followingNoahide Laws,a set of moral imperatives that, according to theTalmud,were given by God[c]as a binding set of laws for the "children ofNoah"—that is, all of humanity.[152][d]It is believed that as much as ten percent of the Roman Empire followed Judaism either as fully ritually obligated Jews or the simpler rituals required of non-Jewish members of that faith.[153]

Moses Maimonides,one of the major Jewish teachers, commented: "Quoting from our sages, the righteous people from other nations have a place in the world to come if they have acquired what they should learn about the Creator." Because the commandments applicable to the Jews are much more detailed and onerous thanNoahidelaws, Jewish scholars have traditionally maintained that it is better to be a good non-Jew than a bad Jew, thus discouraging conversion. In the U.S., as of 2003 28% of married Jews were married to non-Jews.[154][page needed]See alsoConversion to Judaism.

TheSermon on the MountbyCarl Heinrich Bloch(1877)

Christianity encouragesevangelism.Many Christian organizations, especially Protestant churches, sendmissionariesto non-Christian communities throughout the world.See alsoGreat Commission.Forced conversionsto Catholicism have been alleged at various points throughout history. The most prominently cited allegations are theconversions of the pagans after Constantine;of Muslims, Jews and Eastern Orthodox during theCrusades;of Jews and Muslims during the time of theSpanish Inquisition,where they were offered the choice of exile, conversion or death; and of the Aztecs byHernán Cortés.Forced conversions to Protestantism may have occurred as well, notably during theReformation,especially in England and Ireland (seerecusancyandPopish plot).

Forced conversions are now condemned as sinful by major denominations such as the Roman Catholic Church, which officially states that forced conversions pollute the Christian religion and offend human dignity, so that past or present offences are regarded as a scandal (a cause of unbelief). According toPope Paul VI,"It is one of the major tenets of Catholic doctrine that man's response to God in faith must be free: no one, therefore, is to be forced to embrace the Christian faith against his own will."[155]The Roman Catholic Church has declared that Catholics should fightanti-Semitism.[156]

Islam encourages proselytism in various forms.Dawahis an important Islamic concept which denotes the preaching of Islam. Da‘wah literally means "issuing a summons" or "making an invitation". A Muslim who practices da‘wah, either as a religious worker or in a volunteer community effort, is called a dā‘ī, plural du‘āt. A dā‘ī is thus a person who invites people to understand Islam through a dialogical process and may be categorized in some cases as the Islamic equivalent of a missionary, as one who invites people to the faith, to the prayer, or to Islamic life.

Da'wah activities can take many forms. Some pursue Islamic studies specifically to perform Da'wah.Mosquesand other Islamic centers sometimes spread Da'wah actively, similar to evangelical churches. Others consider being open to the public and answering questions to be Da'wah. Recalling Muslims to the faith and expanding their knowledge can also be considered Da'wah.

InIslamic theology,the purpose of Da'wah is to invite people, both Muslims and non-Muslims, to understand the commandments of God as expressed in the Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet, as well as to inform them about Muhammad. Da'wah produces converts to Islam, which in turn grows the size of the MuslimUmmah,or community of Muslims.

Forced conversion to Islamhas historically been a prominent strategy in the expansion of the religion, imposed extensively by Muslim conquerors on invaded populations.[157][158]The use of violence in such instances has been claimed to bejustified by the Quran.[159]

Demographics

[edit]
See also:Abrahamic world

Worldwide percentage of adherents by Abrahamic religion, as of 2015[160]

Christianity(31.2%)
Islam(24.1%)
Judaism(0.18%)
Baháʼí Faith(0.07%)
Non-Abrahamic religions (45.45%)

Christianity is the largest Abrahamic religion with about 2.5 billion adherents, called Christians, constituting about 31.1% of the world's population.[161]Islam is the second largest Abrahamic religion, as well as the fastest-growing Abrahamic religion in recent decades.[161][162]It has about 1.9 billion adherents, called Muslims, constituting about 24.1% of the world's population. The third largest Abrahamic religion is Judaism with about 14.1 million adherents, called Jews.[161]The Baháʼí Faith has over 8 million adherents, making it the fourth largest Abrahamic religion,[163][164]and the fastest growing religion across the 20th century, usually at least twice the rate of population growth.[165]The Druze Faith has between one million and nearly two millions adherents.[166][167]

Adherents of minor Abrahamic faiths
Religion Adherents
Baháʼí ~8 million[163][164]
Druze 1–2 million[166][167]
Rastafari 700,000-1 million[36]
Mandaeism 60,000–100,000[168][169]
Azali Bábism ~1,000–2,000[29][170]
Samaritanism ~840[171]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^"So those who have faith are blessed along with Abraham, the man of faith."[citation needed]"In other words, it is not the children by physical descent who are God's children, but it is the children of the promise who are regarded as Abraham's offspring."Romans 9:8
  2. ^Perhaps even pre-Pauline creeds.[citation needed]
  3. ^According to Encyclopedia Talmudit (Hebrew edition, Israel, 5741/1981, EntryBen Noah,page 349), mostmedieval authoritiesconsider that all seven commandments were given toAdam,althoughMaimonides(Mishneh Torah,Hilkhot M'lakhim 9:1) considers the dietary law to have been given to Noah.
  4. ^CompareGenesis 9:4–6.

References

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^Brague, Rémi, 'The Concept of the Abrahamic Religions, Problems and Pitfalls', in Adam J. Silverstein, and Guy G. Stroumsa (eds), The Oxford Handbook of the Abrahamic Religions (2015; online edn, Oxford Academic, 12 Nov. 2015),https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199697762.013.5,accessed 12 Feb. 2024
  2. ^Goshen-Gottstein, Alon. "Abraham and ‘Abrahamic Religions’ in Contemporary Interreligious Discourse." Studies in Interreligious Dialogue 12.2 (2002): 165-183.
  3. ^Kiel, Yishai. "The contours of Abrahamic identity: a Zoroastrian perspective." Geneses: A Comparative Study of the Historiographies of the Rise ofChristianity,Rabbinic Judaism,andIslam(2019): 19-34.
  4. ^GhaneaBassiri, Kambiz, and Paul Robertson, eds. All religion is inter-religion: engaging the work of Steven M. Wasserstrom. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2019.
  5. ^Schubel, Vernon James. "Teaching Islam as an Asian Religion." EDUCATION ABOUT ASIA 10.1 (2005).
  6. ^Adams 2007.
  7. ^Wormald 2015.
  8. ^"Druze in Syria".Harvard University.The Druze are an ethnoreligious group concentrated in Syria, Lebanon, and Israel with around one million adherents worldwide. The Druze follow a millenarian offshoot of Isma'ili Shi'ism. Followers emphasize Abrahamic monotheism but consider the religion as separate from Islam.
  9. ^Gaston, K. Healan. "The Judeo-Christian and Abrahamic Traditions in America." Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion. 2018.
  10. ^abBakhos, Carol. The Family of Abraham: Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Interpretations. Harvard University Press, 2014.
  11. ^Dodds, Adam. "The Abrahamic faiths? Continuity and discontinuity in Christian and Islamic doctrine." Evangelical Quarterly: An International Review of Bible and Theology 81.3 (2009): 230-253.
  12. ^Abulafia, Anna Sapir(23 September 2019)."The Abrahamic religions".London:British Library.Archivedfrom the original on 12 July 2020.Retrieved9 March2021.
  13. ^*Micksch, Jürgen (2009)."Trialog International – Die jährliche Konferenz".Herbert Quandt Stiftung. Archived fromthe originalon 23 May 2016.Retrieved19 September2009.
  14. ^Collins 2004,pp. 157, 160.
  15. ^abcLubar Institute 2016.
  16. ^abBeit-Hallahmi 1992,pp. 48–49.
  17. ^abSmith 2008,p. 106.
  18. ^abCole 2012,pp. 438–446.
  19. ^abKrista N. Dalton (2014) Abrahamic Religions: On Uses and Abuses of History by Aaron W. Hughes, Oxford University Press: New York, 2012, 191 pp. ISBN 978 0 19 993463 5, US$55.00 (hardback), Religion, 44:4, 684-686, DOI: 10.1080/0048721X.2013.862421
  20. ^abHughes, Aaron W. Abrahamic religions: On the uses and abuses of history. Oxford University Press, 2012. p. 17
  21. ^Massignon 1949,pp. 20–23.
  22. ^Stroumsa 2017,p. 7.
  23. ^Levenson 2012,pp. 178–179.
  24. ^abcBremer 2015,p. 19-20.
  25. ^Able 2011,p. 219.
  26. ^Hatcher & Martin 1998,pp. 130–31.
  27. ^Boyd, Samuel L. (October 2019)."Judaism, Christianity, and Islam: The problem of 'Abrahamic religions' and the possibilities of comparison".Religion Compass.13(10).doi:10.1111/rec3.12339.ISSN1749-8171.S2CID203090839.
  28. ^abDodds 2009,pp. 230–253.
  29. ^abBerger, Alan L., ed. Trialogue and Terror: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam after 9/11. Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2012.
  30. ^Hughes 2012,pp. 3–4, 7–8, 17, 32.
  31. ^Greenstreet 2006,p. 95.
  32. ^Hatcher & Martin (1998),pp. 130–31;Bremer (2015),p. 19–20;Able (2011),p. 219;Dever (2001),pp. 97–102
  33. ^Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 9
  34. ^Burrell, David B., et al., eds. Creation and the God of Abraham. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 14-15
  35. ^Edelman (1995),p. 19;Gnuse (2016),p. 5;Carraway (2013),p. 66: "Second, it was probably not until the exile that monotheism proper was clearly formulated.";Finkelstein & Silberman (2002),p. 234: "The idolatry of the people of Judah was not a departure from their earlier monotheism. It was, instead, the way the people of Judah had worshiped for hundreds of years."
  36. ^ab"BBC Two – Bible's Buried Secrets, Did God Have a Wife?".BBC.21 December 2011.Archivedfrom the original on 15 January 2012.Retrieved4 July2012.Quote from the BBC documentary (prof. Herbert Niehr): "Between the 10th century and the beginning of their exile in 586 there was polytheism as normal religion all throughout Israel; only afterwards things begin to change and very slowly they begin to change. I would say it [the sentence" Jews were monotheists "– n.n.] is only correct for the last centuries, maybe only from the period of the Maccabees, that means the second century BC, so in the time of Jesus of Nazareth it is true, but for the time before it, it is not true."
  37. ^Hayes, Christine (3 July 2008)."Moses and the Beginning of Yahwism: (Genesis 37- Exodus 4), Christine Hayes, Open Yale Courses (Transcription), 2006".Center for Online Judaic Studies.Archivedfrom the original on 17 August 2022.Retrieved17 August2022.Only later would a Yahweh-only party polemicize against and seek to suppress certain… what came to be seen as undesirable elements of Israelite-Judean religion, and these elements would be labeled Canaanite, as a part of a process of Israelite differentiation. But what appears in the Bible as a battle between Israelites, pure Yahwists, and Canaanites, pure polytheists, is indeed better understood as a civil war between Yahweh-only Israelites, and Israelites who are participating in the cult of their ancestors.
  38. ^Kaufmann Kohler;A. V. Williams Jackson(1906)."Zoroastrianism (" Resemblances Between Zoroastrianism and Judaism "and" Causes of Analogies Uncertain ")".The Jewish Encyclopaedia.Retrieved3 February2022.
  39. ^Grabbe, Lester L.(2006).A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period (vol. 1): The Persian Period (539-331BCE).Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 361–364.ISBN9780567216175.
  40. ^Black & Rowley 1982,p. 607b.
  41. ^Pavlac, Brian A (2010).A Concise Survey of Western Civilization: Supremacies and Diversities.Chapter 6.
  42. ^Howard, James M. "Paul, Monotheism and the People of God: The Significance of Abraham Traditions for Early Judaism and Christianity." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 49.1 (2006): 516.
  43. ^Howard, James M. "Paul, Monotheism and the People of God: The Significance of Abraham Traditions for Early Judaism and Christianity." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 49.1 (2006): 517.
  44. ^Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 41
  45. ^Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 41-57
  46. ^Burrell, David B., et al., eds. Creation and the God of Abraham. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 41
  47. ^Burrell, David B., et al., eds. Creation and the God of Abraham. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 25-39
  48. ^Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 40
  49. ^Marvin Perry (1 January 2012).Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1789.Cengage Learning. pp. 33–.ISBN978-1-111-83720-4.
  50. ^Nasr, Seyyed Hossein(2007)."Qurʼān".Encyclopædia Britannica Online.Archivedfrom the original on 16 October 2007.Retrieved4 November2007.
  51. ^abCohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 62
  52. ^Athamina, Khalil. "Abraham in Islamic perspective reflections on the development of monotheism in pre-Islamic Arabia." (2004): 184-205.
  53. ^Religions » Islam » Islam at a glanceArchived21 May 2009 at theWayback Machine,BBC, 5 August 2009.
  54. ^abBurrell, David B., et al., eds. Creation and the God of Abraham. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 41.
  55. ^abPeters 2018.
  56. ^"Religion: Three Religions – One God".Global Connections of the Middle East.WGBHEducational Foundation. 2002.Archivedfrom the original on 17 September 2009.Retrieved20 September2009.
  57. ^Kunst & Thomsen 2014,pp. 1–14.
  58. ^Kunst, Thomsen & Sam 2014,pp. 337–348.
  59. ^"The Trinity".BBC.July 2011.Archivedfrom the original on 20 September 2018.
  60. ^Perman, Matt (January 2006)."What Is the Doctrine of the Trinity?".desiring God.Archivedfrom the original on 30 October 2018.
  61. ^Hoover, Jon."Islamic Monotheism and the Trinity"(PDF).University of Waterloo.Archived(PDF)from the original on 5 January 2013.
  62. ^Rubin 2001.
  63. ^Tucker & Roberts 2008,p. 541.
  64. ^Fine 2011,pp. 302–303.
  65. ^Morgenstern 2006,p. 201.
  66. ^Lapidoth & Hirsch 1994,p. 384.
  67. ^abWilken 1986,p. 678.
  68. ^Luke 2:22
  69. ^Luke 2:41
  70. ^"Mi'raj – Islam".Archivedfrom the original on 29 June 2011.Retrieved26 October2009.
  71. ^Perowne, Stewart Henry; Gordon, Buzzy; Prawer, Joshua; Dumper, Michael; Wasserstein, Bernard (13 August 2022)."Jerusalem".Encyclopedia Britannica.Archivedfrom the original on 9 May 2020.Retrieved14 September2022.
  72. ^"Al-Aqsa Mosque – mosque, Jerusalem".Archivedfrom the original on 18 January 2011.Retrieved26 October2009.
  73. ^Gen. 12:2
  74. ^Gen. 17:7
  75. ^Kolatch, Alfred J.(1985).The second Jewish book of why.Middle Village, N.Y: J. David Publishers. p. 127.ISBN0824603052.
  76. ^Schultz 1975,pp. 51–52.
  77. ^Kaplan 1973,p. 161.
  78. ^Rom. 4:9–12
  79. ^Blasi, Turcotte, Duhaime, p. 592.
  80. ^Heb. 11:8–10
  81. ^Rom. 8:32
  82. ^MacArthur 1996.
  83. ^Gen. 15:6
  84. ^Gal. 3:7
  85. ^Rom. 4:20,Gal. 4:9
  86. ^Romans 4:20King James Version (Oxford Standard, 1769)
  87. ^Galatians 4:9King James Version (Oxford Standard, 1769)
  88. ^Gal. 4:26
  89. ^Bickerman, p. 188cf.
  90. ^Leeming 2005,p.209.
  91. ^Fischer & Abedi 1990,pp.163–166.
  92. ^Hawting 2006,pp. xviii, xix, xx, xxiii.
  93. ^abcChristiano, Kivisto & Swatos 2015,pp. 254–255.
  94. ^Hoffman, Joel (2004).In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language.NYU Press.p. 236.ISBN978-0-8147-3706-4.Archivedfrom the original on 5 April 2023.Retrieved12 March2023.
  95. ^Leith 1993,pp. 55–56.
  96. ^Erickson 2001,pp. 87–88.
  97. ^Prestige 1963,p. 29.
  98. ^Kelly 2017,p. 119.
  99. ^Mills & Bullard 2001,p. 935.
  100. ^Kelly 2017,p. 23.
  101. ^McGrath 2012,pp. 117–120.
  102. ^Osborn 2001,pp. 27–29.
  103. ^Dyrness et al. 2008,pp. 352–353.
  104. ^Guthrie 1994,pp. 100, 111.
  105. ^Hirschberger, Johannes.Historia de la Filosofía I, Barcelona:Herder 1977, p. 403
  106. ^Böwering, Gerhard. "God and his Attributes".Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān.Brill.doi:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_eqcom_00075.
  107. ^David LeemingThe Oxford Companion to World MythologyOxford University Press 2005ISBN978-0-195-15669-0page 209
  108. ^Esposito 1999,p. 88.
  109. ^Chisholm, Hugh,ed. (1911)."Allah".Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 01 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 686–687.
  110. ^Chisholm, Hugh,ed. (1911)."Islam".Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 14 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 873.
  111. ^Quran%3Averse%3D103 6:103
  112. ^Quran%3Averse%3D46 29:46
  113. ^Peters 2003,p. 4.
  114. ^Vawter, Bruce (1983). "Original Sin". In Richardson, Alan; Bowden, John (eds.). The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology. Westminster John Knox. ISBN 9780664227487.
  115. ^Murray, Michael J.; Rea, Michael (2012), "Philosophy and Christian Theology", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
  116. ^Russell, Jeffrey Burton (1986). Lucifer: The Devil in the Middle Ages. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-9429-1.
  117. ^abcdefgАбдрасилов, Турганбай, Жахангир Нурматов, and Кайнар Калдыбай. "AN ANALYSIS OF SALVATION FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM." Аль-Фараби 76.4 (2021).
  118. ^abEichler, Paul Arno. "Die Dschinn, Teufel und Engel im Koran." (1928). p. 8-9
  119. ^Stieglecker, H. (1962). Die Glaubenslehren des Islam. Deutschland: F. Schöningh. p. 194 (German)
  120. ^Jabbour, Nabeel (2014), The Crescent through the Eyes of the Cross: Insights from an Arab Christian, London: Omnibus Press, ISBN 978-1-61521-512-6
  121. ^abcdEichler, Paul Arno. "Die Dschinn, Teufel und Engel im Koran." (1928). p. 41
  122. ^translation by Saheeh International
  123. ^Mark 2003,pp. 94–95.
  124. ^Šakūrzāda, Ebrāhīm; Omidsalar, Mahmoud (October 2011)."Circumcision".Encyclopædia Iranica.Vol. V/6.New York:Columbia University.pp. 596–600.doi:10.1163/2330-4804_EIRO_COM_7731.ISSN2330-4804.Archivedfrom the original on 19 January 2020.Retrieved7 February2020.
  125. ^Pitts-Taylor 2008,p. 394.
  126. ^Kohler, Kaufmann; Krauss, Samuel."Baptism".Jewish Encyclopedia.Archivedfrom the original on 31 August 2022.Retrieved31 August2022.According to rabbinical teachings, which dominated even during the existence of the Temple (Pes. viii. 8), Baptism, next to circumcision and sacrifice, was an absolutely necessary condition to be fulfilled by aproselyteto Judaism (Yeb. 46b, 47b; Ker. 9a; 'Ab. Zarah 57a; Shab. 135a; Yer. Kid. iii. 14, 64d). Circumcision, however, was much more important, and, like baptism, was called a "seal" (Schlatter, "Die Kirche Jerusalems", 1898, p. 70). But as circumcision was discarded by Christianity, and the sacrifices had ceased, Baptism remained the sole condition for initiation into religious life. The next ceremony, adopted shortly after the others, was theimposition of hands,which, it is known, was the usage of the Jews at the ordination of a rabbi.Anointingwith oil, which at first also accompanied the act of Baptism, and was analogous to the anointment of priests among the Jews, was not a necessary condition.
  127. ^"Ecumenical Council of Florence (1438–1445)"Archived16 August 2006 at theWayback Machine.The Circumcision Reference Library. Retrieved 10 July 2007.
  128. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church: Article 5—The Fifth commandmentArchived29 June 2007 at theWayback Machine.Christus Rex et Redemptor Mundi. Retrieved 10 July 2007.
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  134. ^Eugenius IV 1990.
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  136. ^Adams & Adams 2012,pp. 291–298.
  137. ^Gruenbaum (2015),p. 61: "Christian theology generally interprets male circumcision to be an Old Testament rule that is no longer an obligation... though in many countries (especially the United States and Sub-Saharan Africa, but not so much in Europe) it is widely practiced among Christians.";Peteet (2017),pp. 97–101: "male circumcision is still observed among Ethiopian and Coptic Christians, and circumcision rates are also high today in the Philippines and the US.";Ellwood (2008),p. 95: "It is obligatory among Jews, Muslims, and Coptic Christians. Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant Christians do not require circumcision. Starting in the last half of the 19th century, however, circumcision also became common among Christians in Europe and especially in North America."
  138. ^ab"Circumcision protest brought to Florence".Associated Press.30 March 2008.Archivedfrom the original on 28 September 2022.Retrieved1 September2022.However, the practice is still common among Christians in the United States, Oceania, South Korea, the Philippines, the Middle East and Africa. Some Middle Eastern Christians actually view the procedure as a rite of passage.
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  144. ^Pitts-Taylor 2008,p. 394, "For most part, Christianity does not require circumcision of its followers. Yet, some Orthodox and African Christian groups do require circumcision. These circumcisions take place at any point between birth and puberty.".
  145. ^Van Doorn-Harder, Nelly (2006)."Christianity: Coptic Christianity".Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices.1.Archived fromthe originalon 22 December 2015.
  146. ^Australia, Muslim Information Service of."Male Circumcision in Islam".Archived fromthe originalon 29 November 2013.Retrieved16 November2013.
  147. ^Ubayd 2006,p. 150.
  148. ^Jacobs 1998,p. 147.
  149. ^Silver 2022,p. 97.
  150. ^Betts 2013,p. 56.
  151. ^Hassall 2022,pp. 591–602.
  152. ^Encyclopedia Talmudit (Hebrew edition, Israel, 5741/1981, entryBen Noah,introduction) states that after the giving of theTorah,the Jewish people were no longer in the category of the sons of Noah; however, Maimonides (Mishneh Torah, Hilkhot M'lakhim 9:1) indicates that the seven laws are also part of the Torah, and the Talmud (Bavli,Sanhedrin59a, see also Tosafot ad. loc.) states that Jews are obligated in all things that Gentiles are obligated in, albeit with some differences in the details.
  153. ^Barraclough, Geoffrey,ed. (1981) [1978].Spectrum–Times Atlas van de Wereldgeschiedenis[The Times Atlas of World History] (in Dutch). Het Spectrum. pp. 102–103.
  154. ^Kornbluth 2003.
  155. ^Pope Paul VI."Declaration on Religious Freedom"Archived11 February 2012 at theWayback Machine,7 December 1965.
  156. ^Pullella, Philip (10 December 2015)."Vatican says Catholics should not try to convert Jews, should fight anti-semitism".Reuters.Archivedfrom the original on 12 January 2016.Retrieved13 January2016.
  157. ^Kuru, Ahmet T. “History.”Islam, Authoritarianism, and Underdevelopment: A Global and Historical Comparison.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019. 67–236. Print.
  158. ^Triandis, Harry C. (1 April 2013)."Toward Understanding Violence in Islam".Acta de Investigación Psicológica.3(1): 969–985.doi:10.1016/S2007-4719(13)70946-3.ISSN2007-4719.
  159. ^Huda, Qamar-ul (2002)."The Problems of Violence and Conflict in Islam".Contagion: Journal of Violence, Mimesis, and Culture.9(1): 80–98.doi:10.1353/ctn.2002.0009.ISSN1930-1200.
  160. ^Hackett, Conrad; Mcclendon, David (2015)."Christians remain world's largest religious group, but they are declining in Europe".Pew Research Center.Archivedfrom the original on 1 March 2021.Retrieved25 October2020.
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  163. ^abSmith 2022b.
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  165. ^Johnson & Grim 2013,pp. 59–62.
  166. ^abHeld 2008,p. 109, "Worldwide, they number 1 million or so, with about 45 to 50 percent in Syria, 35 to 40 percent in Lebanon, and less than 10 percent in Israel. Recently there has been a growing Druze diaspora.".
  167. ^abSwayd 2015,p. 3, "The Druze world population at present is perhaps nearing two million;...".
  168. ^Saheeh al-Bukharee, Book 55, hadith no. 584; Book 56, hadith no. 710
  169. ^"The Mandaeans – Who are the Mandaeans?".The Worlds of Mandaean Priests.Archivedfrom the original on 2 February 2020.Retrieved5 November2021.
  170. ^Lev 2010.
  171. ^The Samaritan UpdateArchived14 September 2017 at theWayback MachineRetrieved 28 October 2021 "Total [sic] in 2021 – 840 souls Total in 2018 – 810 souls Total number on 1.1.2017 – 796 persons, 381 souls on Mount Gerizim and 415 in the State of Israel, of the 414 males and 382 females."

Works cited

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Further reading

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Library resourcesabout
Abrahamic religions
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