Old Javanese

Old Javanese
Kawi
Native to	Indonesia
Region	Java,Bali,Madura,Lombok
Era	literary language,developed into Middle Javanese by 13th–14th century
Language family	Austronesian Malayo-Polynesian Old Javanese
Writing system	Kawi,Javanese,Balinese
Language codes
ISO 639-2	kaw
ISO 639-3	kaw
Linguist List	kaw
Glottolog	kawi1241

Old JavaneseorKawi(lit. 'poet',Sanskrit:कवि,romanized:kavi) is the oldest attested phase of theJavanese language.It was spoken in the eastern part of what is nowCentral Javaand the whole ofEast Java,Indonesia.As a literary language, Kawi was used across Java and on the islands ofMadura,Bali,andLombok.It had a sizable vocabulary ofSanskritloanwords but had not yet developed the formalkramalanguage register, to be used with one's social superiors that is characteristic of modern Javanese.

History

While evidence of writing in Java dates to theSanskritTarumanegara inscriptionof 450 AD, the oldest example written entirely in Javanese, called the Sukabumi inscription, is dated 25 March 804 AD. This inscription, located in the district ofParein theKediri Regencyof East Java, is a copy of the original, dated some 120 years earlier; only this copy has been preserved. Its contents concern the construction of a dam for an irrigation canal near the river Śrī Hariñjing (now shortened toSrinjing). This inscription is the last of its kind to be written usingPallava script;all consequent examples of Old Javanese are written usingKawi script.

Development

Old Javanese was not static, and its usage covered approximately 500 years – from the Sukabumi (Kediri, East Java) inscription until the founding of theMajapahit empirein 1292. TheJavanese languagewhich was spoken and written in the Majapahit era already underwent some changes and is therefore already closer to the Modern Javanese language.

Austronesian origins

The most important shaping force on Old Javanese was itsAustronesianheritage in vocabulary, sentence structure, and grammar that it shared with its sister languages in Southeast Asia.

Sanskrit influence

The Indian linguistic influence in the Old Javanese language was almost exclusivelySanskritinfluence. There is no evidence of Indian linguistic elements in Old Javanese other than Sanskrit. This is different from, for example, the influence of Indian linguistics in the (Old) Malay language.

Sanskrit has had a deep and lasting impact on the vocabulary of the Javanese language. TheOld Javanese–English Dictionary,written by ProfessorP.J. Zoetmulderin 1982, contains approximately 25,500 entries, no fewer than 12,500 of which are borrowed from Sanskrit. This large number is not an indication of usage, but it is an indication that the Ancient Javanese knew and employed these Sanskrit words in their literary works. In any given Old Javanese literary work, approximately 25% of the vocabulary is derived from Sanskrit.

Phonology

Sanskrit has also influenced both the phonology and the vocabulary of Old Javanese. Old Javanese also containsretroflex consonants,which might have been derived from Sanskrit. That is disputed by several linguists, who hold the view that it is also possible that the occurrence of these retroflex consonants was an independent development within the Austronesian language family.

Vocabulary

A related question is the form in which Sanskrit words were loaned in Old Javanese. The borrowed Sanskrit words in Old Javanese are almost without exceptions nouns and adjectives in their undeclined form (Sanskritlingga). Old Javanese texts contain many more characters with similar phonology values to represent distinct vowels and consonants in Sanskrit such as unadapted loanwords. Wherever these diacritics occur in Old Javanese texts, they are neglected in pronunciation:bhaṭārais the same asbaṭara(loss ofvowel lengthandaspirationis also shared byElu Prakrit,the ancestor ofSinhala). Nor do they influence the order of the words in the dictionary: the variants s, ṣ, and ś, for example, are all treated like s.

Influences

Medieval poems written in Old Javanese using the Kawi script continued to be circulated within the courts ofKartasura,Surakarta,andYogyakarta.The poems were calledlayang kawi(Kawi books) orkakawinand were held in high regard. Starting in the 18th century, literature inspired by Old Javanese was written using the modern Javanese language and verse.

Phonology

Vowels

Old Javanese has six vowels. Those vowels are "a", "ĕ" /ə/, "e" /e/, i, u, and o in Latin transliteration. Little can be said about the pronunciation of Old Javanese. It is believed that it has not been much different from the pronunciation of modern Javanese. However, the major difference is the pronunciation of /a/ in open syllables: now å, then /a/, such as inwana(forest). Although, Old Javanese made a distinction between those "short vowels" and "long vowels" in writing such as ā, ö, e, ī, ū, and o, however, these "long vowels" have no distinction in phonology with those "short vowels". This distinction is generally happened with unadapted loanwords from Sanskrit which differentiates the short and long vowels.

Consonants

There are twenty consonants in Old Javanese which are written as b, c, d, ḍ, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, ñ, ŋ, p, r, s, t, ṭ, w, and y in Latin transliteration. The consonant ñ sometimes is written as the digraph ny and IPA ɲ, while the consonant ŋ sometimes is written as the digraph ng.

Consonant articulation

Place of articulation	Pancawalimukha					Semivowel	Sibilant	Fricative
	Unvoiced		Voiced		Nasal
	Unaspirated	Aspirated1	Unaspirated	Aspirated1
Velar	ka	(kha)	ga	(gha)	ṅa			(h)a
Palatal	ca	(cha)	ja	(jha)	ña	ya	(śa)3
Retroflex	ṭa	(ṭha)	ḍa	(ḍha)	(ṇa)2	ra	(ṣa)3
Dental	ta	(tha)	da	(dha)	na	la	sa
Labial	pa	(pha)	ba	(bha)	ma	wa
Notes ^1Aspirated consonants are pronounced as their unaspirated counterparts. ^2The retroflex nasal consonant is pronounced as the dental counterpart. ^3The sibilants are pronounced as the dental counterpart. The presence of such aspirated consonants, retroflex nasal, palatal sibilant, and retroflex sibilant are used for unadapted loanwords fromIndo-Aryan languages(specificallySanskrit).

Sandhi

Sandhiis a cover term for a wide variety ofsoundchanges that occur atmorphemeor word boundaries.

• If a word ends in a vowel and the next word in the same sentence begins with a vowel, both words may merge into one, with one vowel instead of two vowels, such asdewatādiinstead ofdewata+adi.
• A merger of ĕ with the preceding vowel results in assimilated ĕ to the preceding vowel, such aswawan(load, cargo; vessel, carrier, container, setting) fromwawa(to carry, to bring) +ĕn.
• Similar vowels without short-long vowels consideration are assimilated as "long vowels". For example,rĕngön(hearing) is constructed fromrĕngö(hearing, listening) +ĕn.
• The open vowel /a/ followed by close-front vowels of /e/ or /i/ are assimilated as /e/, such asbhinna ikabecomebhinneka(those are different). Meanwhile, the open vowel /a/ followed by close-back vowels of /o/ or /u/ is assimilated as /o/, such asmantra oṣadhabecomesmantroṣadha.
• The semi-vowel y or w will replace the corresponding vowel i, u, or ö, when followed by a dissimilar vowel. For example,kadi amṛtabecomekadyamṛta(i + a → ya),ri ubhayabecomeryubhaya(i + u → yu),milu āśābecomemilwāśā(u + a → wa),māsku ibubecomemāskwibu(u + i → wi), andangangsö agawebecomeangangswagawe(ö + a → wa).

Grammar

Verb

Old Javanese verbs are morphologically complex and are conjugated by taking on a variety of affixes reflecting focus/trigger, aspect, voice, and other categories.

Voice/Focus/Trigger

• The active voice is derived through either prefix(m)aN-or infix-um-.
  • The prefix(m)aN-,which is realised asmaN-andaN-,is the prefix to make transitive verbs, for example,amati(to kill) frompati(death) andmangan(to eat) frompangan(food), if the base word is a verb. However, if the base word is a noun, the derivation can result in both transitive and intransitive verbs, such asangjanma(to be born, incarnate) fromjanma(man), whether the result will be either transitive or intransitive can not be predicted. In the base word is an adjective, the derived verbs arecausative,such asanghilang(to cause something to disappear) fromhilang(disappeared). The derivation can undergodenasalizationin particular situations such aspamanganinstead ofmamangan(to eat) andpanginuminstead ofmanginum(to drink).
  • The infix-um-is the prefix to show active verb which generally shows no difference in meaning with the derivation with prefix(m)aN-.Sometimes, there is a difference in meaning between the prefixed(m)aN-and infixed-um-,such asanahur(to repay) andsumahur(to answer) fromsahur(answer, return).
• Passive voices are derived through either the prefixka-or infix-in-.It is not necessary to express the actor in a passive sentence. If the actor is explicitly mentioned, the actor is introduced bydeand put after the subject, such as"Katon pwa ta de sang Śrutasena".
  • The prefixka-refers to passive voice. If it is put before the consonant of the stem, it shows no change. However, if it is put before vowels, the sandhi is applicable, such as inkālap(taken) fromka-+alap.Other thanāfroma + a,the other sandhi isāfrom a + ĕ /ə/, e from a + either i or e, and o from a + u (there is no example with a + o exist).
  • The other passive voice derivation is through infix-in-,such asinalap(taken) fromalap.

Nasalization rule for prefix(m)aN-

Initial of base word	Sandhi	Harmonized prefix	Examples
nasal (m-, n-, ng-)	(m)aN-+N-→(m)a-	(m)a-	maga→amaga(to disappoint)
k	(m)aN+k-→(m)ang-	(m)ang-	kĕmit→angĕmit(to guard)
p, w	(m)aN-+p-,w-→(m)am-	(m)am-	pahat→amahat(to tap)
s, t	(m)aN-+s-,t-→(m)an-	(m)an-	sambut→anambut(to seize)
c	(m)aN- + c- → (m)any-	(m)any-	cangking→anyangking(to carry)
vowels	(m)aN-+V-→(m)ang- +V-	(m)ang-	abĕn→angabĕn(to attack)
d, g, h	(m)aN- + d-,g-,h-→(m)ang- + d-,g-,h-	(m)ang-	haḍang→anghaḍang(to stand off)
j	(m)aN-+j-→(m)ang- + j-	(m)ang-	jajah → angjajah(to explore)
semivowel(r, l, w)	(m)aN- + H- → (m)ang- + H-	(m)ang-	liput→angliput(to envelop)
b	(m)aN- + b- → (m)am- + b-	(m)am-	bawa → ambawa(to bring)

Nasalization rule for infix-um-

Initial of base word	Sandhi	Harmonized infix	Examples
vowels	-um-+ V- →umV-	umV-	alap→umalap(to take)
labials(b-,p-,m-,w-)	-um-+ C- →um-	um-	wawa→umawa(to carry)
others	no change	no change	jawil → jumawil(to touch)

Case

• Thebeneficiary-orientednessor plurality can be indicated with the suffix-iand-an.The suffix-iis used for active transitive verbs (with prefix(m)aN-or infix-um-) which harmonised into either-i(amatī,to slay, frompati) and-ani(amatyani,to slay, frompati) after a vowel. However, passive transitive verbs use the suffix-an(with the prefixka-or infix-in-). In case of a final vowel-a,-anis attached, not-anan,for example,kapaḍan.
• Causativecan be indicated by the suffix -akĕnfrom verbal and nominal bases (either prefix(m)aN-or infix-um-). The verb with-akĕnis object-oriented. There is no combination between the passiveka-and with suffix -akĕn.
• Applicativecan be indicated by prefixmaka-andpinaka-with sandhi rules applied. Prefixmaka-is used for active voice (with(m)aN-and-um-integrated), while passive voice uses the prefixpinaka-(with-in- andka-integrated). The denasalisation phenomenon can happen.

Mood

• Irrealis moodcan be indicated by suffix-ato the verbs. The active irrealis verb can be constructed as active affixes (prefix(m)aN-or infix-um-) with suffix -a (such asmanghuripafrommanghurip). However, passive irrealis can be constructed with suppression of infix-in-and addition of the suffix -ĕn(such ashuripĕn), while the addition of suffix-ato prefixedka-passive verbs. The presence of sandhi sometimes made it impossible to see whether -a of irrealis mood. In the case of pronominal suffix presence, the irrealis suffix is prioritized.
• There are three ways to put a verb in theimperative mood.
  • ...by bare form without any affix, such asmijil(please come out) andanunggangi(please mount), which is the polite form. This form is just recognized by the context.
  • ...drop the verbal prefix, such aswijilandtunggangi.
  • ...place eithert(a)orp(a)before the unchanged or reduced form,such asta mijil,ta wijil, pamijilorpawijilandtānunggangi, ta tunggangi, pānunggangiorpatunggangi.
• Prohibition is expressed by the wordhaywa(do not), such as"haywa ta kita malara!"(Don't be sad!).

Construction of verbs in irrealis mood

Irrealis mood	Benefactive case -i	Causative case -akĕn
Active voice prefix(m)aN-or infix-um-	the prefix(m)aN-or infix-um-present the suffix-ana	the prefix(m)aN-or infix-um-present the suffix-aknaor -akĕn
Passive voice infix-in-	the infix-in-absent the suffix-ana	the infix-in-absent the suffix-akna or -akĕn

Noun and pronoun

Particle

There are various particles in Old Javanese. Particletais the most common one. The other particles that occur regularly arepwa,ya,andsira.Theseyaandsiraas particles must be differentiated from the personal pronounsyaandsira,‘he, she’. Sometimes they are combined such asta pwaandta ya.It is not compulsory to use them; they are often left out.

Personal pronouns and pronominal suffixes

Old Javanese have several personal pronouns for the first, second, and third person. The pronoun is not differentiated by singular and plural and social status in general.Siramay be used as an honorific particle, similar tosang.

Old Javanese Personal Pronouns

	low/neutral	neutral	neutral/high
first person		aku(singular only) kami, mami
second person	ko	kita, kamu, kanyu
third person	ya		sira

The personal pronoun has corresponding pronominal suffixes which serve to express either the possessive relationship or an agent.

Old Javanese Pronominal Suffixes

	low/neutral	neutral
first person		-ku -mami
second person	-mu -nyu	-ta
third person	-nya	-nira

The suffixes exhibit sandhi features, such as

• The suffix-kuhas no change after a consonant, such as intanganku(my hand). However, the suffix will change into-ngkuafter a vowel.
• The suffix-tahas no change after consonant, but will change into-ntaafter vowel.
• The suffix-nyawill change into-yaafter n.
• The suffix-nirawill change into-iraafter n.

The third person pronominal suffixes can express a possessive relationship between two words, such as in"Wĕtunira sang Suyodhana"(the birth of Suyodhana).

The third person pronominal suffixes can be used to nominalise verbs and adjectives such aswidagdhanya(his skills) from adjectivewidagdhaandpinintanira(his being asked) from the verbpininta.

In Old Javanese, a large number of other words than personal pronouns are used by way of personal pronouns for the first and second person. They consist of fixed expressions in which the original meaning of the words involved does not play a role and a virtually boundless list of words referring to functions and family relations. Proper names do not play a role in this respect. For example, first person pronouns can be manifested asnghulun(hulun,slave) andngwang(wwang,man).

Demonstrative pronouns

Old Javanese has four sets of demonstrative pronouns. The members of each set represent different degrees of distance seen from the speaker, while the four sets at least in theory express different shades of stress.

Demonstrative pronouns in Old Javanese

	neutral	stress	more stress	more stress
this	iki	tiki	ike
that (with the listener)	iku	tiku	iko
that (far from both)	ika	tika	ikā	tikā

Determiner

Old Javanese does not have an indefinite article. A noun without an article is indefinite. Old Javanese has three sorts of articles to express definiteness: a definite article, several honorific articles, andika(there are still other ways of expressing definiteness in Old Javanese, for example, the possessive suffix). Both definite articles and honorific articles are placed before the noun and cannot stand by themselves. The definite article is(a)ngand it is written combined with particles. Examples of honorific articles that express a certain amount of respect aresi,pun,sang,sang hyang,ḍang hyang,śrī,andra.

Besides the definite article and the articles of respect,ikacan be used to express definiteness. The wordikahas two functions, those are definite article and demonstrative pronoun. The wordikaas a demonstrative pronoun means 'that' which is used to differentiate from 'this'. If there is no such contrast, its function is that of a definite article, meaning ‘the’.Ikais put in front of the word to which it belongs and always combined with the definite article.

Possessive suffixes

Expression of possessiveness in Old Javanese is done with the help of possessive suffixes, such as suffix-(n)ingand-(n)ika.The suffix -ningis constructed from clitic-(n)iand the definite article(a)ng.The clitic-(n)ihave no meaning and cannot self-standing, although it is required in the construction. It is generally written as-ning,while it is written as-ingafter base word ending inn.The suffix-(n)ikais constructed from clitic-(n)iand definite articleikaand is written as-nikagenerally, while it is written as-ikaafter base word ending inn.The possessiveness can be expressed with pronominal suffixes, in which no definite article is added in a such case. Honorific articles can also express possessiveness and definiteness, such asujar sang guru(the word of the teacher), by placing the honorific article after the possessed noun and followed by the possessor.

Adjective

Old Javanese have two types of adjectives. The first one is an adjective-class base word, such asurip(alive). The second one is an adjective-class-derived word that uses affixation with the prefix(m)a-from noun base words, such asadoh(far away) fromdoh(distance),ahayu(beautiful) fromhayu(beauty) andmastrī(married) fromstrī(wife). In case of derivation with the prefix(m)a-,the sandhi law is observed especially when the base word starts with a vowel, such asmānak(having a child) fromanak(child),enak(at ease) frominak(ease), andmojar(having speech) fromujar(speech), while there is no change if the word begins with a consonant. Nouns can be qualified by adjectives.

Adverb

Verbs and adjectives, and also adverbs, can be qualified by adverbs. Adverbs are placed before of the words they qualify, exceptdahat(very, very much) is placed after the word. The wordtanis used to express 'not' and have several forms astatan,tātan,ndatan,andndātan.

Preposition

There are several prepositions in Old Javanese, in which the noun preceded by the preposition is definite, such as:

• Preposition(r)ihas the meaning of ‘in’, ‘on’, ‘at’, and ‘to’, but also ‘for’, ‘towards’, and even ‘by’, and ‘through’.
• Prepositionsa(ng)kahas the meaning of ‘from’, ‘compared to’ (‘than’ in comparisons), ‘because of’.
• Combination of both prepositions

However, there are particularities in the expression of 'inside' or 'from inside' in Old Javanese. Old Javanese use a combination of eitherjĕroordalĕm(inner part, depth) followed by clitic-ni,such asdalĕmnikangto express the idea of 'inside' or 'from inside'. The preposition of the inside is expressed by placing either(r)iorsakebefore eitherjĕroordalĕm(inner part, depth) without placement of both clitic-niand definite articles.

It is important to remember that(r)ican be used as an object marker of transitive verb and proper noun maker.

Conjunction

There are several conjunctions in Old Javanese; the most common ones arean,yan,apan,andyarapwan.The order of elements in sub-clauses headed byanis the same as in main clauses: the subject follows the predicate. However, different from main clauses, in sub-clauses headed by an no separating particle is used.

• Conjunctionancan be interpreted as either 'that', 'so that, in order to' and 'while, as'. The use ofanmay cause the suppression of -um- and denasalization.
• Conjunctionyanmeans 'that' or 'if, when'.
• Conjunctionapanmeans 'because'.

Syntax

In a basic clause, predicate and subject are separated from each other by a particle (ta) marking the border between both parts of the sentence. For example, "lunghā ta sira"means" he leaves "as leave (lunghā), particle (ta), and the third person pronoun (sira). The predicate comes first in the sentence, the subject follows the predicate, which is the normal order. However, the reversed order also occurs which it signals of some particularity such as stress intended by the writer. These sentences lack an indication of time.

Subject in Old Javanese can be personal pronoun, noun, and proper names. The predicate can be a verbal predicate where the predicate is a verb. The predicate can also be a nominal predicate, where the predicate can be an adjective and nouns, including proper names, and pronouns. Old Javanese verbs are not conjugated and do not formally distinguish between present and past time.

Writing system

Main article:Kawi script

Old Javanesewas written withKawi or Old Javanese scriptin 8th–16th century. The Kawi script is aBrahmic scriptfound primarily inJavaand used across much ofMaritime Southeast Asia.The Kawi script is related to thePallava scriptandKadamba scriptin South India. Nowadays,Old Javanesecan be written withBalinese scriptandJavanese scriptin modern literatures which are descendants of Kawi script.

Usage

Oral expression

Kawi is not truly extinct as a spoken language. It is commonly used in some Javanese traditional events such aswayang golek,wayang wongandwayang kulit,in addition to high activities such as a Javanesewedding,especially for the stylised meeting ritual of bride's parents with groom's parents in the ceremonies ofPeningsetanandPanggih.Archaically or for certain nobles very strongly attached to tradition, it is used for theMidodareni,SiramanandSungkemanceremonies of theJavanesewedding.

The island ofLombokhas adopted Kawi as its regional language, reflecting the very strong influence ofEast Java.Today, it is taught in primary school education as part of the compulsory secondary language unit of National curriculum. Traditionally, Kawi is written onlontarprepared palm leaves.

Literature

Main article:Kakawin

Kawi remains in occasional use as an archaic prose and literary language, in a similar fashion toShakespeare-eraEnglish.

There are many important literary works written in Kawi, most notablyEmpu Tantular's epic poem,"Kakawin Sutasoma",from which is taken the National motto of Indonesia:"Bhinneka Tunggal Ika".Although often glibly translated as "Unity in Diversity", it is more correctly rendered as "[although] scattered, remaining [as] one" — referring to the scattered islands of the archipelago nation, not as an expression of multicultural solidarity as may be perceived in modern times.

A more modern work is the poem"Susila Budhi Dharma",byMuhammad Subuh Sumohadiwidjojo,the founder ofSubud.In this work, he provides a framework for understanding the experience of thelatihankejiwaan.

List of famous poems, epics and other literature

Famous poems, epics and other literature include:

• Shivagrha inscription,856
• Kakawin Ramayana~ 870
• Kakawin Arjunawiwaha,mpuKanwa,~ 1030
• Kakawin Kresnayana
• Kakawin Sumanasantaka
• Kakawin Smaradhana
• Kakawin Bhomakawya
• Kakawin Bharatayuddha,mpuSedahand mpuPanuluh,1157
• Kakawin Hariwangsa
• Kakawin Gatotkacasraya
• Kakawin Wrettasañcaya
• Kakawin Wrettayana
• Kakawin Brahmandapurana
• Kakawin Kunjarakarna,mpu "Dusun"
• KakawinNagarakertagama,mpu Prapanca,1365
• Kakawin Arjunawijaya,mpu Tantular
• Kakawin Sutasoma,mpu Tantular
• Kakawin Siwaratrikalpa,Kakawin Lubdhaka
• Kakawin Parthayajna
• Kakawin Nitisastra
• Kakawin Nirarthaprakreta
• Kakawin Dharmasunya
• Kakawin Harisraya
• Kakawin Banawa Sekar Tanakung

Prominent authors

The following are notable authors of literary works in Kawi.

• Mpu Kanwa(11th century)
• Mpu Sedah(12th century)
• Mpu Panuluh(12th century)
• Mpu Dharmaja(12th century)
• Mpu Monaguna(12th century)
• Mpu Triguna(12th century)
• Mpu Tantular(14th century)
• Mpu Prapanca(14th century)
• Mpu Tanakung(15th century)

Inscription

The earliest written records in an indigenous language found in Java are indeed in (Old) Javanese.

• Karangtengah inscription(824 CE)
• Tri Tepusan inscription(842 CE)
• Shivagrha inscription(856 CE)
• Mantyasih inscription(907 CE)
• Turyyan inscription (929)
• Anjuk Ladang inscription (935/937)
• Terep inscription (1032)
• Turun Hyang II inscription (1044)
• Kambang Putih inscription (1050)
• Banjaran inscription (1052)
• Malenga inscription (1052)
• Garaman inscription (1053)
• Sumengka inscription (1059)
• Hantang/Ngantang inscription (1135)
• Mula Malurung inscription (1255)
• Kudadu inscription (1294)
• Tuhañaru/Jayanagara II inscription (1323)
• Waringin Pitu inscription (1447)

Nevertheless, there are exceptions to this pattern of language distribution in the epigraphical record. There are several inscription using Old Javanese language on the island of Sumatra, by editing three short epigraphs.

• Inscription of Kapalo Bukit Gombak II
• Inscribed Makara from the Northern Gopura, Candi Kedaton, Muara Jambi Temple Complex
• Inscribed Golden Bowl of Rokan Hilir, Riau

Scholars

The first scholar to address Kawi in a serious academic manner wasWilhelm von Humboldt,who considered it the father of all Malay-Polynesian languages. Furthermore, he deprecated misconceptions about Kawi being wholly influenced by Sanskrit, finding that Kawi did not useverbinflexion,thus differing from Sanskrit's highly developed inflectional system. Kawi might have come from a very ancient settlement in the pacific side of Asia. In Kawi language, the meaning of a sentence must be grasped through word order and context. Humboldt further noted that Kawi utilizestensedistinctions, with past, present, and future, and differentiated moods via theimperativeandsubjunctive.

Numerous scholars have studied the language, including the Dutch expatriate Indonesian Prof. Dr. Petrus Josephus Zoetmulder S.J., who contributed an enormous quantity of original texts and serious scholarly study to the language, and his pupil and associate, Father Dr.Ignatius Kuntara Wiryamartana.Other eminent Indonesian scholars of the language include Poedjawijatna, Sumarti Suprayitna, Poerbatjaraka and Tardjan Hadiwidjaja.

See also

• Bhinneka Tunggal Ika
• Johan Hendrik Caspar Kern
• Eugenius Marius Uhlenbeck
• Petrus Josephus Zoetmulder
• Old Malay
• Old Sundanese

Bibliography

• De Casparis, J. G(1975).Indonesian Palaeography: A History of Writing in Indonesia from the beginnings to c. AD 1500.Leiden/Köln: E. J. Brill.
• Florida, Nancy K. (1993).Javanese Literature in Surakarta Manuscripts: Introduction and Manuscripts of the Karaton Surakarta.Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University.ISBN0-87727-603-X.
• Wilhelm von Humboldt (1836).Über die Kawi-Sprache[On the Kawi Language] (in German):Vol 1,Vol 2,Vol 3
• Poerbatjaraka; Tardjan Hadiwidjaja (1952).Kepustakaan Djawa.Djakarta/Amsterdam: Djambatan.
• Avenir Stepanovich Teselkin (1972).Old Javanese (Kawi).Cornell University. Modern Indonesia Project. Translation series. Ithaca, N.Y.: Modern Indonesia Project, Southeast Asia Program, Cornell University.
• Teeuw, A.;Robson, S.O., eds. (2005).Bhomāntaka: the death of Bhoma.Bibliotheca Indonesica, 32. Leiden: KITLV Press.ISBN90-6718-253-2.
• Uhlenbeck, E.M.(1964).A Critical Survey of Studies on the Languages of Java and Madura.The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.
• Zurbuchen, Mary S. (1976).Introduction to Old Javanese Language and Literature: A Kawi Prose Anthology.Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.doi:10.3998/mpub.11902952.hdl:20.500.12657/41870.ISBN9780472902187.
• Zoetmulder, P.J.;Robson, S.O. (1995).Kamus Jawa Kuna–Indonesia.Translated by Darusuprapta; Sumarti Suprayitna. Jakarta: Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde and Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia and PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama.ISBN979-605-347-0.
• 1992–1993, Bahasa parwa: tatabahasa Jawa Kuna: Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press. Bekerja sama dengan I.J. Poedjawijatna. Cetakan ulang dari edisi tahun 1954
• Zoetmulder, P.J. (1950).De Taal van het Adiparwa(in Indonesian).Bandung:Nix.
• Zoetmulder, P.J.; S.O. Robson (1982).Old Javanese – English Dictionary.The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.ISBN90-247-6178-6.
• Zoetmulder, P.J. (1974).Kalangwan: A Survey of Old Javanese Literature.The Hague:Martinus Nijhoff.

External links

• About lontar(palmleaf manuscripts).
• Zoetmulder's Dictionary of Old Javanese(SEAlang Library)
• Old Javanese inscriptions(SEAlang Library)
• An Introduction to Old Javaneseat Tokyo University of Foreign Studies (A pdf primer in English, though the web page is in Japanese)